Lecture 5 INTERNATIONAL TRAINING AND DEVELOPMENT

5.1 Introduction
Welcome to the fifth lecture of this unit. In the previous lecture we looked at recruitment and selection of
expatriates. We learnt the determining factors for the success or failure of expatriates in their assignments.
In this lecture we are going to discuss the various types of trainings of expatriates, component of pre-
departure training and e-learning.

5.2 Specific objectives:

At the end of the lecture you should be able:
1. The role of training in supporting expatriate adjustment and on-assignment performance.
2. Components of effective pre-departure training programs such as cultural awareness, preliminary
visits and language skills. Relocation assistance and training for trainers are also addressed.
3. The effectiveness of pre-departure training.
4. The developmental aspect of international assignments.
5. Training and developing international management teams.
6. Trends in international training and development.

5.3 Lecture outline

5.3.1 Define and contrast between training and development , language training, culture, examples

of staffing policies, reflective questions, other similar terms,

5.3.2 Understanding components for pre-departure training, internal and external, reflective questions,

gender preference

1.3.3 Explore how the international assignment is a vehicle for both training and development, as
reflected in the reasons why international assignments continue to play a strategic role in
international business operations. Examine the role of training in preparing and supporting
personnel on international assignments, reflective questions, activity etc.

5.3.4 Cross cultural training

1.4 International Training and Development

Training aims to improve employees’ current work skills and behavior while Development aims to
increase abilities in relation to some future positions or jobs. This model links international recruitment
and selection with training and development activities. Training and development programs are an
integral part of an effective performance management system. This is the training and development model
used in international assignments. Organizations prepare themselves well in advance for this.

An expatriate success depends on how fast they acculturate (absorb) in the host country. It focuses;

 On ascertaining the cultural awareness of the individual and

 In ascertaining the fit for the host country’s culture, how similar /dissimilar the culture of the
expats culture from that of the host country.

Training model

5.5 Pre-Departure Training to Expatriates:

During Recruitment and Selection the candidate is asked whether he is interested in overseas assignment
or not. If yes then the selection procedure is accordingly arranged. Once the candidate is selected from
day one they are prepared for international assignments and they have to undergo Pre-Departure training.

Expatriate Training is very essential in today’s globalized market. If such training is not provided then
there are chances for repatriation. Thus now-a-days organizations are focusing more on training needs for
these expatriates. Human Resources are very crucial for any organization and thus they spend as much as
they can on training programs. Hence to avoid any such situation of repatriation organizations is well in
advance providing Pre-Departure training to reduce the gap or the cultural differences.
5.5.1 Pre-Departure Training majorly focuses on the following components-
Preliminary Visits: Preliminary Visits are usually those visits which companies provide to expatriates
along with their companions to visits the country; to make expatriates comfortable with environment and
working conditions.
Practical Assistance: Pre-departure training program should provide information that assists in
relocation. HRM staff can liaise with the sending line manager as well as the HR department in the
foreign location to assist the family relocate.
Language Training: This is important component as language training is must to survive in this
Globalization Market. This training includes exposure to three different types of
training. English as the main language one need to learn and understand as it’s the basic language used in
Global atmosphere. Language of host country is also of an equal importance as one should understand
this language for its own benefits eg while traveling, dealing in local market etc.
Job Related Factors
These factors include internal as well as external factors like-
 Culture Issue
 Political & Legal Concern
 Internal Politics
 Mergers/Acquisitions
 Host Country National Home Sickness
 Future Benefits
On such issues organization provides Pre-departure Training. Further to this the organization also takes
pain in Developing International Staff and Multinational Team. “The aim in a global business is to get the
best ideas from everywhere. Each team puts up its best ideas and processes – constantly. That raises the
bar. Our culture is designed around making a hero out of those who translate ideas from one place to
another, who help somebody else. They get an award, they get praised and promoted.
Different Methods for Developing International Staff and Multinational Team-
International Experience should be at many levels and includes;
 Short-term Developments assignments.
 International Job Rotation.
 Attendance at common training and development programs.
 International Meetings to foster networking skills.
 International Assignment Impact on Individual’s Career

5.6 TRAINING OF MANAGEMENT STAFF AFTER SELECTION

After selection of an international employee, the next step is training and development where an
employee is trained on specific skills that are required to undertake a particular job.

Managers are also equipped with skills necessary to undertake managerial jobs within the organizations.
This usually happens by sending managers on various foreign posting over years to enhance a managers
cross-cultural experience. Management and leadership skills are used to help executives to undertake
strategic decisions aimed at helping the firm to reinforce its desired culture.
Generally the types of trainings of international employees entails.

i) Cultural Training- understanding the culture of the host country so as to enhance

effectiveness familiarization trip before a formal transfer is effected.
ii) Language Training- This is aimed at enhancing managers ability to interact to help him/her
build rapport and improve his/her effectiveness in dealing with other employees.
iii) Practical Training-This is to help an employee to adjust to the day to day life in the host
country. It helps to establish a routine, have a successful adaptation and build a support
network of friends.

Developing international teams through international assignments

5.7 COMPONENTS OF A PRE-DEPARTURE TRAINING

Pre-departure training programme contributes to smooth transition to a foreign location it entails:

1) Cultural awareness training
2) Preliminary visits language instruction and assistance. Sometimes with practical day to day
matters.
3) Communication to various groups of people (such as within the Headquarters, region or in a
subsidiary)
4) Where partners/spouse and children are involved, there should be counseling of how to handle
stress while in a foreign land or when left behind in the host country
5) One must be oriented on lifestyle issues such as mode of dressing, hours of operating etc
6) One must familiarized him/herself with host country legislation in matters pertaining to labour,
gender issues, human rights etc
7) One must be guided on career development while in the foreign assignment.

5.8 Repatriation
Repatriation is most challenging aspects for IHR professionals. Repatriation means home coming or re-
entry. It is increasing problem from international businesses. Earlier the repatriates were managing
themselves. Guiding repatriates to adjust them in home country and cope with repatriate’s shock and
avoid them from giving up job.

Training strategies bridge the gap between employee and employer. In emerging trends in training and
development, advanced strategies are computer based training, corporate sponsorship of skills
certification programs and quarterly/ half yearly global team conferences. All of this is possible through
proper budget and strategies.

So many Training and development programs have been introduced by many organizations to stop
Repatriation. But recent trends are that expatriates are still thing for Repatriation. Hence to further reduce
Repatriation in International Staffing we have introduced a new concept for Repatriation i.e. “Training
Advisors”.
Though organizations have best Training and Development programs for expatriates there is a gap
between the expatriates and organization on a large scale. Hence to reduce the gap we have introduced a
small concept of Training Advisors. If we observe that Repatriation rate is high in the organization this
concept will to some extent reduce repatriation in the International Organization.
5.8.1Training Advisors Impact on Individual’s Career-
This model states that at every interval (i.e. from the period of joining till at least one year)/ training
expatriates requires a personal/one to one contact with advisors. These advisors at every interval will help
solve the personal needs of expatriates.
Though there are trainings and orientation programs provided to them; its human brain which remembers
only 40-50% of total knowledge received. As the saying goes half knowledge dangerous, hence the
concept of Training Advisors is essential.
Training Advisors will surely reduce repatriation by providing advises and always available
for any and every issues of expatriates.
Training Advisors will counsel expatriates during every interval of training. Advisors will understand
expatriates needs and will counsel accordingly. Understanding their issues these advisors can into come
into play by counseling those in their difficulties or talk to the higher authority about the issues or can
solve the problems at their personal level.

Training Advisors are the hired employee by the company, who is aware of both company and country
well. He can be senior person and known personally to the expatriate.
5.8.2 The Training Advisors duties include:
Training Advisors assured expatriates that he will definitely try to solve their issues.
  Training Advisor should provide security about any personal confidential information about
repatriates.
 Training Advisors maintain the contact with expatriate throughout the assignment.
 Training Advisors help the expatriates to overcome repatriation problem.
 He kept expatriates up to date with home country information.
 He provides all information and equipment pertinent to the role of the employee.
 Advisor should listen to expatriates.
 Training Advisor creates open communication with expatriates. Try to solve personal and
emotional problems, difficulties with new country, lack of technical skill, unable to cope with
international responsibilities.
 Training Advisor provides opportunity for language lessons and educate them in intercultural
communication.
 Training Advisor is ready to help with all the information like establishing networking, forming
new contacts, children school, college, career education,
 Reentry career opportunities, culture shock, tax and benefit of overseas, physical relocation,
stress management and corporate changes, culture structure, decentralization etc.

Training Advisor is giving training and advice to expatriates so that continuous training and development
process is going on. Pre-departure training as well as post-departure training is given to the expatriates to
develop the interest in doing and continuing the job in overseas. So that repatriation is under control.
Example: If the expatriates find they are uncomfortable in the organization and cannot speak related to
this matter to anybody; then they can seek help of training advisors. HR as a whole can’t address so many
issues or sometimes can’t stop retention problem. Then these advisors can play their role and should be
directly linked to management.

5.8.3 Advantages of Training Advisors

Training Advisors helps to the organization in repatriation. They prepare the expatriates so that it possible
to retention. It plays very important role in Training and Development in IHR context. The advantages of
training advisors are as follows.
1. Cultural Issues- These issues are such that cannot be discussed with anybody and everybody in the
organization; not even with the HR as HR might be a host country national.
2. Home Sickness- Home sickness is the common problem for the expatriates. The person is very much
used to with his own country environment, society, friends, family, culture, religion etc. Therefore they
are not able to interact with the new people and communicate easily and openly. The expatriates usually
face such problem of home sick in other countries. Thus they are sometimes emotional stressed full.
Training advisors can understand their needs.

3. Political and Legal Concerns- Training advisors can play an important role for such concern.

4. Mergers/Acquisition/Recession- Expatriates feel insecurity during mergers/acquisitions/recession;

hence they think to quit due to such external factors. Thus that time advisors can play an important role in
nurturing them.

5. Future Benefits- Though HR explains them about the such benefits then to due to some circumstances
they might think to quit hence again there is insecurity in their minds. Hence advisors should then play an
important role in motivating them.

6. Host Country National (HCN) - Expatriates always have fear in their minds that the HCN will always
be ahead of him and chances for promotion is very less. Hence advisors should always be there to guide
him for such misunderstanding.

Limitations of Training Advisor for training and development in IHR context:

 Training Advisor is a concept where expatriates can trust and relay on them for their solutions.
Main constraint for this process is that we require capable, reliable and experienced
knowledgeable person which is difficult to search.
 Other constraint the person who will work as Training Advisor is required to pay handsome
salary which may affect financial. In short we can say we require the expert person.
As a human being is social person, he likes to live with his family, friends, society and country.
 Expatriates are facing so many problems which get converted into the repatriation.

To avoid this MNC needs to work on this Training Advisor concept. Training Advisor is like a Doctor,
lawyer. They are reliable and one can trust on them and act as per their instructions. Training Advisor
also helps expatriates from multi-tasking, multicultural, corporate culture, globalization, international
money transaction, future investment, family insurance, children education and many more. It will
definitely stop repatriation and improve the growth of both employee and employer.

5.9 E-learning

 Globalisation has created special need for e-learning

 Challenges for global e-learning implementation are language and localization issues
 Companies that want to offer courses in several languages usually turn to translators

The overall aim of the development function is to provide that adequately trained personnel in a company
who are capable to fulfil their goals, as well as to contribute to better performance and growth with their
work (Armstrong, 1996). The development of employees can be treated as a special field of human
resource management that includes planned individual learning, education, organization development,
career development and training.Empirical literature gives guarded support to the proposition that cross
cultural training has a positive impact on cross cultural effectiveness.
Cultural awareness training is not just for the employee going overseas. It has numerous applications
domestically that will increase organizational effectiveness. Findings indicate that it should be a regular
part of personnel training especially management development. The realities of a more pluralistic society
and international business make this a necessity i.e. Area studies programs,Culture assimilator
programs,Language training programs,Sensitivity training programs,and Field experience programs.

At the international level, human resource development professionals are responsible for: 1. training and
development of employees located in subsidiaries around the world, 2. specialized training to prepare
expatriates for assignments abroad, and 3. development of a special group of globally minded managers.

Creation and transfer of international human resource development programs may be carried out in two
ways:

 centralized and
 decentralized.
With a centralized approach, training originates at the headquarters and corporate trainers travel to
subsidiaries, often adapting to local situations. This fits the ethnocentric model. A geocentric approach is
also centralized, but the training develops through input from both headquarters and subsidiaries staff.
Trainers could be sent from various positions in either the headquarters or subsidiaries to any other
location in the company.

In a decentralized approach, training is on a local basis, following a polycentric model. When training is
decentralized, the cultural backgrounds of the trainers and trainees are usually similar. Local people
develop training materials and techniques for use in their own area.

To maximize training effectiveness, it is important to consider how trainees learn most effectively.
Cultural factors have a strong impact on training practices in different parts of the world. For example, in
North America, where power distance is small, the relationship between the trainer and trainees tends
toward equality. The trainer and trainees use first names, and the trainees feel free to challenge or
question what the trainer says. In Malaysia, where power distance is large, a trainer receives greater
respect. Students use his surname and title, and he is an expert that students rarely challenge.

As global competition increases, it is increasingly important for successful companies to have a group of
managers with a global perspective. Companies must identify managers with global potential and provide
them with various training and development opportunities. For example, having one or more international
assignment(s), working on cross-national teams and projects, and learning other languages and cultures
contribute to making a manager more globally minded. In addition, an organization should include not
only parent country nationals, but also host country nationals and third country nationals in this group
(Treven, 2001).

5.10 Individual-level Antecedents of International Assignee Success

Personality Characteristics

Researchers have found that successful and well-adjusted international assignees tend to share certain
personality traits (e.g., Black, 1990, Stening, 1979). Certain personality characteristics enable
international assignees to be open and receptive to learning the norms of new cultures, to initiate contact
with host nationals, to gather cultural information, and to handle the higher amounts of Caligiuri &
Tarique stress associated with the ambiguity of their new environments (Black, 1990; Church, 1982;
Mendenhall & Oddou, 1985) – all important for international assignee success. While many personality
characteristics exist, research has found that five factors provide a useful typology or taxonomy for
classifying them. These five factors have been found repeatedly through factor analyses and confirmatory
factor analyses across, time, contexts, and cultures are labeled "the Big Five." The Big Five personality
factors are: (1) extroversion, (2) agreeableness, (3) conscientiousness, (4) emotional stability, and (5)
openness or intellect. Each of the Big Five personality characteristics has some relationship to
international assignee success

Extroversion is important to help international assignees learn the work and non-work social culture in the
host country relates to international assignee success.

Agreeableness may also be important given that the ability to form reciprocal social alliances is achieved
through this personality characteristic of (Buss, 1991). Expatriates who are more agreeable (i.e., deal with
conflict collaboratively, strive for mutual understanding, and are less Caligiuri & Tarique competitive)
report greater cross-cultural adjustment and greater adjustment on the assignment. Other personality
characteristics may also predispose international assignee for success. For example, trusted and
conscientious employees are more likely to become leaders, gain status, get promoted, earn higher
salaries, etc. In the domestic context, this has been supported through studies demonstrating a positive
relationship between conscientiousness and work performance among professionals.

In addition to the three personality characteristics described above, emotional stability may also be
important for international assignee success. Emotional stability is the universal adaptive mechanism
enabling humans to cope with stress in their environment (Buss, 1991). Given that stress is often
associated with living and working in an ambiguous and unfamiliar environment (Richards, 1996),
emotional stability is an important personality characteristic for international assignees’ adjustment to the
host country, international assignee assignment. Perhaps the most intuitively useful personality
characteristic, as it relates to international assignee success, is the characteristic of openness or intellect.
For an international assignee, the ability to correctly assess the social environment is more complicated
given that the host country may provide ambiguous social cues (Caligiuri & Day, 2000). Successful
international assignees will likely need to possess cognitive complexity, openness, and intuitive
perceptual acuity to accurately perceive and interpret the host culture .Openness is related to international
assignee success because individuals higher in this personality characteristic will have fewer rigid views
of right and wrong, appropriate and inappropriate, etc. and are more likely to be accepting of the new
culture.

Collectively, these personality characteristics could be included in a valid selection system for
prospective international assignees. It is important to note however, that the absolute level of each
personality characteristic would be contingent upon the type of international assignment under
consideration. For example, the necessary level of openness and extroversion would be much higher for
an executive in a networking role than it would be for a technician working predominantly with a system
or machine. A better understanding of the level of necessary characteristics for given international
contexts would be useful focus for future research studies.

5.11 Language Skills

There is a logical consensus with regard to the positive relationship between language skills and
international assignee adjustment (e.g., Abe & Wiseman, 1983; Church, 1982; Cui & Van den Berg,
1991). There is some disagreement, however, to the relative importance of language compared to other
factors, such as personality characteristics (e.g., Benson, 1978; Cui & van den Berg, 1991; Dinges, 1983).
The disagreement in the importance of language skills has its roots in whether interpersonal contact
between people from different cultures leads to increased cultural understanding. Those who support
contact theory believe that language skills, given that they are necessary for communication, are critical
for cross-cultural adjustment. Others (e.g., Cui & Van den Berg, 1991) suggest that merely interacting
with host nationals is not enough to produce cross-cultural adjustment. They suggest that cross-cultural
adjustment only occurs when international assignees have the cultural empathy to be open to different
norms and fully acceptant of their host cultures (Cui & Van den Berg, 1991). In other words, one could
both speak the host language fluently and know the "correct" behaviors to display, and yet only
superficially be immersed in the host culture (Cui & Van den Berg, 1991). Since it would be difficult for
the opposite to be true (i.e., that one could be immersed in a culture without language skills), basic
language skills should, at very least, be a minimum precondition for success as an international assignee.
At a minimum, in most circumstances an attempt should be made to find a qualified candidate with
language skills, while for some positions the language skills may be more critical than with others.

5.12 Prior International Experience

From a social learning perspective, the more contact international assignees have with host nationals and
the host culture, the greater their cross-cultural adjustment .For example, past research has found that
having friendships with host nationals greatly improves international assignees' ability to learn culturally
appropriate social skills and behaviors (Searle & Ward, 1990). From this perspective, more prior
experience with the host culture should produce greater cross-cultural adjustment. On the other hand, the
social cognitive theorists contend that prior foreign experience with the host culture is positively related
to adjustment provided that the experience does not serve to reinforce previously held stereotypical
beliefs or foster negative, unrealistic expectations of the foreign culture. Social cognitive proponents
agree that there is a direct relationship between foreign experience and cross-cultural adjustment when the
experience provides an accurate and realistic representation of the host countries' norms, customs, values,
etc but the empirical evidence is inconclusive. The relationship between previous international
experience and cross-cultural adjustment is more complex as is commonly believed. There is some
evidence that previous experience abroad does not always facilitate adjustment to a new expatriate
environment .however, found support for unique moderating effects of past international experiences on
the relationship between current assignment tenure and general and work adjustment.

5.13 Process Issues for Selecting International Assignees

There are three key process issues in the research literature regarding international assignee selection.
The first is the application of realistic previews to international assignments to help create realistic
expectations during (or prior to) selection. The second is the concept of a formal self-selection process
which enables international assignee candidates to determine whether the assignment is right for his or
her personal situation, family situation, career stage, etc. The third is traditional candidate assessment that
would include many of the dimensions identified in the previous section (personality, language skills, and
past experience) in a structured organizational selection program. Each of these three international
assignment process issues are discussed in greater detail below.

Realistic Previews for International Assignments

 Preconceived and accurate expectations prior to an international assignment have been shown to
influence the international assignment in many important ways (Caligiuri & Phillips, 2003; Searle &
Ward, 1990; Weissman & Furnham, 1987). Studies comparing international assignees expectations prior
to going abroad and their actual experience after relocation suggest that having moderately accurate
expectations facilitates cross-cultural adjustment. Caligiuri and Phillips (2003) found that providing

realistic previews prior to international assignments did not change candidates’ interest in possible
assignments, but did increase candidates’ self-efficacy for an international assignment. This self-efficacy,
in turn, could influence the outcome of the international assignment.

Both research and practice suggest that in the selection phase (or prior to it) it is useful for firms to
provide information, even informally, to assist candidates in making realistic decisions on whether an
assignment is right for them and to help them form realistic expectations about a possible international
assignment (Black, Gregersen, & Mendenhall, 1992; Caligiuri & Phillips, 2003; Tung, 1988). Many firms
have pre-selection programs which pair repatriates with international assignee candidates to give
international assignees the opportunity to form realistic expectations (Black, Gregersen, & Mendenhall,
1992).

Self-Selection

Given that the demographic profiles and personal situations of the international assignee candidates will
vary, self-assessment (or self-selection) has been found to be an effective method for encouraging
realistic previews in a tailored and self-directed way (Caligiuri & Phillips, 2003). For example, an
unmarried person who is a candidate for an international assignment might have a different set of
concerns, compared to a married candidate with a family (Caligiuri, Hyland, Joshi, & Bross, 1998).

Likewise given the many personality characteristics related to cross-cultural adjustment, people who
possess different personality characteristics may be differentially suited for certain types of international
assignments.

Self-assessment provides a structured method for international assignment candidates to actively self-
assess their fit with the personality and lifestyle requirements of the international assignment (Caligiuri &
Phillips, 2003). Effective self-selection tools enable international assignee candidates to critically evaluate
themselves on dimensions, such as personality and individual characteristics, career issues, and family
issues (including issues of spouses and children). Self-selection instruments, in a structured way, help
employees make a thoroughly informed decision about whether to accept an international assignment
(Caligiuri & Phillips, 2003).

Firms using self-assessment tools have found that this step fosters the creation of a candidate pool of
potential international assignees. This candidate pool can be organized to include information, such as the
availability of the employee (when and to what countries), languages the employee speaks, countries
preferred, technical knowledge, skills, and abilities, etc. The information retained based on self-
assessment should be repeated and continually updated as much of the information (other than
personality) can change over time. For example, language skills can diminish if not used, family
situations change, etc.

Candidate Assessment

Once the requirements of a given international assignment have been determined, many possibilities exist
to assess the candidates on job-related dimensions. Given that international assignments are job contexts,
rather than job descriptions, they require different levels of relevant attributes (e.g., language fluency,
openness, technical skills). For example, greater emphasis would be placed on personality characteristics
(such as sociability and openness) when assessing a candidate for a developmental or strategic assignment
requiring much more host national 2004). In a best case, a thorough assessment can be conducted through
a variety of valid formal selection methods: paper and pencil tests, assessment centers, interviews,
behavioral observations, and the like.

4.6.8 Training and Development for International Assignees

In addition to comprehensive self-selection and selection programs, success in international assignments

may be facilitated through the training and development of cross-national competencies (e.g., cross-
cultural knowledge, skills, and abilities). For example, providing an international assignee with
knowledge of general dimensions on which most cultures differ and the impact of these differences may
provide the individual with some awareness regarding expected norms and behaviors in the new culture
(Black & Mendenhall, 1990). This awareness may lower anxiety, reduce culture shock, and encourage
appropriate behaviors when living and working in a host culture. For the organization, both international
training activities and international development activities will help improve cross-national competencies
among international assignees.

5.14 International Training and Development Activities

 Organizations recognize the importance of international training and development activities and
increasingly use them to prepare individuals for the challenges and opportunities associated with living
and working in new cultural environments, with diverse teams, across national borders, Hackett, 1998.
The terms international training activities (ITAs)and International development activities tend to be
combined to signify the set of activities used by firms to develop the competency base of their
internationally oriented employees. The objective of both ITAs and IDAs is to foster learning among the
organizational members and develop enriched and more capable workers who, in turn can enhance
organizational competitiveness and effectiveness internationally.

While similar in objective, the specific goals of ITAs and IDAs are, in fact, different. In general terms,
ITAs focus on the competencies needed to perform more effectively on one’s current job. In other words,
ITAs tend to be oriented towards solving short-term performance concerns. In contrast, IDAs refer to the
acquisition of competencies needed to perform in some future job. It is, however, important to note that
certain activities such as cross-cultural training can be used for both for training purposes (e.g., Earley,
1997) and for developmental purposes (e.g., Lievens, Harris, Van Keer & Bisqueret, 2003). Some of the
various international training and development activities are listed below.

• Cross-cultural Training (Specific and General)– The most researched and most used in practice, when
used as an ITA, the goal of cross-cultural training is to increase an international assignee’s specific cross-
cultural knowledge of a given country. When (albeit, less commonly) used as an IDA, cross-cultural
training will be geared for individuals who must work across a variety of cultural contexts – without any
one cultural context in mind.

• Predeparture Cross-cultural Orientation – As an ITA, the immediate goal of cross-cultural orientation is

to help an internationally assignee learn the basics (e.g., currency, public transportation, working hours)
to comfortably live and work in host country.

• Diversity Training – Depending on the immediacy of the need, diversity training can be either an ITA or
an IDA. The goal of diversity training is to increase one’s ability to understand and appreciate multiple
cultural perspectives.

• Language Training- Depending on the immediacy of the need for fluency in another language, language
training can be either an ITA or an IDA – but in practice is most often offered when an international
assignee will be moving to a country where different Caligiuri & Tarique language skills are needed.
Sometimes, organizations offer language training in the corporate language for all who are interested. In
this case, language training may be viewed more developmentally.

• Traditional Education in International Management – University or specific training programs are often
offered as a part of a larger developmental plan and therefore more likely to be an ITA. The goal of the
traditional program is to increase international business acumen and knowledge.

• Cross-National Coaching or Mentoring – Generally viewed as an IDA, cross-national coaches and

mentors help international assignees build cultural awareness, work on cultural “blind-spots and help
develop competencies for becoming effective in an international environment. Occasionally, cross-
national coaches are assigned for a specific task (e.g., delivering an important speech in another country,
negotiating an international joint venture) and, in those cases, would then be considered more of an ITA.

• Immersion Cultural Experiences - Generally viewed as an IDA, the goal of immersion is to – with a
rather quick experience – produce culture shock for the developmental purpose of increasing one’s ability
to recognize and appreciate multiple cultural perspectives.

• Cross-Border Global Teams (with Debriefing) – Both an ITA and an IDA, individuals are debriefed
after a multicultural team experience (e.g., a meeting) to receive feedback, and hopefully improve their
skills, on how to be a better leader, team member, etc. in a multicultural context. The feedback is an ITA
for the purpose of the immediate team and an IDA for long-term skill development.

5.15 International Assignments

International assignments can be the means by which people develop cross-cultural competence – and the
outcome that the more immediate-focused ITAs hope to influence. In the developmental context, as an
IDA, living and working in another country may have a long-term effect on an individual’s cross-national
competence. Believing in their developmental power, many firms view successful international
assignments as the indicator of cross-national competence.

We encourage future research to investigate the various ITAs and IDAs with their specific goals in mind.
Research, to date, has over generalized the short-term and long-term outcomes of these diverse training
and development interventions. An investigation of the various interventions, relative to the short-term
and long-term goals would help organizations better understand the implications of the activities in which
they engage. In some cases, long-term benefits may be present as a direct result of a short-term
intervention (e.g., a language course gives an individual some cultural exposure and appreciation). The
concern, however, is that the opposite may also be the case – that a long-term intervention (such as an
international rotational assignment) may have only a short-term gain. In the case of an international
assignment, this concern suggests that an individual has learned to be competent within one particular
culture, but has not developed any international competencies that could generalize to other cross-border
contexts. This is an open, and very important, area for scholarly investigation.

5.16 Cross-Cultural Training

As the non-exhaustive list suggests, there are many types of ITAs and IDAs with different goals and
objectives. From this list, the most frequently used and researched activity is cross-cultural training.
Traditionally, multinational firms have used cross-cultural training to increase the knowledge and skills of
international assignees to help them operate effectively in the unfamiliar host culture.

A well-designed cross-cultural training initiative may enhance the learning process of the international
assignee and thus facilitate effective cross-cultural interactions and cross-cultural adjustment. To
understand the systematic approach to designing cross-cultural training initiatives, Tarique and Caligiuri
(2003) propose a five-phase process as a general strategy to follow in designing effective cross-cultural
training initiatives.

The five phases are:

1) Identify the type of global assignment for which cross-cultural training is needed

2) Determine the specific cross-cultural training needs (from the organization-level, assignment-level, and
the individual-level)

3) Establish the goals and measures for determining cross-cultural training effectiveness;

4) Develop and deliver the cross-cultural training program; and,

5) Evaluate whether the cross-cultural training program was effective.

The first phase includes identifying the type of global assignment for which cross-cultural training is
needed. Research has shown that there are different types of global assignments (e.g., Caligiuri &
Lazarova, 2001; Hays, 1974; Oddou, 1991) and cross-cultural training will differ based on the goals
required for the successful completion of each assignment (Tarique & Caligiuri, 2002; Tarique 2002 . The
second phase determines the specific cross-cultural training needs. This involves conducting a cross-
cultural training needs analysis across three levels: the organizational-level, the individual (or
international assignee) level, and the assignment-level.
The organizational-level analysis determines the organizational context for cross-cultural training. This
analysis considers how cross-cultural training can assist both headquarters and subsidiaries in supporting
the firm’s strategy. The individual (or international assignee) level analysis identifies any special needs
that have to be addressed in cross-cultural training for the individuals, who are on the receiving end of the
cross-cultural training, the international assignees themselves. This analysis includes examining the
international assignee’s prior international experience, his or her existing levels of cross-cultural
competencies, how he or she perceives the issues the cross-cultural training initiative is designed to
address, and the needs of the international assignee’s entire family. The assignment level analysis
determines the cross-cultural competences required to effectively complete the given assignment. This
includes identifying the important tasks required on the global assignment and the type of cross-cultural
competences needed to perform those tasks effectively.

Phase three involves establishing short-term goals and long-term goals for determining cross-cultural
training effectiveness. Cross-cultural training goals should be stated in detailed and measurable terms
(e.g., Noe, 2004). Short-term cross-cultural training goals can bring about cognitive, affective, and
behavioral changes (Gudykunst, Guzley, & Hammer, 1996).

Cognitive goals focus on helping international assignees understand the role of cultural values on
behavior in the destination country, in both social and business contexts. Affective goals aim at helping
international assignees effectively manage their attitude toward the new culture and successfully handle
negative emotions. Behavioral goals help international assignees form adaptive behaviors by emphasizing
the transnational skills international assignees require in order to successfully interact with individuals
from other cultures. While the short-term goals of cross cultural training will vary from assignment to
assignment, the long-term goal of many cross-cultural training initiatives is to improve the rate of cross-
cultural adjustment. Improving cross-cultural adjustment is important for all international assignees and
would generalize across assignments.

The fourth phase develops and delivers the cross-cultural training initiative. This phase involves
determining the specific instructional content needed in order to achieve the stated goal and the methods
to deliver the instructional content, and the sequencing of the training sessions. Based on the cross-
cultural and intercultural communication research (e.g., Brislin, Cushner, Cherrie, & Yong, 1986;
Copeland & Griggs, 1985; Harris & Moran, 1991)

Harrison suggests that content structure should follow an integrated approach consisting of both general
cultural orientation (to understand factors that may influence one’s receptiveness to effective cross-
cultural interactions and to understand how cultures differ and the impact of these differences on
international assignees and specific cultural orientation to assignees understand more about the specific
culture to which they are being assigned.

Gudykunst, Guzley, and Hammer (1996) suggest that the methods to deliver the instructional content can
be categorized into four categories:

1) Didactic culture general;

2) Didactic culture specific;

3) Experiential cultural general; and,

4) Experiential cultural specific

Didactic culture general methods provide cultural general information to international assignees and
include lectures, seminars, discussions videotapes and culture-general assimilators.
Didactic culture specific methods, in contrast present information on particular culture. Methods used in
this category include area studies, videotapes, orientation briefings, case studies and the like.

Experiential cultural methods help international assignees experience the impact of cultural differences on
their behaviours. Methods in this category include immersion programs or intensive workshops.
Experiential culture-specific methods, in contrast, help international assignees experience and learn from
interactions with individuals from the host culture. This approach generally includes methods like role-
playing, look-see trips, in-country cultural coaching, and language training (Gudykunst, Guzley, &
Hammer, 1996).

Cultural awareness training and assignment performance

Summary
This lecture has concentrated on the issues relating to training and developing expatriates for international
assignments. In the process, we have discussed:
 The role of expatriate training in supporting adjustment and on-assignment performance.
 The components of effective pre-departure training programs such as cultural awareness, preliminary
visits, language skills, relocation assistance and training for trainers.
 How cultural awareness training appears to assist in adjustment and performance and therefore should be
made available to all categories of staff selected for overseas postings, regardless of duration and
location.
 The need for language training for the host country and in the relevant corporate language.
 The impact that an international assignment may have on an individual’s career.
 The international assignment as an important way of training international operators and developing the
international ‘cadre’. In this sense, an international assignment is both training (gaining international
experience and competence) and managerial and organizational development.
 How international assignments are connected to the creation of international teams.
 Trends in international training and development.

Self test Questions

1. What are some of the challenges faced in training expatriate managers?
2. Assume you are the HR director for a small company that has begun to use international assignments.
You are considering using an external consulting firm to provide pre-departure training for employees,
as you do not have the resources to provide this ‘in-house’. What components will you need covered?
How will you measure the effectiveness of the pre-departure training program provided by this external
consultant?
3. How does an international assignment assist in developing a ‘cadre’ of international operators? Why is it
necessary to have such a ‘cadre’?
4. Why do some MNEs appear reluctant to provide basic pre-departure training?

Suggestion for further reading

1. Peter J. Dowling, Marion Festing, and Allen Engle (2007)International Human Resource Management:
Managing People in a Multinational Context