Trunking

Trunking is a technology for providing network access to multiple clients simultaneously by

sharing a set of circuits, carriers, channels or frequencies instead of providing individual circuits
or channels for each client. A trunk line is a communication channel between telephone
exchanges.

Trunking also refers to the connection of switches and circuits within a telephone exchange.

Trunking is closely related to the concept of grading. Trunking allows a group of inlet switches
at the same time. Thus the service provider can provide a lesser number of circuits than might
otherwise be required, allowing many users to share a smaller number of connections and
achieve capacity savings

A trunk line is a circuit connecting telephone switchboard (or other switching equipment), as

distinguished from local loop circuit which extends from telephone exchange switching
equipment to individual telephones or information origination/termination equipment.
Trunk lines are used for connecting a private branch exchange (PBX) to a telephone service
provider .When needed they can be used by any telephone connected to the PBX, while the
station lines to the extensions serve only one station telephones. Trunking saves cost, because
there are usually fewer trunk lines than extension lines, since it is unusual in most offices to have
all extension lines in use for external calls at once. Trunk lines transmit voice and data in
formats 

Figure 1 shows a trucking connection

OPTICAL TIME DOMAIN REFLECTOMETER (OTDR)

An Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) is a device that tests the integrity of a fiber
cable and is used for the building, certifying, maintaining, and troubleshooting fiber optic
systems. Hand-held OTDRs build a virtual image of the fiber optic cable to determine the
condition and performance capability of the fiber cable. These tools can also test components
along the cable path like connection points, bends, or splices to analyze the cable’s capability
from start to finish.

Figure 2 shows An Optical Time Domain Reflectometer

OTDR WORKING PRINCIPLE

An OTDR contains a laser diode source, a photodiode detector and a highly accurate timing
circuit (or time base). The laser emits a pulse of light at a specific wavelength, this pulse of light
travels along the fiber being tested, as the pulse moves down the fiber portions of the
transmitted light are reflected/refracted or scattered back down the fiber to the photo detector
in the OTDR. The intensity of this returning light and the time taken for it to arrive back at the
detector tells us the loss value (insertion and reflection), type and location of an event in the
fiber link.
FIBER OPTIC TESTING WITH OPTICAL TIME DOMAIN REFLECTOMETERS – OTDRS

OTDR testing terminology

Dynamic range: The maximum optical loss an OTDR can analyze from the backscattering level
at the OTDR port down to a specific noise level.

Event dead zone: the minimum distance after a Fresnel reflection where an OTDR can detect
another event. In other words, it is the minimum length of fiber needed between two reflective
events.

Pulse width: the time during which the laser is on. Since time is converted into distance, pulse
width has a length.

Test Procedure
1.    Turn on OTDR and allow time to warm-up
2.    Clean all connectors and mating adapters.
3.    Attach launch cable to OTDR. Attach receive cable (if used) to far end of cable.
4.    Set up test parameters on OTDR.
5.    Attach cable to test to end of launch cable. Attach receive cable (if used) to far end of cable.
6.    Acquire trace

Note: Most OTDRs have an "auto test" function, but these functions are not foolproof. Most
problems with OTDR tests occur when untrained users use the auto test function without
having an understanding of how the instrument works

FIBRE OPTICS
INTRODUCTION

The field of fibre optics communications has exploded over the past two decades.
Fibre is an integral part of modern-day communication infrastructure can be
found along roads, in buildings, hospitals and machinery.

The fibre itself is a strand of silica based glass, its dimensions are similar to those
of a human hair, surrounded by a transparent cladding.
Light can be transmitted along the fibre over great distance at very high data
rates providing an ideal medium for the transport of information.

CABLE CONSTRUCTION

This design of fiber is light and has a very low loss, making it ideal for the
transmission of information over long distances

Fiber structure

Structure of fiber

The diagram shows the typical structure of a fiber

used for communication links, it has an inner glass
core with an outer cladding.

This is covered with a protective buffer and outer jacket. An optical fiber is made
up of three main parts namely;

 Core: thin glass center of the fiber where the light travels.
 Cladding: outer optical material surrounding the core that reflects the light
back into the core.
 Coating: plastic coating that protects the core and cladding from damage
and moisture
CONNECTOR TYPES

There are several types of connectors on the market and they include the
following

a) SC Connectors
b) FC Connectors
c) FC Connectors

SC CONNECTORS (Square connectors)

SC connector

The SC Connector consists of two interfaces where

one is used for transmission and the other for receiving.it features push-pull
coupling which eliminates rotation which can damage fiber end faces. This SC
Connector is also available in the usual simplex configuration with duplex
adapters as well

FC CONNECTORS (Ferrule connector)

FC connector

The FC Connector uses a combination of thread and keyed dev sign to provide
high repeatability and good fiber end face protection

LC CONNECTORS (Lucent connector)

The LC is a Figure 3 an LC connector small form factor

pluggable (SFP) fiber optic
connector. The LC Connector uses a 1.25mm ferrule , half size of the SC ferrule
.The LC has good performance and is highly favored for single mode and LC multi
-mode and has been gaining the preference of equipment manufacturers
because of its compact size and performance

FIBRE OPTIC SPLICING

For a long distance ,the fiber cable might not reach a certain distance .hence we
shall be in need of connecting the fiber cable with another the transmission thus
the junction box will be necessary will be necessary

Simply put fiber optic splicing involves joining two fibre optic cables together ,
the more common method of joining fibers is termination

Fiber optic splicing results in lower light loss and back reflection than termination
making it the preferred method when the cable runs are too long for a single
length of fiber or when joining two different types of cables together

There are two types of fiber optic splicing , fusion splicing and mechanical
splicing

Splicing machine
OPTICAL DISTRIBUTION FRAME (ODF)

 An optical distribution frame is a frame used to provide cable connection

between communication facilities which can integrate fiber splicing ,
termination ,fiber optic adapters and connectors and cable connections
together in a single unit
 I learnt that connections from the junction box are terminated at the ODF
at consumer premises
 After termination the of the fiber in the ODF ,Pig tails consisting of fiber
connectors at the one end are spliced with the pig tail from the ODF to
consumer premises to enjoy the services
 The ODF can be placed mounted on the wall or put in the rack after
termination.

Figure 4 shows an optical distribution frame