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MODULE 5. PROBLEM SOLVING

2.2 Problem Solving Heuristics

A heuristic method is an approach to finding a solution to a problem that originates

from the ancient Greek word 'eurisko', meaning to 'find', 'search' or 'discover'. It is about using a
practical method that doesn't necessarily need to be perfect.

HISTORICAL NOTE One of the foremost recent mathematicians to make a study

of problem solving was George Polya (1887–1985). He
was born in Hungary and moved to the United States in 1940.
The basic problem-solving strategy that Polya
advocated consisted of the following four steps .After a
brief stay at Brown University, George Polya moved
to Stanford University in 1942 and taught there until his
retirement. While at Stanford, he published 10 books
and a number of articles for mathematics journals. Of
the books Polya published, How to Solve It (1945) is
oneGeorge
of his best known.
Polya In this book, Polya outlines a
strategy for solving problems from virtually any
discipline. “A great discovery solves a great problem but there is a grain of discovery in the
solution of any problem. Your problem may be modest; but if it challenges your curiosity and
brings into play your inventive faculties, and if you solve it by your own means, you may
experience the tension and enjoy the triumph of discovery.”

Polya’s Four Steps in Problem Solving Strategy

 Understand the problem

 Devising a plan
 Carrying out the plan
 Looking back; seeing if your solution makes sense

 Understanding the Problem. You must have a clear understanding of the problem. To help
you focus on understanding the problem you may consider the following questions.

 Can you restate the problem in your own words?

Example. Find three consecutive integers whose sum is 96
(Restatement of the problem: Three consecutive integers have a sum of 96.)
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 Can you determine what is known about these types of problems? Identify what you are
trying to find.

Example. Find three consecutive integers whose sum is 96

(I will have to find 3 consecutive integers)

 Is there missing information that, if known, would allow you to solve the problem?

Example. Find three consecutive integers whose sum is 96.

(If the first integer is known, then the 2nd integer is 1 more than the first and the 3rd integer is
1 more than the second)

 Is there extraneous information that is not needed to solve the problem? Strip the problem of
irrelevant details.

Example. Rambo is a 35-pound dog. He eats a 5-pound bag of dog food that costs Php150.00
every week. How much does it cost to feed him for four weeks?
(The data 35 pounds is an extraneous information that is not needed to solve the problem.)

 Don’t impose conditions that do not exist.

Example. How can you divide 8 balls in three baskets such that there is an odd number of
balls in each basket?
(There is no condition or requirement that a basket could not be placed inside another basket,
hence this action can be done to find a solution to this problem. )

 What is the goal?

Example. Find three consecutive integers whose sum is 96

(My goal is to find three consecutive integers.)
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 Devising a Plan. Successful problem solvers use a variety of techniques when the attempt to
solve a problem. Below is a list of procedures that can be employed to solve a problem

 Make a list of the known information.

 Make a chart or a table
 Draw a picture
 Eliminate impossible situations
 Look for a pattern
 Try a simpler version of the problem
 Guess, test, and revise
 Work backward
 Design a model
 Develop a formula and write an equation. If necessary, define what each variable
represents.
 Use an algorithm
 Perform an experiment
 Make a flowchart
 Acting out the problem

 Carry Out the Plan

Once you have devised a plan, you must carry it out.
 Work carefully.
 Keep an accurate and neat record of all your attempts.
 Realize that some of your initial plans will not work and that you may have to devise
another plan or modify your existing plan. Review the solution once you have found a
solution, check the solution.

 Review the Solution

 Ensure that the solution is consistent with the facts of the problem.
 Interpret the solution in the context of the problem.
 Ask yourself whether there are generalizations of the solution that could apply to other
problems.
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Application of Polya’s Strategy

 Guess and Check

 The Ride fun Toy Store sells only wagons and bicycles. On a particular day, it sold 12
items, with a total of 32 wheels. How many wagons and how many bicycles were sold that
day?

 Understanding the problem. Perhaps we can visualize wagons and bicycles. The wagons
each have 4 wheels; the bicycles, 2. A total of 12 items are sold on that day.

 Devising a plan. We can draw pictures of wagons and bicycles and count the number of
wheels. This will take a while. Perhaps we can guess a number of wagons, the find the
number of bicycles by subtracting. Then we can multiply the number of wagons by 4 and the
number of bicycles by 2 and add together their products to find the total number of wheels.

 Carrying out the plan. (Guess and Check).

We make observations in our guesses

8 wagons x 4 wheels + 0 bicycle x 2 wheels = 32 wheels

6 wagons x 4 + 6 bicycles x 2 = 36 wheels
5 wagons x 4 + 7 bicycles x 2 = 34 wheels
4 wagons x 4 + 8 bicycles x2 = 32 wheels

4 wagons and 8 bicycles satisfy the requirements of 32 wheels.

 Looking back. We make sure that 4 wagons and 8 bicycles make a total of 12 items and
together we get a total of 32 wheels. Thus we are satisfied with the result.

Try this.
The product of the ages, in years, of three teenagers is 4590. None of the teens are the same age.
What are the ages of the teenagers?
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 Try a Simpler Version of the Problem

 Consider the map shown in Figure 1.2. Allison wishes to walk along the streets from
point A to point B. How many direct routes can Allison take?

We will solve this problem using the strategy Trying a Simpler Version of the Problem

Solution
Understand the Problem. We would not be able to answer the question if Allison retraced her
path or traveled away from point B. Thus we assume that on a direct route, she always travels
along a street in a direction that gets her closer to point B.

Devise a Plan. The map in Figure 1.2 has many extraneous details. Thus we make a simple
diagram of the street . (See the figure at the left) This diagram will allows us to concentrate on
the essential information.. Because there are many routes, we consider the similar but simpler
diagrams shown below. The number at each street intersection represents the number of routes
from point A to that particular intersection.
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Look for patterns. It appears that the number of routes to an intersection is the sum of the
number of routes to the adjacent intersection to its left and the number of routes to the
intersection directly above. For instance, the number of routes to the intersection labeled 6 is the
sum of the number of routes to the intersection to its left, which is 3, and the number of routes to
the intersection directly above, which is also 3.

Carry Out the Plan . Using the pattern discovered above, we see from the figure at the left that
the number of routes from point A to point B is 35.

Review the Solution. Ask yourself whether a result of 35 seems reasonable. If you were required
to draw each route, could you devise a scheme that would enable you to draw each route without
missing a route or duplicating a route?

Try this. Consider the street map in Figure 1.2. Allison wishes to walk directly from point A to
point B. How many different routes can she take if she wants to go past Starbucks on Third
Avenue?

 Make an Organized List

 A baseball team won two out of their last four games. In how many different orders could
they have two wins and two losses in four games?

Solution

Understand the Problem There are many different orders. The team may have won two straight
games and lost the last two (WWLL). Or maybe they lost the fi rst two games and won the last
two (LLWW). Of course there are other possibilities, such as WLWL.

Devise a Plan We will make an organized list of all the possible orders. An organized list is a list
that is produced using a system that ensures that each of the different orders will be listed once
and only once.
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Carry Out the Plan Each entry in our list must contain two Ws and two Ls. We will use a
strategy that makes sure each order is considered, with no duplications. One such strategy is to
always write a W unless doing so will produce too many Ws or a duplicate of one of the previous
orders. If it is not possible to write a W, then and only then do we write an L. This strategy
produces the six different orders shown below.

1. WWLL (Start with two wins)

2. WLWL (Start with one win)

3. WLLW

4. LWWL (Start with one loss)

5. LWLW 6. LLWW (Start with two losses)

Review the Solution We have made an organized list. The list has no duplicates and the list
considers all possibilities, so we are confident that there are six different orders in which a
baseball team can win exactly two out of four games.

Try this.

A true-false quiz contains fi ve questions. In how many ways can a student answer the questions
if the student answers two of the questions with “false” and the other three with “true”?
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 In a basketball league consisting of 10 teams, each team plays each of the other teams exactly
three times. How many league games will be played?

Solution

Understand the Problem . There are 10 teams in the league, and each team plays exactly three
games against each of the other teams. The problem is to determine the total number of league
games that will be played.

Devise a Plan. Try the strategy of working a similar but simpler problem. Consider a league with
only four teams (denoted by A, B, C, and D) in which each team plays each of the other teams
only once. The diagram at the left illustrates that the games can be represented by line segments
that connect the points A, B, C, and D. Since each of the four teams will play a game against
each of the other three, we might conclude that this would result in 4 x 3 = 12 games. However,
the diagram shows only six line segments. It appears that our procedure has counted each game
twice. For instance, when team A plays team B, team B also plays team A. To produce the
correct result, we must divide our previous result, 12, by 2. Hence, four teams can play each
4 x3
=6
other once in 2 games.

Carry Out the Plan Using the process developed above, we see that 10 teams can play each
other once in a
10 x9
=45
total of 2 games. Since each team plays each opponent exactly three times, the
total number of games is 45 x 3 = 135.
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Review the Solution We could check our work by making a diagram that includes all 10 teams
represented by dots labeled A, B, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, and J. Because this diagram would be
somewhat complicated, let’s try the method of making an organized list. The fi gure at the left
shows an organized list in which the notation BC represents a game between team B and team C.
The notation CB is not shown because it also represents a game between team B and team C.
This list shows that 45 games are required for each team to play each of the other teams once.
Also notice that the fi rst row has nine items, the second row has eight items, the third row has
seven items, and so on.

Thus 10 teams require games if each team plays every other team once, and 45 x 3 = 135 games
if each team plays exactly three games against each opponent.

Try this.
If six people greet each other at a meeting by shaking hands with one another, how many
handshakes will take place?

 Work Backwards

 In consecutive turns of a Monopoly game, Stacy first paid $800 for a hotel. She then lost
half her money when she landed on Boardwalk. Next, she collected $200 for passing GO.
She then lost half her remaining money when she landed on Illinois Avenue. Stacy now
has $2500. How much did she have just before she purchased the hotel?

Solution

Understand the Problem We need to determine the number of dollars that Stacy had just prior
to her $800 hotel purchase.

Devise a Plan We could guess and check, but we might need to make several guesses before
we found the correct solution. An algebraic method might work, but setting up the necessary
equation could be a challenge. Since we know the end result, let’s try the method of working
backwards.

Carry Out the Plan Stacy must have had $5000 just before she landed on Illinois Avenue;
$4800 just before she passed GO; and $9600 prior to landing on Boardwalk. This means she
had $10,400 just before she purchased the hotel.

Review the Solution To check our solution we start with $10,400 and proceed through each
of the transactions. $10,400 less $800 is $9600. Half of $9600 is $4800. $4800 increased by
$200 is $5000. Half of $5000 is $2500.
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Note. The example above can also be worked by using algebra.

Let A be the amount of money Stacy had just before she purchased the hotel. Then
1 1
2 2[( A−800+200 )=2500 ]
1
( A−800 ) +200=5000
2

A−800 + 400 = 10,000 (Multiply the equation by 2)

A – 400 = 1000
A = 10400

Try this.

There was a jar of chocolate chip cookies on the table. James and Monica were very hungry
because they hadn’t had anything to eat since breakfast, so they ate half the cookies. Then Victor
came along and noticed the cookies. He ate third of what was left in the jar. Sharon, who was
waiting around nearby, decided to take fourth of the cookies left in the jar. Then Tiffany came
rushing up and took one cookie to munch on in her class. When Valerie looked at the cookie jar,
she saw there were two cookies left. How many cookies were in the jar to begin with.

 Formulating an Equation
 A hat and a jacket together cost Pp975. The jacket costs Pp725 more than the hat. What is
the cost of the hat and the cost of the jacket?

Solution
Understand the Problem. We need to find two amounts that differ by Pp725 and whose sum is
Pp975.

Devise a Plan. Write an equation using h for the cost of the hat and h + 725 for the cost of the
jacket.
h + h + 725 = 975
Carry Out the Plan. Solve the above equation for h.
2h + 725 = 975

2h = 975 – 725
2h = 250 h = 125
The cost of the hat is Pp125 and the cost of the jacket is Pp125 + 725 = Pp 850.
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 Make a Table and Look for a Pattern

 Determine the digit 100 places to the right of the decimal point in the decimal representation
7
27 .

Solution

Understand the Problem. Express the fraction 7 27 as a decimal and look for a pattern that will
enable us to determine the digit 100 places to the right of the decimal point.

Devise a Plan Dividing 27 into 7 by long division or by using a calculator produces the decimal
0.259259259... . Since the decimal representation repeats the digits 259 over and over forever,
we know that the digit located 100 places to the right of the decimal point is either a 2, a 5, or a
9. A table may help us to see a pattern and enable us to determine which one of these digits is in
the 100th place. Since the decimal digits repeat every three digits, we use a table with three
columns.

Carry Out the Plan Only in column 3 is each of the decimal digit locations evenly divisible by 3.
From this pattern we can tell that the 99th decimal digit (because 99 is evenly divisible by 3)
must be a 9. Since a 2 always follows a 9 in the pattern, the 100th decimal digit must be a 2.

Review the Solution The above table illustrates additional patterns. For instance, if each of the
location numbers in column 1 is divided by 3, a remainder of 1 is produced. If each of the
location numbers in column 2 is divided by 3, a remainder of 2 is produced. Thus we can find the
decimal digit in any location by dividing the location number by 3 and examining the remainder.
For instance, to find the digit in the 3200th decimal place of 7 27 , merely divide 3200 by 3 and
examine the remainder, which is 2. Thus, the digit 3200 places to the right of the decimal point is
a 5.
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 Make a Chart or a Drawing

 How many people can be seated at a 10 square (4-person) tables lined up end to end?

Solution. We can look at simple version of the problem. See the illustration below.

Thus, for 10 tables, (n=10),

4(10) – 2(10 – 1) = 22

 Solving With Patterns

 Terms of a Sequence

An ordered list of numbers such as 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ... is called a sequence. The numbers in
a sequence that are separated by commas are the terms of the sequence. In the above sequence, 5
is the fi rst term, 14 is the second term, 27 is the third term, 44 is the fourth term, and 65 is the fi
fth term. The three dots “...” indicate that the sequence continues beyond 65, which is the last
written term. It is customary to use the subscript notation an to designate the nth term of a
sequence. That is,
a1 represents the first term of a sequence.
a2 represents the second term of a sequence.
a3 represents the third term of a sequence
.
.
.
an represents the nth term of a sequence
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In the sequence 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ...

a1 = 5, a2 = 14 , a3 = 27, …

When we examine a sequence, it is natural to ask:

 What is the next term?
 What formula or rule can be used to generate the terms?

To answer these questions, we often construct a difference table, which shows the differences
between successive terms of the sequence. The following table is a difference table for the
sequence 5, 14, 27, 44, 65, ...

In this table, the first differences are not all the same. In such a situation it is often helpful to
compute the successive differences of the first differences. These are shown in row (2).
These differences of the first differences are called the second differences. The differences of
the second differences are called the third differences.

To predict the next term of a sequence, we often look for a pattern in a row of differences.
For instance, in the following table, the second differences shown in blue are all the same
constant, namely 4. If the pattern continues, then a 4 would also be the next second
difference, and we can extend the table to the right as shown.

Now we work upward. That is, we add 4 to the first difference 21 to produce the next first
difference, 25. We then add this difference to the fifth term, 65, to predict that 90 is the next
term in the sequence. This process can be repeated to predict additional terms of the
sequence.
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Try this
Use a difference table to predict the next term in the sequence. 2, 7, 24, 59, 118, 207, ...

 nth-Term Formula for a Sequence

In the previous example we used a difference table to predict the next term of a
sequence. In some cases we can use patterns to predict a formula, called an nth-term formula,
that generates the terms of a sequence. As an example, consider the formula an = 3n2 + n. This
formula defines a sequence and provides a method for finding any term of the sequence. For
instance, if we replace n with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, and 6, then the formula an = 3n2 + n generates the
sequence 4, 14, 30, 52, 80, 114. To find the 40th term, replace each n with 40.

Therefore, the 40th term is 4840.

Example
Assume the pattern shown by the square tiles in the following figures continues.
a. What is the nth-term formula for the number of tiles in the nth figure of the sequence?
b. How many tiles are in the eighth figure of the sequence?
c. Which figure will consist of exactly 320 tiles?

Solution
a. Examine the figures for patterns. Note that the second figure has two tiles on each of the
horizontal sections and one tile between the horizontal sections. The third figure has three tiles
on each horizontal section and two tiles between the horizontal sections. The fourth figure has
four tiles on each horizontal section and three tiles between the horizontal sections.

a. Thus the number of tiles in the nth figure is given by two groups of n plus a group of n less
one. That is,
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b. The number of tiles in the eighth fi gure of the sequence is 3(8) -1 = 23

c. To determine which figure in the sequence will have 320 tiles, we solve the equation

If you find it difficult to determine how the terms of a sequence are being generated, you
might be able to find a solution on the Internet. One resource is The On-Line Encyclopedia of
Integer Sequences at:
http://www.research.att.com/~njas/sequences/