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10

ACTIVITY ZONE
3. Name the type of reaction between magnesium and

m
oxygen.
ACTIVITY 1 (NCERT Pg 1) Ans The reaction between magnesium and oxygen to form
magnesium oxide is a combination reaction.

a
Objective 4. Is the nature of magnesium oxide (MgO) acidic or basic?
To study the combustion reaction (exothermic) by taking the

r
example of burning of magnesium in air. Ans Magnesium oxide is basic in nature and turns red litmus
Materials Required blue.

g
Magnesium ribbon (approximately 2 cm long), sandpaper, a 5. Burning of magnesium is an exothermic or endothermic
reaction?
pair of tongs, burner and watch glass.

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Ans Burning of magnesium is an exothermic reaction.
Procedure

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1. Take a piece of magnesium ribbon of nearly 2 cm length
and rub it with a sandpaper. ACTIVITY 2 (NCERT Pg 6)

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2. Now, hold it with a pair of tongs and heat over the flame of
a burner. Objective

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Tongs To study an exothermic combination reaction with the
help of the reaction between calcium oxide and water.
Materials Required

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Burner
Magnesium ribbon Quicklime, water, beakers (2), thermometer and glass rod.

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Watch glass Procedure
Magnesium oxide 1. Take a small amount (approximately 5 g) of quicklime
(White powder) (calcium oxide) in a beaker with a glass rod in it.

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Burning of a magnesium ribbon in air and 2. Take some water in another beaker and measure its
collection of magnesium oxide in watch glass temperature.

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3. Now, add water slowly to the beaker containing
Observation quicklime.
Magnesium ribbon burns with a dazzling or brilliant white

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4. Observe the changes and note the temperature of the
flame and a white powder of magnesium oxide is formed. solution formed.
Chemical Reaction Glass rod

w
2Mg(s ) + O2 ( g ) → 2MgO(s ) + Heat
Magnesium ribbon Magnesium oxide Beaker
(From air)

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(White powder) Water

i
Conclusion

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Calcium oxide (quicklime)
Given reaction is a combustion (exothermic) reaction
accompanied by the evolution of heat and light. Moreover, Formation of slaked lime by the
reaction of calcium oxide with water

@
here oxidation of magnesium occurs.
Note When MgO is dissolved in water, it forms magnesium Observation
hydroxide which is basic in nature, i.e. it turns red litmus blue
because of its basic nature. The reaction is vigorous and highly exothermic. The
temperature rises as the reaction proceeds.

Check Yourself Chemical Reaction

CaO(s ) + H 2O(l ) → Ca(OH)2 (aq ) + Heat
1. Combustion reaction is an example of physical change or Quicklime Water Slaked lime
chemical change.
Ans Combustion reaction is an example of chemical change. Conclusion
2. What are the burning characteristic of magnesium ribbon? It is a combination reaction which is exothermic in
Ans Magnesium ribbon burns in air with a dazzling white flame. nature.

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Chemical Reactions and Equations 11

Check Yourself
Chemical Reactions
1. Write the chemical formula of quicklime.
∆
Ans The chemical formula of quicklime is calcium oxide (CaO). FeSO4 ⋅ 7H 2O(s ) → FeSO4 (s ) + 7H 2O( g )
(Green crystals) (Dirty white) Water
2. Name the product formed when quicklime reacts with water.

m
Heat
Ans When quicklime reacts with water, slaked lime [Ca(OH) 2 ] is 2FeSO4 (s )  → Fe 2O3 (s ) + SO2 ( g ) + SO3 ( g )
Ferrous Ferric oxide Sulphur Sulphur
formed. sulphate (Brown) dioxide trioxide

a
3. Is there any change in temperature during the above
reaction? Conclusion

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Ans Yes, the mixture will appear to be boiling thus, the This reaction is an example of dehydration and thermal
temperature will rise. decomposition as the crystals first lose water molecules
then break into the constituents on heating.

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4. A solution of a substance X is used for white washing. Name
the substance X. The characteristic odour of burning sulphur is due to SO2
Ans Substance X is quicklime (CaO) which is used for white and SO3 gases.

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washing.
5. Name the compound used to test the evolution of carbon

l
dioxide gas. Check Yourself
Ans Calcium hydroxide solution [ Ca(OH) 2 ] (freshly prepared) is

e
used to test the evolution of CO2 gas. 1. What is the formula of crystalline ferrous sulphate?
Ca(OH) 2( aq) + CO2 → CaCO3 ( s) + H2O Ans FeSO4 ⋅7H2O

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2. What is the other name of hydrated ferrous sulphate?
Ans Green vitriol
ACTIVITY 3 (NCERT Pg 8) 3. Name the products formed when anhydrous ferrous

n
sulphate is heated.
Ans On heating, anhydrous ferrous sulphate gives ferric oxide
Objective

o
(Fe2O3), sulphur dioxide (SO2) and sulphur trioxide (SO3).
To study the decomposition of ferrous sulphate. 4. What is the type of reaction when crystals of ferrous
Materials Required sulphate are heated strongly?

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Ans Thermal decomposition reaction
Ferrous sulphate crystals ( 2 g), boiling tube, burner and a
pair of tong. 5. What is the valency of iron in ferrous sulphate?

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Ans Valency of iron in ferrous sulphate is + 2, i.e. Fe 2+ .
Procedure

a
1. Take some ferrous sulphate crystals in a dry test
tube and heat it on the flame of a burner. ACTIVITY 4 (NCERT Pg 9)

w
2. Observe the changes.
Objective To study the electrolysis of water.
Boiling tube
SO2 and SO3 gases

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Materials Required

ii
Ferrous sulphate Plastic mug with 2 holes, a few drops of concentrated
crystals A pair of tong sulphuric acid, 2 graphite rods, 2 test tubes, water, wires
and battery (6 V).

@
Procedure
Burner 1. Take a plastic mug, drill two holes at the base, fit rubber
stoppers in these holes and insert graphite rods (electrodes)
in these rubber stoppers.
Decomposition of ferrous sulphate crystals 2. Now connect these electrodes to a 6 V battery with the
help of wires.
Observation 3. Fill the mug (upto half ) with acidulated water.
When green coloured ferrous sulphate crystals are heated, Remember, that the electrodes should be immersed in
water.
first a dirty white powder is formed (anhydrous salt), then on
4. Now take two test tubes filled with water and invert
further heating, a brown residue is formed and characteristic
them over the two graphite electrodes. Test the gases
odour of sulphur is observed. evolved in test tubes.

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12

Plastic mug
Oxygen
Test tube
Hydrogen ACTIVITY 5 (NCERT Pg 9)
Water
Objective
Graphite
rod To study the effect of sunlight on silver chloride.

m
Rubber
stopper
Anode Cathode Materials Required
6V Silver chloride and China dish.

a
Switch Battery
Electrolysis of water Procedure

r
1. Place a small amount of
Observation silver chloride (about 2
g) in a China dish. Sunlight

g
After some time, some gas bubbles arising in water at both
the electrodes. Observe its colour.
2. Place this China dish in China dish
The gases formed at two electrodes go on collecting in the

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Silver chloride
top parts of the inverted test tubes. In one test tube sunlight for some time.
(at cathode), the volume of the gas (H 2 ) is double than the Observe the colour

l
other (O2 ) at anode. change.

e
Chemical Reaction Observation
After some time, the colour of the material changes
2H 2O(l )  →
Electric
2H 2 ( g ) + O2 ( g )

t
current
Hydrogen Oxygen
(to grey).
Water
Conclusion Chemical Reaction
Sunlight

n
This reaction is an example of decomposition. As it 2AgCl(s ) → 2Ag(s ) + Cl 2 ( g )
takes place by passing electric current, so it is called Silver chloride Silver Chlorine
electrolysis. In water, H 2 and O2 gases are present in ratio (White) (Grey)

o
2 : 1 by volume.
Conclusion
Note A few drops of acid are added to water that make it good This is a decomposition reaction. As it takes place in the

e
conductor of electricity. presence of light, so it is also called photolysis or
photochemical decomposition.

Check Yourself

al
1. Which one is a chemical change, electrolysis of water or
sodium chloride exposed in sunlight?
Ans Electrolysis of water is a chemical change.
Check Yourself
1. What change in colour is observed when white silver
chloride (AgCl) is left exposed to sunlight?

w
Ans The white solid silver chloride turns grey when exposed
2. In what ratio H2 and O 2 are present in electrolytic to sunlight.

t
decomposition of water?
2. What type of chemical reaction is this?

i
Ans In electrolytic decomposition of water, H2 and O2 are present
Ans Photodecomposition reaction.

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in 2 : 1 ratio by volume.
3. Why decomposition reaction of water is called electrolysis 3. Name the products obtained when silver chloride is
of water? exposed to sunlight.

@
Ans This decomposition reaction takes place by the action of Ans Silver and chlorine.
electricity. So, it is called electrolysis of water. 4. Name two salts that are used in black and white
4. What conclusion can you draw from electrolysis of water? photography.
Ans Electrolysis of water shows that water is a compound made up Ans Silver chloride (AgCl) and silver bromide (AgBr).
of 2 parts of hydrogen and 1 part of oxygen. So, the formula 5. Write the decomposition reaction of silver bromide (AgBr).
of water is H2O. Light
Ans 2AgBr ( s)  
→ 2Ag( s) + Br2( g)
5. Name the gas which burns with pop sound. (Decomposition) Silver Bromine
Silver
Ans Hydrogen gas. bromide

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Chemical Reactions and Equations 13

ACTIVITY 6 (NCERT Pg 10)

Check Yourself
Objective 1. Which gas is produced when zinc granules react with dilute
hydrochloric acid?
To study the displacement reaction with the example of Ans When zinc granules react with dilute hydrochloric acid then
reaction between zinc and dilute hydrochloric acid.

m
hydrogen gas is produced.

Materials Required 2. Name the type of reaction when zinc reacts with dilute
hydrochloric acid.

a
Zinc granules, dil.HCl, conical flask, thistle funnel, cork
with three bores, delivery tube, gas jar and thermometer. Ans Displacement reaction
3. Name the type of reaction in which heat is evolved.

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Procedure
Ans Exothermic reaction.
1. Take a few zinc granules in a conical flask and place a
cork over it with a thistle funnel, thermometer and 4. Why zinc granules are preferred over zinc strip for the

g
delivery tube. reaction of Zn with HCl?
2. Now, add some dil. HCl solution in the conical flask Ans Zinc granules make the reaction comparatively faster that’s

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with the help of thistle funnel. why, they are preferred over zinc strip.

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5. How will you test for the presence of hydrogen gas?
Thistle Thermometer Delivery tube Ans When a burning splinter is brought near the mouth of the gas jar
funnel
filled with hydrogen gas, it burns with a pop sound.

e
Dil.HCl
Cork Hydrogen gas
Gas jar

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Conical

Zinc
flask ACTIVITY 7 (NCERT Pg 10)
granules Water
Objective

n
To study displacement reaction of copper by iron in copper

o
Formation of hydrogen gas by the action of dilute sulphate solution.
hydrochloric acid on zinc granules
Materials Required
3. Note the temperature at the beginning and at the end of Iron nails (2), test tubes (2) and copper sulphate solution.

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the reaction. Procedure

l
4. Collect the gas produced in the gas jar and test it for 1. Take two iron nails and clean them by rubbing with
identification. sandpaper.
2. Take two test tubes marked as A and B and put

a
Observation
10 mL CuSO4 in both.
1. Bubbles of the gas are evolve. On testing, the gas is
3. Tie one iron nail with a thread and immerse it in test tube
found to be hydrogen (burns with pop sound).

w
B, for about 20 min.
2. The temperature rises during the reaction.

t
Chemical Reaction 4. Keep solution A as such and second iron nail aside for

ii
Zn(s ) + 2HCl(aq ) → ZnCl 2 (aq ) + H 2 ( g ) comparison.
Zinc Hydrochloric Zinc chloride Hydrogen
acid
Test tube (B)

@
Conclusion Thread
1. It is a displacement reaction. Zinc is present above
hydrogen in the reactivity series of metals. Hence, Zn Copper sulphate
solution (blue)
displaces it from HCl. Stand
Iron nail
2. The reaction is exothermic as it is accompanied by the
evolution of heat.

Note This activity can also be performed by using dilute

sulphuric acid instead of dilute hydrochloric acid. The
reaction is as follows: (a )
(a) Iron nail dipped in copper sulphate
Zn( s) + H 2SO4 ( aq ) → ZnSO4 ( aq ) + H 2 ( g )
Zinc Sulphuric acid Zinc Hydrogen
solution in test tube B
(dilute) sulphate

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14

Iron nail
(before experiment)
Iron nail taken
out from copper
sulphate solution
ACTIVITY 8 (NCERT Pg 11)

(Brown deposit)
Objective
To study double displacement reaction by taking an example

m
A B
of reaction between lead nitrate and potassium iodide.
Ferrous sulphate
Materials Required

a
Copper solution (green)
sulphate Test tube stand Two beakers, lead nitrate, potassium iodide and water.
solution

r
(blue) Procedure
1. Prepare the aqueous solutions of lead nitrate and potassium
iodide in separate beakers.

g
(b )
2. Now, add potassium iodide solution slowly to the lead
(b) Iron nails and copper sulphate solutions
nitrate solution.

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compared before and after the experiment

Observation

l
The blue colour of copper sulphate solution in test tube Potassium
B fades away, while the blue colour in test tube A iodide solution

e
remains as such. Lead nitrate
solution
The brown deposits appeared on the iron nail that is Lead iodide

t
(Yellow ppt.)
taken out from test tube B.
Formation of lead iodide (yellow
Chemical Reaction precipitate) and potassium nitrate

n
Fe(s ) + CuSO4 (aq ) → Cu(s ) + FeSO4 (aq ) Observation
Iron Copper sulphate Copper Ferrous sulphate
A yellow precipitate of lead iodide is formed.

o
(Blue) (Light green colour)
Chemical Reaction
Conclusion Pb(NO3 )2 (aq ) + 2KI(aq ) → PbI2 (↓ ) + 2KNO3 (aq )

e
Lead Potassium Lead iodide Potassium
The more reactive element, iron, displaces copper from nitrate iodide nitrate
copper sulphate solution. This is a displacement (Yellow ppt.)

l
reaction. Conclusion
Above reaction is an example of double displacement reaction
as well as precipitation reaction.

a
Check Yourself
1. What changes in the colour of iron nails and copper Check Yourself

w
sulphate solution do you observe after keeping the
iron nails dipped in copper sulphate solution for about 1. Name the type of reaction between lead nitrate and potassium

t
20 min? iodide.

ii
Ans Iron nails become brownish in colour and the blue colour Ans Reaction between lead nitrate and potassium iodide is double
of copper sulphate solution fade. displacement reaction.
2. Why the blue colour of copper sulphate fades by 2. What is the colour of the precipitate formed?
adding iron nails in it?
Ans A yellow precipitate of lead iodide (PbI2) is formed.

@
Ans This happens because iron being more reactive than Cu,
displaces Cu from CuSO4 solution and forms new 3. Reaction between lead nitrate and potassium iodide is an
products, iron sulphate (FeSO4 ) and copper metal. example of two types of reactions. Name them.
3. What is the formula of crystalline copper sulphate? Ans These two types of reactions are:
Ans CuSO4 ⋅5H2O (i) double displacement reaction
(ii) precipitation reaction
4. Is it safe to store the solution of iron (II) sulphate in a 4. What is the valency of lead (Pb) in lead nitrate?
copper vessel?
Ans Yes, it is safe to store iron (II) sulphate solution in a Ans Valency of lead is +2(Pb2+) in lead nitrate.
copper vessel because copper is less reactive than 5. Name the products formed in the reaction between lead
iron. nitrate and potassium iodide.
5. Name the type of reaction in the above activity. Ans Products formed are lead iodide (PbI2) and potassium nitrate
Ans The reaction is a redox displacement reaction. (KNO3 ).

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Chemical Reactions and Equations 15

ACTIVITY 9 (NCERT Pg 11)

Objective
To study the double displacement reaction of barium chloride and sodium sulphate solution.

m
Materials Required
Test tubes (2), 3 mL barium chloride solution and 3 mL sodium sulphate solution, stirrer rod and conical flask.

a
Procedure

r
1. Take 3 mL of sodium sulphate solution in one test tube and 3 mL of barium chloride solution in another test tube.
2. Then add these two solutions in conical flask and stirrer it by using stirrer rod.

g
Observation
A white substance, which is insoluble in water is formed. This insoluble substance is a precipitate of barium sulphate (BaSO4 ).

e
Chemical Reaction

l
Na 2 SO4 (aq ) + BaCl 2 (aq ) → BaSO4 ↓ + 2NaCl (aq )
Sodium sulphate Barium chloride Barium Sodium chloride
sulphate

e
(White ppt .)

t
Conclusion
The reaction is an example of double displacement reaction and precipitation reaction.

n
Check Yourself

o
1. Name the reaction in which two compounds exchange their ions to form two new compounds.
Ans Double displacement reaction.

e
2. What is the insoluble substance formed in a reaction between barium chloride and sodium sulphate?
Ans In a reaction between barium chloride and sodium sulphate, a precipitate of barium sulphate (BaSO4 ) is formed which is insoluble.

l
3. What is the colour of barium sulphate precipitate in a reaction?
Ans A white precipitate of barium sulphate (BaSO4 ) is formed.

a
4. State the physical conditions of reactants in which the reaction between barium chloride and sodium sulphate will not take place.
Ans Reaction will not take place if the two reactants are in the solid state.
5. Write a chemical equation if ammonium sulphate is used in place of sodium sulphate in above activity.

w
Ans (NH4 ) 2 SO4 + BaCl2 → BaSO4 ↓ + 2NH4 Cl
Ammonium Barium Barium Ammonium

t
sulphate chloride sulphate chloride
(white ppt. )

i i
@
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Acids, Bases and Salts 43

ACTIVITY ZONE

m
M (s ) + 2HCl(aq ) → M Cl 2 (aq ) + H2( g )
ACTIVITY 1 (NCERT Pg 19) 2M (s ) + H2SO4 (aq ) → M 2SO4 (aq ) + H2( g )
M (s ) + 2CH3COOH(aq ) → (CH3COO)2 M (aq )

a
Objective + H2( g )
To study the reaction of acids or bases with active metals. Zn(s ) + Ca (OH )2 → No reaction

r
Materials Required Zn (s ) + 2NaOH(aq ) → Na 2 ZnO2(s ) + H2( g )

g
Zinc Sodium Sodium Hydrogen
Zinc granules, sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, acetic acid, hydroxide zincate gas
sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, test tube, test tube stand, (Strong base)
delivery tube, soap, water, trough, cork and candle.
Procedure
1. Take some zinc granules in the test tube and then add dilute
sulphuric acid to it. Set the apparatus as shown below.

l e
Check Yourself
1. Which gas is produced by the reaction of zinc and

e
dilute sulphuric acid?
2. Observe the surface of zinc granules. Take a burning candle
near the soap bubbles filled with the gas and observe. Ans When zinc reacts with dilute sulphuric acid then

t
hydrogen gas (H2) is produced.
3. Repeat the same procedure with hydrochloric acid, acetic
acid, sodium hydroxide and calcium hydroxide and observe 2. How will you test for the presence of the gas
the result in each case. produced?

n
Ans When a burning candle is brought near the soap
Delivery bubbles produced filled with gas, hydrogen gas burns
Burning of hydrogen with a pop sound.

o
tube
Stand gas with a pop sound
3. Why zinc granules are preferred over zinc strip for
the reaction of Zn with HCl?
Candle

e
Ans Zn granules are preferred because it provides large
Test tube Hydrogen surface area (as it is present in powdered form) to react

l
Dilute gas with dilute HCl.
sulphuric bubbles
acid
4. Name the salt produced when zinc metal reacts with
Zinc Soap bubble sodium hydroxide solution to produce hydrogen gas.

a
granules filled with Ans When zinc metal reacts with sodium hydroxide
hydrogen solution then sodium zincate is formed.
gas

w
5. Can all bases react with active metals to produce
Soap hydrogen gas?
solution
Ans No, only strong base like sodium hydroxide is capable

t
Reaction of zinc granules with dilute sulphuric to release hydrogen gas with active metals.

ii
acid and testing the gas evolved

Observation
ACTIVITY 2 (NCERT Pg 20)

@
Some effervescence is observed near zinc surface and the soap
bubbles which burst with ‘pop’ sound are obtained when
sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, acetic acid and sodium Objective
hydroxide is used but no bubble is produced with calcium To study the reaction of metal carbonates and
hydroxide.
bicarbonates with acids.
Conclusion
Materials Required
Active metals evolve hydrogen gas with all acids but not with all
Marble pieces (calcium carbonate, CaCO3), baking
bases. In case of base, only strong base like sodium hydroxide is
soda (sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3), dilute
capable to release hydrogen gas with active metals.
hydrochloric acid (HCl), lime water, test tubes, thistle
funnel and delivery tube (bent at two places).

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44

Procedure 3. What is the nature of carbon dioxide gas evolved?

1. Take some marble pieces in the test tube and set the Ans The nature of carbon dioxide gas is acidic.
apparatus, as shown in the figure 4. Why the lime water turns milky in this activity?
Thistle funnel Ans The lime water turns milky due to the formation of calcium
Delivery carbonate.
tube

m
Stand Ca(OH) 2 + CO2( g ) → CaCO3 ↓ + H2 O(l )
Cork Slaked Carbon Calcium Water
lime dioxide carbonate
(White ppt.)

a
Test tube
Test tube
5. What happens when CO 2 gas is passed for a longer time?
Carbon dioxide
Ans If the CO2 gas is passed for a longer time, milkiness disappears

r
gas Calcium
Dilute hydroxide due to the formation of soluble calcium bicarbonate.
hydrochloric solution
CaCO3 + H2 O + CO2( g ) → Ca(HCO3) 2

g
acid Calcium
carbonate Calcium Water Carbon Calcium bicarbonate
(marble pieces) carbonate dioxide ( Soluble)

e ACTIVITY 3
Passing carbon dioxide gas through

l
calcium hydroxide solution (NCERT Pg 21)
2. Now add dilute HCl with the help of thistle funnel and
Objective

e
pass the gas evolved in lime water. Observe the colour of
lime water. To study the neutralisation reaction of an acid and a base.

t
3. Repeat the same experiment with baking soda. Materials Required
Observation Dilute sodium hydroxide solution, dilute hydrochloric acid,
phenolphthalein, test tube, test tube stand and dropper.

n
The lime water turns milky due to the formation of calcium
carbonate. If the gas is passed for a longer time, milkiness Procedure
disappears due to the conversion of white calcium

o
1. Take some sodium hydroxide solution in a test tube and
carbonate into soluble calcium bicarbonate. add a few (one or two) drops of phenolphthalein.
CO2 ( g ) + Ca(OH)2 → CaCO3 (s ) + H2O(l ) 2. Observe the colour.
Carbon Lime water Calcium Water

e
dioxide carbonate 3. Now add hydrochloric acid drop by drop with the help
(White ppt.) of a dropper and observe the change.

l
CaCO3 (s ) + H2O(l ) + CO2 ( g ) → Ca(HCO3 )2
Calcium Water Carbon Calcium
Observation
carbonate dioxide bicarbonate When phenolphthalein is added to sodium hydroxide

a
(Soluble)
Conclusion solution, violet colour is obtained which gets disappeared
Carbon dioxide gas is evolved when metal carbonates and when hydrochloric acid is added in excess. The violet
bicarbonates react with acids. colour reappear if sodium hydroxide is added again to

w
resulted solution.
CaCO3 + 2HCl(dil.) → CaCl 2 (aq ) + H2O(l ) + CO2 ( g )
Calcium Water

t
Hydrochloric Calcium Carbon Conclusion
Carbonate acid chloride dioxide

ii
(Marble) Acid nullified the effect of a base and base nullified the effect
2NaHCO3 + 2HCl(dil.) → 2 NaCl(aq ) + 2H2O(l ) of an acid. This reaction is called neutralisation reaction.
Sodium
bicarbonate
Hydrochloric Salt Water NaOH(aq ) + HCl(aq ) → NaCl(aq ) + H2O(l )
acid + 2CO2 ( g ) Base Acid Salt Water

@
Carbon

Check Yourself
dioxide Check Yourself
1. Write the products formed when an acid reacts with a
1. Which gas is evolved when calcium carbonate reacts with base.
hydrochloric acid?
Ans When an acid reacts with a base then salt and water are
Ans Carbon dioxide gas is evolved when calcium carbonate reacts formed.
with hydrochloric acid. Acid + Base → Salt + Water
2. How will you test for the presence of carbon dioxide gas 2. Write the equation of an acid (HCl) with a base (NaOH).
(CO 2 )?
Ans HCl + NaOH → NaCl + H2 O
Ans Carbon dioxide does not support combustion. Therefore, Sodium Water
Hydrochloric Sodium
carbon dioxide gas can extinguish a burning candle if brought acid chloride
hydroxide
near to it. (Acid) (Base) (Salt)

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Acids, Bases and Salts 45

3. Write the colour of phenolphthalein indicator in sodium

hydroxide solution. Observation and Explanation
Ans When phenolphthalein is added to NaOH, violet colour is
obtained. Glucose Ethanol HCl H2SO 4
S.No. Solutions solution solution solution
4. What happens if we add dilute HCl in the above solution
drop by drop?

m
1. Bulb does Bulb does Bulb Bulb
Observation
Ans Violet colour obtained in the above solution disappears when not glow not glow glows glows
dilute HCl is added in the solution drop by drop.

a
5. What change in colour you observed when sodium 2. Ions Ions Ions Ions
Reason
hydroxide solution is added again to the above test tube absent absent present present
solution?

r
Ans When some sodium hydroxide solution is added to the test Conclusion
tube, then violet colour reappears. Whether a solution will conduct electricity or not

g
6. What conclusion can you draw from this activity? depends on the presence or absence of ions in it. As
Ans The conclusion drawn from this activity is that acid nullified the glucose and ethanol are covalent compounds, they do not

e
effect of a base and base nullified the effect of an acid. conduct electricity but ionic compounds such as HCl and
H 2SO4 conduct electricity.

Objective
ACTIVITY 4 (NCERT Pg 22)

el
Check Yourself

t
1. Why do HCl, HNO 3 etc. show acidic character in aqueous
To differentiate between the nature of ionic and covalent
solution?
compounds on the basis of electrical conductivity.
Ans HCl and HNO3 furnish H + ( aq ) ions on dissolving in water

n
Materials Required which are responsible for their acidic character.
Glucose, ethanol (ethyl alcohol), hydrochloric acid, sulphuric
2. Why do compounds like alcohol and glucose do not

o
acid, beakers, wires, metal strips/nails (iron), rubber cork,
one bulb, a 6 V battery and switch. show acidic character?
Ans Alcohol and glucose do not furnish H+ ( aq) ion on dissolving
Procedure in water and hence, these solutions do not show acidic

e
1. Take aqueous solution of HCl in a beaker and set the character.
apparatus, as shown in the diagram given below. As

l
3. Why does an aqueous solution of an acid conduct
current flows through the solution, observe the bulb and electricity?
record the observations. Ans The separation of H + ion from an acid occurs in the

a
2. Repeat the same experiment using glucose, H 2SO4 and presence of water. The hydrogen ions produced are
ethyl alcohol solution. responsible for the conduction of electricity.
4. If we take benzene (C6H6 ) in the above experiment, bulb

w
Battery 6V
Bulb will glow or not?
Switch
Ans If we take benzene (C6H6), the bulb will not glow because

t
no H + ( aq) ions will be produced. This suggests that the

ii
solution would be non-conducting.
Beaker
5. Which type of compound shows electrical conductivity?
Ans Ionic compounds like HCl, H2 SO4 , NaOH etc., show

@
Iron nail
Dil. HCl solution electrical conductivity in water due to the presence of ions
in it.
Rubber cork

Acid solution in water

conducts electricity

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46

3. Name the acid formed when the chlorine gas is

ACTIVITY 5 (NCERT Pg 23) dissolved in water.
Ans Hydrochloric acid.
Objective
To study the effect of dry and wet blue litmus paper on
ACTIVITY 6

m
(i) dry HCl gas (ii) HCl solution. (NCERT Pg 21)
Materials Required
Objective

a
Test tubes, NaCl salt, conc. H 2SO4 , dry and wet litmus paper
strips, delivery tube and one cork. To study the reaction of metallic oxide with an acid.

r
Procedure Materials Required
Take about 1g solid NaCl in a clean and dry test tube. Add a Copper oxide, dilute hydrochloric acid, beaker and

g
small amount of conc. H 2SO4 to the test tube. A gas is evolved. stirrer.
Test it with dry and wet litmus papers. Record the observations.
Procedure

e
Moist litmus
paper 1. Take 1g of copper oxide in a beaker.

l
Delivery tube
2. Now, add dilute acid such as dil. HCl to it with
Cork constant stirring.
Conical flask

e
containing Test tube 3. Observe the change in the reaction mixture.
conc. Guard tube containing
H2SO4 calcium chloride Observation

t
Test tube
Sodium
The colour of the solution becomes blue-green due to
chloride the formation of copper (II) chloride.

n
Preparation of HCl gas CuO(s ) + 2HCl (aq ) → CuCl 2(aq ) + H 2O(l )
Copper Hydrochloric Copper (II) Water
oxide acid

o
Note If the climate is very humid, the students should pass the gas chloride
produced through a guard tube (drying tube) containing calcium (Blue-green)
chloride to dry the gas.
Conclusion

e
Observation Metallic oxide, i.e. CuO behaves as a base and forms
(i) Dry HCl gas salt and water when it reacts with an acid like HCl. In

l
• Only the colour of wet (moist) blue litmus paper turns to other words, a metallic oxide is basic in nature.
red.
• No change occur in dry blue litmus paper.

a
(ii) HCl solution Check Yourself
The colour of both wet and dry blue litmus papers turns to

w
1. What happens when metal oxides react with acids?
red.
Ans Acids react with metal oxides to form their respective salts

t
Conclusion and water as the only products.
Metal oxide + Acid → Metal salt + Water

ii
This experiment suggests that hydrogen ion in HCl are
produced in the presence of water. The separation of H + ion 2. Write the reaction of magnesium oxide with
from HCl molecules cannot occur in the absence of water. As hydrochloric acid.
only colour of wet (moist) blue litmus paper change to red, no
Ans MgO + 2HCl → MgCl2 + H2 O

@
change is occur in dry litmus paper. Magnesium Hydrochloric Magnesium Water
oxide acid chloride

Check Yourself 3. What is the nature of metallic oxides?

Ans Metallic oxides are basic in nature.
1. What is the effect of dry HCl gas on (i) dry litmus paper (ii)
moist litmus paper? 4. What colour is observed when hydrochloric acid is
Ans (i) No effect (ii) Blue litmus paper turns red mixed with copper oxide?
Ans The colour of the solution becomes blue-green due to the
2. Write the chemical equation for the preparation of HCl gas formation of copper (II) chloride.
and also give the role of CaCl 2 taken in the guard tube.
5. What is the nature of non-metallic oxides?
Ans 2NaCl ( s) + H2 SO4 ( aq) → Na 2 SO4 ( aq) + 2HCl ( g)
Ans Non-metallic oxides are acidic in nature.
Role of CaCl 2 : To absorb moisture.

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Acids, Bases and Salts 47

ACTIVITY 7 (NCERT Pg 24) ACTIVITY 8 (NCERT Pg 24)

Objective Objective
To study the reaction of dissolution of concentrated To study the effect of indicators on the given samples of

m
sulphuric acid (or any other) with water. acids and bases.
Materials Required Materials Required

a
Water, conc. H2SO4, beaker, thermometer, stand, test tube HCl, H2SO4 , HNO3 , CH3COOH, NaOH, Ca(OH)2 , Mg(OH)2 ,
and glass rod. KOH, NH4OH, litmus (blue and red) solutions,

r
Procedure phenolphthalein, methyl orange, test tube stand and test
1. Take water in a beaker. tubes.

g
2. Note the initial Procedure
temperature with the
1. Take all acid and base solutions in separate test tubes.

e
help of a thermometer.
2. Now add a few drops of red litmus solution to each.
3. Take a small amount of Water

l
conc. H2SO4 in a test tube 3. Note down the colour change.
+ H2SO4
and pour it drop by drop 4. Repeat the same procedure with blue litmus solution,
phenolphthalein and methyl orange for every acid and

e
in the beaker (very
slowly) along its sides. base solution.

t
4. Continue to stir the Observation
mixture with the help of a glass rod. Again note down
Methyl
the temperature. Sample Red litmus Blue litmus Phenolphthalein

n
orange
solutions solution solution solution
solution
Note As the reaction is too vigorous, safety tips must be taken.

o
HCl — — — —
Observation
H2SO 4 — — — —
A rise in temperature is observed.

e
HNO 3 — — — —
Conclusion
Dissolution of conc. H2SO4 in water is an exothermic CH3COOH — — — —

l
reaction, as heat is evolved in the reaction. NaOH — — — —

Ca(OH)2 — — — —

a
Check Yourself Mg(OH)2 — — — —

w
1. Name the type of reaction between any concentrated acid KOH — — — —
and water. NH4 OH — — — —

t
Ans The reaction between any concentrated acid and water is

i
exothermic reaction.
Conclusion

i
2. What precautions must be taken while mixing
conc. H2SO 4 with water? Acid solutions turn blue litmus red. Basic solutions turn red
Ans The acid must always be added slowly to water with constant litmus blue. Phenolphthalein is colourless in acids while

@
stirring. pink in bases. Methyl orange gives red colour in acids and
yellow in basic solutions.
3. What happens when water is added to concentrated acid?
Ans If water is added to a concentrated acid, the heat generated is
too large which may cause the mixture to splash out and Check Yourself
cause burns.
1. What is the effect of litmus paper on curd and lemon?
4. Is there any change in temperature during this activity? Ans Both curd and lemon are acidic in nature contain natural
Ans Yes, rise in temperature is observed. acids, i.e. lactic acid and citric acid respectively. Therefore,
only the colour of blue litmus paper turns red.
5. What conclusion can you draw from this experiment?
Ans A rise in temperature shows that dissolution of conc. H2 SO4 in 2. Methyl orange is added to a solution and the solution
turns red. What information do you get about the
water is an exothermic reaction, as heat is evolved in the
solution?
reaction.

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48

Ans Methyl orange turns red in a solution. It shows that the

solution is an acid. ACTIVITY 10 (NCERT Pg 20)
3. Which acid is present in vinegar?
Ans Acetic acid (CH3 COOH). Objective
4. If the aqueous solution of slaked lime is tested with methyl To test the given samples of acids and bases with the help

m
orange. It produces yellow colour. What is the nature of of olfactory indicators.
slaked lime solution?
Ans Methyl orange solution turns slaked lime solution to yellow, Materials Required

a
this suggests that slaked lime solution is basic in nature. Dilute hydrochloric acid, sodium hydroxide solution,
onion juice, clove oil, dilute vanilla essence and test tubes.

ACTIVITY 9
r
Procedure
(NCERT Pg 20)
1. Check the odour of onion juice and add its few

g
(but equal) drops in dil. HCl and dil. NaOH solutions
Objective taken in different test tubes.

e
To test the given samples of water, acid and base with the 2. Again check the odour.
turmeric (haldi) solution, a natural indicator. 3. Repeat the same procedure with clove oil and dilute

l
vanilla essence.
Materials Required

e
Lemon, soap, water and turmeric solution. Observation
Odour of onion, clove oil and vanilla essence get
Procedure

t
diminished in a base but remains unaffected in an acid.
1. Take the samples of lemon juice and soap solution in
separate test tubes. Conclusion
Onion juice, clove oil, dilute vanilla essence all are olfactory

n
2. In a separate test tube, take a sample of water too.
3. Now add a few drops of turmeric solution (in water) in all indicators as they have lost their smell in one of the media
the test tubes. (either acidic or basic).

o
4. Record the observations.
Observation Check Yourself

e
The colour of turmeric is yellow in lemon and water but
turns red in soap solution. 1. What is the odour of onion juice in dilute hydrochloric acid?

l
Ans The odour of onion juice in dilute hydrochloric acid remains
Conclusion same.
Turmeric is a natural indicator. It gives yellow colour in

a
2. What is the odour of onion juice in sodium hydroxide
acid solution (lemon) as well as in water while gives red solution?
colour in basic solution (soap).
Ans Odour of onion juice in sodium hydroxide solution gets

w
diminished.
3. How olfactory indicator can be used as an acid-base
Check Yourself

t
indicator by visually impaired student?

i
Ans Olfactory indicator smells different in acidic and basic media
1. When yellow stain of turmeric rubbed with soap. What will

i
which can be detected easily by a visually impaired student,
you observe? What is the nature of soap?
e.g. if basic solution is added to vanilla extract then we cannot
Ans The yellow stain of turmeric turns red when rubbed with detect the characteristic smell of vanilla extract, whereas, if

@
soap. Soap is alkaline in nature, since turmeric (an indicator) acidic solution is added, the smell of vanilla extract does not
changes to red colour in the presence of OH− ions. destroy.
2. What is the colour of turmeric in acid solution? 4. Write the odour test for clove oil in dil. HCl and dil. NaOH
Ans Turmeric (a natural indicator) gives yellow colour in acid solution.
solution. Ans In dil. HCl, there is no change of odour of clove oil. In dil.
3. What colour is obtained when turmeric is mixed with NaOH, there is change in odour of clove oil.
water? 5. A strip of absolutely clear cloth is sprayed with onion juice.
Ans The colour of turmeric remains yellow in water. The strip is then rubbed with few drops of hydrochloric
4. What is the colour of turmeric in basic solution? acid. Will the strip smell like onion?
Ans Turmeric gives red colour in basic solution. Ans Yes, the strip will smell like onion. An acidic solution, like
hydrochloric acid does not destroy the smell of onion.

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Acids, Bases and Salts 49

ACTIVITY 11 (NCERT Pg 26) Check Yourself

1. Which one is a stronger acid, acid with pH = 5 or with pH = 2 ?
Objective Ans pH = 2, because lower the pH, stronger is the acid.
To determine the pH values of the given solutions

m
2. What is the pH of distilled water and common salt solution?
with the help of pH paper.
Ans pH of distilled water = 7, pH of common salt solution = 7
Materials Required [As common salt (NaCl) is neutral].

a
Lemon juice, tomato juice, saliva, carrot juice, soda 3. What is the colour of tomato juice on pH paper?
water, coffee, tea, tap water, 1 M NaOH solution, Ans The colour of tomato juice on pH paper is orange.

r
1 M HCl solution and pH paper.
4. What is the minimum and maximum value of pH scale?
Procedure Ans Minimum value = 0 and maximum value = 14.

g
1. Take different solutions in different test tubes. 5. According to pH scale, which solutions are acid and base?
2. Now, place one or two drops of lemon juice on a

e
Ans Solutions having pH value less than 7 are acidic while those having
pH paper strip. pH value greater than 7 are basic in nature.
3. Note the colour obtained.

l
6. What is the colour of pH paper in water?
4. Repeat the same procedure with each given solution Ans pH paper shows green colour in water.
using a new pH paper strip and note the colours

e
obtained.

ACTIVITY 12

t
Red Yellow Green Blue
(NCERT Pg 27)
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14

Objective

n
To observe water of crystallisation in copper sulphate crystals.

o
Gastric juice Lemon juice Pure water, Milk of magnesia Sodium hydroxide Materials Required
(about 1.2) (about 2.2) blood (7.4) (10) solution (about 14)
Boiling tube, test tube holder, copper sulphate crystals and
pH paper chart showing colours for different pH values Bunsen burner.

e
Observation Procedure

l
1. Take about 2 g crystals of copper sulphate salt in a dry
Nature boiling tube and note the colour of crystals.
Colour of Approximate
S. No. Solution of the
pH paper pH value
solution

1. Lemon juice

a Test tube holder

w
2. Tomato juice
3. Saliva

t
4. Carrot juice

i i
5. Soda water
6. Coffee

@
7. Tea
8. NaOH
9. HCl Removing water of crystallisation

10. Tap water

2. Heat the boiling tube containing copper sulphate crystals
and observe the changes occur.
Conclusion
3. Some water droplets are formed in the boiling tube.
Solutions having pH value less than 7 are acidic while
those having pH value greater than 7 are basic in 4. Put off the burner after few minutes of heating. And add 2-3
nature. As pH value of water is 7, therefore it is drops of water in same sample.
considered neither acidic nor basic but neutral. 5. Observe the colour change after addition of 2-3 drops of
water.

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50

(ii) Note down, whether the salt is soluble or not; and if

Observation soluble, then upto what extent.
Before heating The copper sulphate crystals which seems (iii) Now, test all the solutions with the help of pH paper as in
to be dry, contain water of crystallisation that’s why, salt is the activity 8 and record the observations.
blue in colour.
After heating On heating, this water (hydrated CuSO4 ) is Observation

m
removed and the salt turns white.
Salt Solubility Colour with pH Acidic/ Acid and base
And when crystals are again moisten with few drops of in water paper and pH basic from which salt

a
water, blue colour of the crystals reappears. is formed
Chemical formula of hydrated copper sulphate is NaCl HCl + NaOH

r
CuSO4 ⋅ 5H 2O.
∆
−5H 2 O KNO 3 HNO 3 + KOH
CuSO4 ⋅ 5H 2O s CuSO4

g
+5 H 2 O AlCl 3 HCl + Al(OH)3
(Blue) (White)
ZnSO 4 H2SO 4 + Zn(OH)2

e
Conclusion CuSO 4 H2SO 4 + Cu(OH)2
The blue colour of copper sulphate is due to the presence of
CH3COONa CH3COOH+NaOH

l
water of crystallisation, which can be removed by heating.
Na 2CO 3 H2CO 3 + NaOH

e
NaHCO 3 H2CO 3 + NaOH
Check Yourself

t
Conclusion
1. What do you mean by water of crystallisation? This activity shows that nature of salt depends on its origin.
Ans Crystals of some compounds seen to be dry (or anhydrous) It means that salts have four categories:

n
but actually contain some water molecules, attached to them.
(i ) Salt of strong acid and strong base = Neutral (pH = 7).
This water is called water of crystallisation and such salts are
called hydrated salts. (ii ) Salt of weak acid and strong base = Basic (pH > 7).

o
2. Name the chemical formula of hydrated copper sulphate (iii ) Salt of strong acid and weak base = Acidic (pH < 7).
salt. (iv ) Salt of weak acid and weak base = Neutral (pH = 7).
Ans The chemical formula of hydrated copper sulphate is

e
CuSO4 ⋅ 5H2 O.
Check Yourself
3. Name one salt (other than hydrated copper sulphate)

l
which show water of crystallisation.
1. Give two examples of:
Ans Hydrated sodium carbonate (Na 2 CO3 ⋅10H2 O).
(i) soluble bases

a
4. In the above activity, water droplets are formed near the (ii) partially soluble bases
mouth of the boiling tube. What does it indicate?
(iii) insoluble bases
Ans It indicates that the sample present in the boiling tube is a

w
hydrated salt (i.e. contain water of crystallisation). Ans (i) Soluble bases Sodium hydroxide (NaOH) and
potassium hydroxide (KOH).

t
(ii) Partially soluble bases Calcium hydroxide [Ca(OH) 2 ] and

ii
ACTIVITY 13 (NCERT Pg 29)
magnesium hydroxide [Mg(OH) 2 ].
(iii) Insoluble bases Zinc hydroxide [Zn(OH) 2 ] and
copper (II) hydroxide [Cu(OH) 2 ].
Objective

@
2. The pH of an aqueous solution of hydrochloric acid is 2.
To determine (a) the pH value and nature (b) solubility What will be the pH of the acid after the addition of 10 g
of the given samples of salts. of sodium chloride?
Ans Sodium chloride (NaCl) is a neutral salt, that dissolves to form
Materials Required a neutral salt solution. Hence, the pH will not be affected.
Sodium chloride, potassium nitrate, aluminium chloride,
3. Arrange the following solutions in the order of decreasing
zinc sulphate, copper sulphate, sodium acetate, sodium H + (aq) ions concentration.
carbonate, sodium hydrogen carbonate, water, test tubes
(i) Ammonium hydroxide (ii) Gastric juice
and pH paper.
(iii) Vinegar (iv) Sodium hydroxide
Procedure Ans Gastric juice > Vinegar > Ammonium hydroxide > Sodium
(i) Make the solutions of the given salts in different test hydroxide.
tubes by dissolving them in water.

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Metals and Non-Metals 87

ACTIVITY ZONE
Check Yourself

m
ACTIVITY 1 (a) 1. What happens when we rub the surface of the metals with
(NCERT Pg 37, 38) sand paper?

a
Aim Ans Metals regain their original shine when rubbed with sand paper
(in most of the cases).
To study the following physical properties of metals

r
2. Name a metal which can be cut with a knife.
Ä Metallic lustre Ä Hardness
Ans Sodium metal is soft and can be easily cut with a knife.
Ä Malleability Ä Ductility

g
Ä Sonority 3. Aluminium is used for making cooking utensils.
Which properties of aluminium are responsible for the same?

e
Materials Required Ans Due to good thermal conductivity and high melting point,
Samples (ribbon/pieces/wires) of some metals like Fe, aluminium metal is used for making utensils.

l
Cu, Al, Mg, Pb, Zn, Na etc., sand paper, knife, filter 4. What is ductility?
paper and hammer. Ans The ability of metals to be drawn into thin wire is known as

e
ductility.
Procedure
1. Initially note the appearance, i.e. brightness of the 5. Name the property of metals of producing sound.

t
surface of each metal. Then, rub their surfaces with Ans The property of metals of producing sound is called sonority.
the sand paper and note the changes observed.
2. Take small pieces of Fe, Al and Mg. Try to cut them

n
with a knife to check their hardness. Then, take a
piece of sodium out of kerosene and dry it with a filter
ACTIVITY 1(b) (NCERT Pg 39)

o
paper. Then, try to cut it with a knife and note down
all observations. Aim
3. Take small blocks of Fe, Zn, Pb and Cu metals and To study the (i ) electrical conductivity (ii ) thermal

e
place Zn, Pb and Cu pieces over the block of iron conductivity in metals.
one by one and strike them with the help of a

l
hammer for 4-5 times. Observe and note the changes Materials Required
in the shape of these metals. Also note, if any sound is Wires of metals like Al, Cu etc., stand, burner, pin, wax, battery,
produced. metal wire or piece (to be tested), clips, switch and bulb.

a
4. Collect some metals which are available in the form Procedure
of wires. Note down the names of these metals.
1. Activity (i ) Take an aluminium or copper wire and

w
Observations and Conclusions arrange the electric circuit as shown in the diagram given
1. Metals have metallic lustre. If some layer of oxide below. Placed the metal wire in between the terminals of

t
covers the surface and hides its lustre then remove it A and B, record the observations, whether the bulb glows or

i
with sand paper to bring the original lustre back. not.

i
2. Iron, aluminium and magnesium metals are hard but Battery
their degree of hardness vary. Mg can also be cut with Bulb

@
knife but with some difficulty. Sodium metal is soft
and can be easily cut with knife. It shows that metals
are generally hard (except sodium or other alkali Switch
Clips
metals).
A B
3. Metals are sonorous, i.e. they produce sound when
struck with a hard object like hammer. Metals are Insert sample
also malleable as they can be converted into sheets to be tested
when hammered. Electrical circuit diagram to show metals
4. Metals are generally ductile. Most of the metals are are good conductors of electricit
available as wires like Cu, Al, Ag, Au, Pt, Fe etc.

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88

2. Activity (ii ) Take a stand and fix an

aluminium or copper wire to it with the help
of clamp. Fix a pin to the free end of the wire
ACTIVITY 2 (NCERT Pg 42, 43)

with the help of wax. Heat the wire near the Aim
place where it is clamped. To study
Record the changes.

m
(i) the physical properties of non-metals and compare them with
Metal wire
Stand
those of metals.

a
Clamp Free end of wire (ii) the chemical properties of metals and non-metals and compare
Wax them with each other.
Pin

r
Materials Required
Burner Iron, sodium, silver, coal or graphite (carbon), sulphur, iodine,

g
magnesium ribbon, water, dil. HCl, litmus (red and blue), burner, a
pair of tongs and test tubes.

e
Procedure
1. Take coal/graphite (carbon), sulphur and iodine as the samples of

l
Experimental set up to show that metals are
good conductors of heat non-metals. Examine them as described in Activity 1 (a) and 1 (b)
Note their physical properties and make a comparative chart of the

e
physical properties of metals and non-metals.
Observations and Conclusions 2. Take a magnesium ribbon and sulphur powder.

t
1. Activity (i ) When a metal wire is placed ( i ) First hold the magnesium ribbon with a pair of tongs over
between the terminals A and B, the bulb will flame and let it burn. Collect the ashes formed and dissolve them
glow. It shows that the metals are good in water.

n
conductors of electricity. Test this solution with litmus and note the observations.
2. Activity (ii ) The wax melts and pin falls ( ii ) Take some sulphur powder in a dry test tube and heat it over

o
down but metal does not melt (except tin). It flame. Collect the fumes produced in another test tube by
shows that given metals are good conductors inverting the test tube over the fumes. Then, add some water to the
of heat. Metals also have high melting points test tube with fumes and shake it. Test this solution with litmus and
note the observations.

e
in most of the cases (as metal wires does not
melt on heating). 3. Take some samples of metals like Na, Fe, Ag and non-metals like

l
sulphur, iodine, graphite (C) and put small pieces of these samples
in beaker half filled with cold water and observe reactivity of each.
Check Yourself Put the unreacted samples in beaker half filled with cold water and

a
observe. Again, put still unreacted samples in the apparatus for
1. When the copper wire is placed between the studying their reaction with steam.
terminals A and B in the given activity (i), the

w
bulb glows. Which property of metals are
shown by this?
Metal sample
Ans This suggests that metals like Cu are good

t
Hydrogen
conductor of electricity. Glass wool

i
soaked in Cork
2. Name the metal which is the best conductor of

i
Water
water
electricity.
Burner Stand Delivery
Ans Silver (Ag) is the best conductor of electricity. tube

@
3. What is thermal conductivity?
Ans It is the property due to which metals can conduct
heat. Diagram of apparatus to study action of
e.g. Cu, Al, Fe etc., are good conductors of heat. steam on a metal
4. Aluminium metal does not melt in the given
activity (ii). Why?
Note In the same way, perform the experiments with water, dilute acids and
Ans Aluminium metal has high melting point, that’s other salt solutions. Record the results in the table.
why, it does not melt in the given activity.
4. Take all the samples given in point 3 except sodium (Na) and clean
5. Name the metals which have low melting point. them with sand paper (if tarnished) and put them one by one
Ans Gallium and caesium metals have low melting separately in test tubes containing dilute hydrochloric acid.
points. Suspend thermometers in the test tubes, so that their bulbs are
dipped in the acid.

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Metals and Non-Metals 89

Observations
1. Physical properties of metals and non-metals
Element Lustre Hardness Malleability Ductility Conductivity Sonority
Carbon Diamond has lustre Diamond is hard No Diamond is ductile Poor No

m
(Diamond/graphite)
Sulphur No Soft No No Poor No

a
Iodine Yes Soft No No Poor No
Sodium Yes Soft Yes Yes Good Yes

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Iron Yes Hard Yes Yes Good Yes
Silver Yes Hard Yes Yes Good Yes

g
2. Chemical properties of metals and non-metals.

e
M + O2 → MOX M + H2O → M(OH)X + H2 M + HA → MA + H2
Element Reaction with oxygen Reaction with water Reaction with dilute acids

l
C Reacts on heating No reaction to give H2 No reaction to give H2

e
S Reacts on heating No reaction to give H2 No reaction to give H2
I Reacts on heating No reaction to give H2 No reaction to give H2

t
Na Vigorous at room temperature Vigorous at room temperature Reacts to give H2
Fe Vigorous for Fe filings Reacts with steam Reacts to give H2

n
Ag No reaction, even at high temperature. No reaction No reaction

Conclusions
1. Most non-metals do not have lustre. Most of
o Check Yourself

e
non-metals are soft (if solid) except 1. Generally non-metals are non-lustrous. Which non-metal have lustrous
diamond (hardest known substance) and

l
appearance?
brittle.
Ans Iodine is a non-metal having lustrous appearance.
2. Non-metals are neither malleable nor
2. Name the non-metal which is in liquid state at room temperature.

a
ductile. If sulphur is hammered, it breaks
into pieces. Diamond is ductile (Q hard). Ans Bromine (Br2) is found in the liquid state at room temperature.
3. Non-metals are non-sonorous, poor 3. Write the nature of oxides of metals and non-metals.

w
conductors of heat and electricity, have low
Ans Most of the metallic oxides are basic in nature and non-metallic oxides are
melting and boiling points. But solid acidic in nature.

t
non-metals have comparatively high

i
boiling points. 4. Name the non-metal which is very hard.

i
4. Metals form basic oxides (turns red litmus Ans Diamond, the allotropic form of carbon, which is very hard.
blue) and non-metals form acidic oxides 5. What happens when metals react with dilute acids?
(turns blue litmus red) on burning in air.

@
Ans Active metals evolve hydrogen gas on reaction with dil. HCl or dil.H2 SO4 .
5. Metals release H 2 when reacts with water
whereas non-metals do not react with water
to release hydrogen. Similarly, when metals
react with dilute acids, they again release ACTIVITY 3 (NCERT Pg 48)
hydrogen gas whereas non-metals do not
release hydrogen on reaction with dilute Aim
acids. This is due to the fact that non-metals To study the properties of ionic compounds.
are electron acceptors and cannot give
electrons to hydrogen ions to from H 2 gas Materials Required
(whereas metals are electron donors). Sodium chloride, potassium chloride, burner, spatula, beaker,
electrodes, battery, bulb, switch, test tubes, water, petrol etc.

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90

Procedure
1. Take the samples of some salts like sodium chloride, potassium chloride etc.
2. Examine the physical state of these salts.
3. Take a small amount of a sample on spatula and heat it over the flame.

m
Repeat the process with the other sample too.
Spatula containing
sample

Burner

r a
g
Heating a salt sample on a spatula
4. Try to dissolve these samples in water and petrol in separate test tubes. Note their solubility.

e
5. Make a circuit as shown in the figure and insert the electrodes in the solution of one salt. Note if the bulb glows. Repeat the

l
process with other salt solution too.
Battery Bulb
(–) (+)

e
Switch

t
Beaker
Graphite rod
Salt solution

n
under test

o
Testing the conductivity of a salt solution

Observations

e
1. Physical state of ionic compounds is solid.

l
2. These are water soluble and insoluble in petrol.
3. These have high melting point.
4. These are good conductors of electricity in aqueous solution.

Check Yourself
a
t w
1. Why does sodium chloride conduct electricity in aqueous solution but not in solid state?
Ans Sodium chloride conducts electricity in molten state because of the presence of free ions in the solution while in solid state, there are

i
no free ions.

i
2. Melting points of ionic compounds are ............... (high/low).
Ans Melting points of ionic compounds are high.

@
3. Dissolve the sample of sodium chloride in water and petrol in separate test tubes. In which test tube, sodium chloride is soluble?
Ans Sodium chloride is soluble in water and insoluble in petrol.
4. What is the physical state of ionic compounds?
Ans Ionic compounds are crystalline solids.
5. Take the sugar solution in water and test the conductivity, will the bulb glow?
Ans No, the bulb will not glow. Sugar solution is not an ionic compound because it does not give free ions in the solution. Hence, there will be
no electrical conductivity.

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ACTIVITY ZONE

m
ACTIVITY 1 (NCERT Pg 58) 3. Out of pen, tumbler, fan, spoon which material is made up
of glass?

a
Ans Tumbler is made up of glass.
Objective
To identify the composition of items present in house 4. Name the source from which paper is obtained?

r
(presence of carbon). Ans Paper is obtained from wood.
5. Write some compounds which are not made up of carbon.
Procedure

g
Ans Water (H2O) and cooking utensils (made of metals, glass/clay
Make a list of 10 things that are used or consumed daily and or ceramics) are not made up of carbon.
also mention their constituents with the help of your teacher

e
and parents.

ACTIVITY 2
l
Observation (NCERT Pg 67)
The list of ten things used or consumed daily are mentioned

e
below:
Objective
Things Metals Clay/Glass Other materials To show that successive members of a homologous series

t
Toothbrush — — Plastic, nylon differ by a  CH 2 unit in formula and by 14-unit in
(carbon)
molecular mass.

n
Fan Aluminium/ Iron — —
Spoon Stainless steel — — Procedure
Calculate the difference in the formulae and molecular

o
Tumbler — Glass —
masses for (a) CH 3OH and C 2H 5OH, (b) C 2H 5OH and
Pencil Graphite — Wood (carbon)
C 3H7 OH and (c) C 3H7 OH and C 4H 9OH.
(carbon)

e
Books — — Paper obtained from Observation

l
woods (carbon) (a) CH 3OH and C 2H 5OH
Bread — — Wheat (carbon) These differ by a CH 2 unit.
Pen Steel — Plastic (carbon) Mass of CH 3OH

a
Bed — — Wood (carbon) = (12 × 1) + (1 × 3 ) + (16 × 1) + (1 × 1) = 32 u
Mass of C 2H 5OH
Clothes — — Cotton (carbon)

w
= (12 × 2) + (1 × 5) + (16 × 1) + (1 × 1) = 46 u
Note You can also mention any substance different from the above. Difference = (46 − 32) u = 14 u

t
Result (b) C 2H 5OH and C 3H7 OH

i
It can be clearly seen that most of the substances contain These differ by a — CH 2 unit.

i
carbon in it. Mass of C 2H 5OH = 46 u
Mass of C 3H7 OH

@
Check Yourself = (12 × 3) + (1 × 7) + (16 × 1) + (1 × 1) = 60 u
Difference = (60 − 46) u = 14 u
1. Write some materials which are made up of wood only. (c) C 3H7 OH and C 4H 9OH
Ans Pencil, book, cricket bat, table, chair etc., items are made up These also differ by a — CH 2 unit.
of wood only. Mass of C 3H7 OH = 60 u
2. Most of the items that are found around us are made up of Mass of C 4H 9OH
.............. . = (12 × 4) + (1 × 9) + (16 × 1) + (1 × 1) = 74 u
Ans Most of the items that are found around us are made up of
carbon. Difference = (74 − 60 ) u = 14 u
...........

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50 Class 10th Term II

Result Procedure
All of the three groups possess a similarity, i.e. two Take some carbon compounds (naphthalene, camphor,
consecutive members differ by a —CH 2 group and in alcohol) one by one on a spatula and burn them.
molecular mass by 14 u.
Observation
Other homologous series that you can considered are:
On heating these carbon compounds, following observations

m
Chloroalkane Aldehyde Ketone
Carboxylic were made.
acid
Deposits on
Carbon compounds Nature of flame

a
O spatula

CH3Cl HCHO CH3 C CH3 HCOOH Naphthalene Smoky flame Carbon deposits

r
O Camphor Smoky flame Carbon deposits
 Alcohol Non-sooty flame No carbon
C 2H5 C CH3

g
C 2H5Cl CH3CHO CH3COOH
O Result

e
 Non-sooty flame of alcohol indicates complete combustion or
C 3H7Cl C 2H5CHO C 3H7 C CH3 C 2H5COOH
saturated nature whereas smoky flame of camphor and

l
O naphthalene indicates incomplete combustion or presence of
 multiple bonds.
C 4H9Cl C 3H7CHO C 4H9 C CH3 C 3H7COOH

e
Check Yourself

t
Check Yourself 1. How can saturated and unsaturated hydrocarbons be
differentiated on the basis of combustion?
1. By how many carbon and hydrogen atoms, do any two Ans Saturated hydrocarbons burn with non-sooty flame indicating

n
adjacent numbers homologous series differ? the complete combustion. Unsaturated hydrocarbons always
Ans One carbon and two hydrogen atoms. burns with smoky flame indicating the incomplete combustion.

o
2. Which two of the following compounds could belong to 2. Why unsaturated hydrocarbons burn with a sooty flame?
the same homologous series? Ans Due to higher content of carbon than hydrogen, unsaturated
C2H6O 2 ,C2H6O ,C2H5 ,CH4O hydrocarbons burn with a sooty flame.

e
Ans Both CH4 O and C2H6 O can be represented by the same 3. Which type of bond indicates the incomplete combustion?
general formula, CnH2n + 1OH (where, n = 1 and 2) hence, Ans Multiple bond (double or triple or both) indicates the

l
belong to the same homologous series of alcohols. incomplete combustion of hydrocarbons.
3. Give the formulae of two higher homologues of 4. Write the chemical structure of naphthalene.

a
methane. Ans Chemical structure of naphthalene is
Ans C2H6 (ethane) and C3H8 (propane).

w
4. Name the second member of alkyne homologous series.
Give its structure.
Ans The second member of alkyne homologous family is

t
Naphthalene
propyne. Its structural formula is H3 C  C ≡≡ CH .

i
5. Out of saturated and unsaturated compounds, which are
5. Give the IUPAC name of HCOOH. usually not very reactive?

i
Ans Methanoic acid. Ans Saturated compounds are usually not very reactive because
carbon-carbon single bonds are very strong.

@
Objective
ACTIVITY 3
To study the nature of compound, whether it is
saturated or unsaturated by burning.
(NCERT Pg 69)

Objective
ACTIVITY 4 (NCERT Pg 69)

To check the conditions in which complete or incomplete

combustion of fuels occurs.
Materials Required Materials Required
Naphthalene, camphor, alcohol, spatula, heating Bunsen burner, controller to control the amount of gas
appliances like spirit lamp, burner. coming out of the burner.

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Carbon and Its Compounds 51

Procedure Observation
Light a Bunsen burner and adjust the air hole at the base to get The colour of KMnO4 slowly fades and gradually it
different types of flames in the presence of smoke. disappears completely. When excess of KMnO4 is added,
the colour will not disappear.
Observation

m
l If hole is closed, yellow, sooty flame is produced and on Result
placing a spoon above the flame, black deposits of carbon Alcohol decolourises KMnO4 but acid does not . In
is obtained. excess of KMnO4 , alcohol gets completely converted into

a
l If hole is open, blue flame is produced and on placing a acid which does not decolourise KMnO4 .
spoon above the flame, no deposit is obtained.

r
Reaction Involved
Result Alk. KMnO 4
In excess of air, complete combustion takes place and blue CH 3CH 2 OH → CH 3COOH

g
∆
flame is produced. If there is insufficient supply of air, incomplete Ethanol Ethanoic acid

combustion takes place and yellow flame is produced.

e
Check Yourself
Check Yourself

l
1. What is the colour of KMnO 4 solution?
1. On placing a spatula above the flame (if hole is closed), the Ans The colour of KMnO4 solution is purple.

e
black deposits of ............... are obtained.
Ans On placing a spatula above the flame (if hole is closed), the 2. Which acid is formed, when excess of KMnO 4 is added

t
black deposits of ...........
carbon are obtained. to the ethanol?
Ans Ethanoic acid ( CH3 COOH) is formed, when excess of
2. On closing the hole, we get yellow sooty flame, why?
Ans On closing the hole, there is insufficient supply of air so, KMnO4 is added to the ethanol (CH3 CH2OH).

n
incomplete combustion takes place and yellow flame is 3. Which reaction is involved in the conversion of alcohol
produced. to carboxylic acid?

o
3. What is the advantage of air hole (inlet) in the Bunsen Ans Oxidation reaction is involved in the conversion of alcohol
burner? to carboxylic acid.
Ans The inlets (or air hole) present in burner provide sufficient 4. Name the substance used for the oxidation of ethanol.

e
supply of oxygen for the complete combustion of fuel. Ans Alk. KMnO4 or acidified K 2Cr2O7 is used for oxidation of
4. Which gas is produced during incomplete combustion of ethanol.

l
fuels?
5. Name the compound formed on oxidation of ethanol.
Ans Carbon monoxide (CO) gas is produced during incomplete
Ans The compound formed on oxidation of ethanol is ethanoic
combustion of fuels.

a
acid ( CH3 COOH ).
5. Which gas is produced during the complete combustion of
fuels?
Ans Carbon dioxide ( CO2) gas is produced during the complete
ACTIVITY 6

w
(NCERT Pg 72)
combustion of fuels.

t
Objective

i
To show that hydrogen gas is evolved when alcohol is
ACTIVITY 5

i
(NCERT Pg 70) treated with sodium metal or to check the acidic nature
of alcohol (ethanol).

@
Objective
To study the oxidising properties of KMnO 4 . Materials Required
Piece of sodium, ethanol, test tubes, matchstick.
Materials Required Procedure
Ethanol, 5% alk. KMnO4 , beaker, dropper, test tubes. 1. Drop a small piece of sodium, about the size of a
Procedure couple of grains of rice, into ethanol (taken in a test tube).
1. Take about 3 mL of ethanol in a test tube and warm it 2. Bring a matchstick near the mouth of the test tube.
gently in a water bath.
Observation
2. Add 5% solution of alkaline potassium permanganate drop A gas is evolved which burns with pop sound.
by drop to this solution.

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52 Class 10th Term II

Result 3. Pour into a beaker containing 20-50 mL of water and smell

Since, the evolved gas burns with ‘pop’ sound, so it is the resulting mixture.
hydrogen and evolution of hydrogen gas when alcohol
is treated with metal shows its acidic nature.
Test tube
Reaction containing

m
–
reaction
2 C 2 H 5OH + 2Na → 2C 2 H 5 ONa+ + H 2 ↑ mixture
Ethanol Sodium Sodium ethoxide Hydrogen
metal Beaker

a
gas
Water
Wire gauze
Check Yourself

r
Tripod stand
1. Which gas is evolved on adding sodium metal into

g
ethanol? Burner
Ans When sodium (Na) metal reacts with ethanol, hydrogen

e
(H2) gas is evolved.
2. How will you test the presence of H2 gas?

l
Ans When a burning matchstick is brought near the mouth of
a test tube, the evolved gas burns with a pop sound. This Formation of ester

e
indicates the presence of hydrogen gas.
3. How sodium ethoxide is formed? Write the reaction. Result

t
Ans When sodium metal reacts with ethanol then sodium A compound having pleasant fruity smell is obtained, which is
ethoxide is formed. known as ester. This process is called esterification.
2Na + 2C2H5 OH → 2C2H5 ONa + H2↑

n
Sodium Ethanol Sodium Hydrogen Reaction Involved
ethoxide conc . H SO
CH 3  COOH + C 2 H 5  OH →
2 4

o
4. If the same experiment is repeated with acetic acid, Acetic acid Ethanol Dehydrating agent
what happens?
Ans If the experiment is repeated with acetic acid then, same CH 3COOC 2H 5 + H 2O

e
result is obtained. Ester Water

5. Write the reaction of sodium metal with ethanoic acid.

l
Ans 2CH3 COOH + 2Na → 2CH3 COONa + H2 ↑ Check Yourself
Ethanoic acid Sodium Sodium ethanoate Hydrogen
1. What is glacial acetic acid?

a
Ans Pure (100%) ethanoic acid is called glacial acetic acid.
ACTIVITY 7 (NCERT Pg 73) 2. What are esters?

w
Ans Esters are organic compounds having the general formula RCOOR′
where, R is H or any alkyl group, while R′ is always an alkyl group.
Objective

t
3. Complete the equation,

ii
To study the formation of esters.
Dehydrating
Acid + Alcohol →
Materials Required agent
Glacial acetic acid, absolute alcohol, conc. H 2 SO4 , Dehydrating
Ans Acid + Alcohol → Ester

@
test tubes, beaker, wire gauze, tripod stand, burner, agent
water bath. 4. Name the process of ester formation from acid and alcohol in
Procedure the presence of H2SO 4 .
Ans The process of ester formation is known as esterification.
1. Take 1 mL ethanol (absolute alcohol) and 1 mL
glacial acetic acid alongwith a few drops of 5. What is the role of concentrated sulphuric acid in an
esterification reaction?
concentrated sulphuric acid in a test tube.
Ans Concentrated sulphuric acid (H2SO4 ) acts as a catalyst
2. Warm in a water bath for atleast five minutes as
(dehydrating agent) in the esterification reaction.
shown in the figure.

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Carbon and Its Compounds 53

ACTIVITY 8 (NCERT Pg 73) ACTIVITY 9 (NCERT Pg 74)

Objective Objective
To compare the acidity of dilute acetic acid and To show that carbon dioxide gas is evolved when ethanoic acid is

m
hydrochloric acid. treated with sodium carbonates and bicarbonates.
Materials Required Materials Required

a
Dil. acetic acid, dil. HCl, universal pH indicator, Sodium carbonate, dilute ethanoic acid, sodium hydrogen carbonate,
litmus paper, test tubes. lime water, test tubes, spatula, stand, cork, thistle funnel, delivery
tube.

r
Procedure
Compare the pH of dilute acetic acid and dilute Procedure

g
hydrochloric acid using both, litmus paper and 1. Take a spatula full of sodium carbonate in a test tube and add 2 mL
universal indicator. of dilute ethanoic acid.

e
2. Pass the gas produced through freshly prepared lime water.
Observation
3. Repeat the above procedure with sodium hydrogen carbonate

l
Acid pH Litmus test instead of sodium carbonate.
Dil. HCl 2-3 (more acidic) Blue litmus turns red Observation

e
Dil. CH3COOH 5-6 (less acidic) Blue litmus turns red
Brisk effervescence is produced and lime water turns milky.

t
Result
Result The brisk effervescence of carbon dioxide gas is produced which on
Dil. HCl is more acidic than the dilute acetic acid passing through lime water turns it milky.

n
as pH of dil. HCl is less than dilute acetic acid.
Reaction Involved
– +

o
Check Yourself 2CH 3COOH+Na 2CO3 → 2CH 3COONa + H 2O +CO2 ↑
Acetic acid Sodium Sodium Carbon
carbonate acetate dioxide
1. Two acids A and B have pH values of 2 and 6
–

e
+
respectively. Which of the two will be more CH 3COOH +NaHCO3 → CH 3COONa
acidic? Acetic acid Sodium Sodium

l
carbonate acetate
Ans Acid A with pH value 2 will be more acidic.
+ H 2O +CO2 ↑
2. Write the correct order of pH values for acid and Carbon
dioxide

a
base solution.
Ans For acid solution, pH value is less than 7, i.e. Thistle funnel
pH < 7. Delivery tube

w
For basic solution, pH value is greater than 7, i.e. Stand
pH > 7. Cork Test tube

t
3. What is the pH value of a neutral solution? Calcium
hydroxide

ii
Ans pH value of a neutral solution is 7. solution
4. What change in colour is observed when red Carbon dioxide gas
litmus paper is dipped in acidic solution?
Ans Red litmus paper remains red in acidic solution. Ethanoic acid

@
Test tube
So, no change in colour is observed.
5. Why ethanoic acid is a weak acid? Sodium
Ans Ethanoic acid is a weak acid as it is partially ionised carbonate
in the aqueous solution as
Showing the release of carbon dioxide gas when
CH3 COOH ( aq) 5 H+ ( aq) + CH3 COO− ( aq)
Partially ionised
ethanoic acid is treated with sodium carbonate

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54 Class 10th Term II

Check Yourself Check Yourself

1. What will you get when dilute ethanoic acid is treated with 1. Which end of soap bonds with dirt?
sodium carbonate? Write the reaction. Ans The structure of soap molecules is
Ans Sodium acetate, the reaction is –
Na+
2 CH3 COOH + Na 2CO3 → 2 CH3 COONa + H2O + CO2 ↑

m
Acetic acid Sodium Sodium
carbonate acetate
Long hydrocarbon chain Ionic part
(Hydrophobic) (Hydrophilic)

a
2. The formation of brisk effervescence indicates the presence of
which gas? 2. Why does soap solutions appear cloudy?
Ans Brisk effervescence indicates the presence of CO2

r
Ans A soap solution appears cloudy because of the formation
(carbon dioxide) gas. of the micelles and they are large enough to scatter light.
3. What happens when lighted splinter is brought near the 3. How the soap molecules are arranged in a soap micelle?

g
mouth of CO 2 gas? Ans In a soap micelle, hydrocarbon ends directed towards the
Ans Lighted splinter gets extinguished. centre and ionic ends directed outwards.

e
4. Which type of bonds are present between atoms of carboxylic 4. Name the hydrophilic and hydrophobic ends of a soap?
acid?

l
Ans The straight long hydrocarbon chain which is insoluble in
Ans Carboxylic acids have covalent bonds between their atoms.
water is the hydrophobic part while ionic part which
5. What happens when same procedure is repeated with sodium dissolves in water is the hydrophilic part.

e
bicarbonate?
Ans When ethanoic acid is treated with sodium bicarbonate then 5. What is a micelle?

t
same result is obtained, i.e. CO2 gas is produced. Ans A spherical aggregate of soap molecule in the soap
solution in water is called a ‘micelle’.

ACTIVITY 10

n
(NCERT Pg 74)
ACTIVITY 11 (NCERT Pg 76)

o
Objective Objective
To study the phenomenon of dirt cleaning by soap. To study the working of soap with soft and hard water.

e
Materials Required Materials Required
Water, soap or detergent, oil, test tubes. Distilled water, hard water, soap solution, test tubes.

l
Procedure Procedure
1. Take about 10 mL of water each in two test tubes. 1. Take about 10 mL of distilled water (or rain water)

a
2. Add a drop of oil (cooking oil) to both the test tubes and and 10 mL hard water (from a tubewell or
label them as A and B. To test tube B, add a few drops of handpump) in separate test tubes.
soap solution.

w
2. Add a couple of drops of soap solution to both.
3. Now, shake both the test tubes vigorously for the same 3. Shake the test tubes vigorously for an equal period of
period of time.

t
time.

i
4. Now leave them undisturbed for some time.
Observation

i
Observation Test tube containing hard water, produces curdy white
In test tube A , oil and water form separate layers and no such precipitate while the test tube containing distilled water,

@
layer is formed in test tube B. produces foam.
Result Result
This shows the phenomena of dirt-cleaning by soap. As we Soaps work well with soft water but form scum
know, dirt is oily in nature. Hydrophobic part of soap bonds (insoluble substance) with hard water.
with dirt and hence, dirty clothes are cleaned.

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Carbon and Its Compounds 55

Check Yourself Procedure

1. Take two test tubes with about 10 mL of hard water in each and
1. Write the name of species responsible for the
hardness of water. label them as A and B.
Ans Calcium and magnesium ions are responsible for the 2. Add five drops of soap solution to test tube A and five drops of
hardness of water. detergent solution to the other test tube B.

m
2. When soap is dissolved in hard water, what 3. Shake both the test tubes for the same period.
happens?
Observation

a
Ans When soap is dissolved in hard water then a curdy
white precipitate (or scum) is formed. Same amount of foam is not produced in both the test tubes. Solution
of detergent and hard water forms foam, while solution of soap and

r
3. What are soaps? hard water produces curdy white precipitate.
Ans A soap is the sodium salt (or potassium salt) of a long
chain carboxylic acid (fatty acid) which has cleansing Result

g
properties in water. Detergent works better in hard water in comparison to soap.
4. How can hardness of water be tested with the help

e
of soap solution?
Ans Soaps do not form lather with hard water.
Check Yourself

l
5. Why washing of clothes with hard water is difficult? 1. What will you get on treating soaps and detergents with hard
Ans The scum (or curdy precipitate) formed by the action water, separately?

e
of hard water on soap, sticks to the clothes being Ans With hard water soap solution will form curdy white precipitate and
washed and interferes with the cleaning ability of the detergent solution will form foam.

t
additional soap. This makes the cleaning of clothes
difficult. 2. What are detergents?
Ans Detergents are the sodium salt of a long chain benzene sulphonic
acid.

ACTIVITY 12 (NCERT Pg 76)

n
3. Which process is involved in dirt cleaning?
Ans Emulsification process is involved in dirt cleaning.

o
4. Why washing clothes with hard water is not effective?
Objective Ans Hard water contains Ca 2+ and Mg2+ ions which react with soap and
To compare the cleansing action of soaps and

e
form scum. So, soap is not able to form lather and goes waste.
detergents with hard water.
5. What is the advantage of detergents over soaps for washing

l
Materials Required clothes?
Detergent, soap, sample of hard water, test tubes. Ans Detergents have a stronger cleansing action than soaps as it works
effectively in hard water.

a
t w
i i
@
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100

ACTIVITY ZONE

Objective
ACTIVITY 1 (NCERT Pg 84)

Objective
ACTIVITY 2
m
(NCERT Pg 85)

a
r
To discuss the position of hydrogen in the To justify the position of isotopes in Mendeleev’s periodic
Mendeleev’s periodic table. table and modern periodic table.

g
Procedure Procedure
Compare the properties of hydrogen with elements of Study some isotopes like isotopes of hydrogen

e
other groups and find the group(s) with the elements of (1 H1 , 1 H 2 and 1 H 3 ), isotopes of chlorine (17 Cl 35 and 17 Cl 37 )
which it shows similarity in properties.

l
etc., and find whether they have same atomic number or same
Observation mass number. Also compare their chemical properties.

e
˜ Hydrogen resembles with alkali metals as it combines
Observation
with oxygen, sulphur and halogens and form
compounds having similar formula as metals. Isotopes of an element have same atomic number but their

t
mass number is different. Moreover, they have same chemical
˜ It exists in the form of diatomic molecules and
properties because of their same atomic number and same
combines with metals and non-metals to form covalent
electronic configuration.
compounds like halogens. So, hydrogen resembles

n
halogens too. Result

o
Result In Mendeleev’s periodic table, the isotopes have no place but
in modern periodic table, they occupy the same place due to
In the Mendeleev’s periodic table, no fixed position can
their similar configuration and chemical properties.
be assigned to hydrogen.

l e
1. Name the first element of the Mendeléev’s periodic
table.
1. Isotopes have same atomic .............. but different atomic
............. .

a
Ans Isotopes have same atomic number but different atomic mass.
Ans Hydrogen is the first element in the Mendeléev’s periodic
table. 2. What is the position of isotopes in the modern periodic table?

w
2. Why is hydrogen called a rogue element in the periodic Ans In modern periodic table isotopes can be placed at the same
table? position as that of an element.

t
Ans Hydrogen is called a rogue element, since its position in 3. Why are isotopes of an element having different atomic
masses placed at the same position in the modern periodic

i
the periodic table is controversial. It resembles with alkali
metals in some properties and halogens in some other table?

i
properties. Ans All isotopes of an element have same atomic number but
3. In which group and period should hydrogen by placed? differrent mass number and elements in a modern periodic table

@
are arranged on the basis of increase in atomic number and not
Ans It is placed in group 1 and period 1 because it has lowest
atomic mass, so, they can be put in one place.
atomic number (i.e. 1) and atomic mass.
4. Name the isotopes of hydrogen.
4. In which form does hydrogen exist?
Ans Isotopes of hydrogen are protium (11H), deuterium (12H) and tritium
Ans Hydrogen exists in the form of diatomic molecule (i.e. H2).
(31 H).
5. Hydrogen atom has properties of metal or non-metal? 5. Why does isotopes have similar chemical properties?
Ans Hydrogen atom has some of its properties related to metals Ans Isotopes have similar chemical properties because of their same
and some to non-metals. atomic number and same electronic configuration.

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Periodic Classification of Elements 101

ACTIVITY 3 (NCERT Pg 87) ACTIVITY 4 (NCERT Pg 87)

Objective Objective
To study the characteristics of elements of group 1 To study the properties of elements of second period and to

m
and find out why these elements were grouped determine their valency.
together? Procedure
1. Write the elements of second period. Also write their electronic

a
Procedure
configuration.
1. Look at the group 1 of the modern periodic table
2. Find the number of valence electrons and number of shells.

r
and name the first three elements present in it.
3. For metals, valency is equal to the valence electrons while for
2. Write down the electronic configuration of the non-metals, valency = 8 − valence electrons.
first three elements of this group.

g
3. Find the valence electrons in these elements. Observation

e
Period II elements Li Be B C N O F Ne
Observation
The first three elements of group I are hydrogen, Electronic configuration 2, 1 2, 2 2, 3 2, 4 2, 5 2, 6 2, 7 2, 8

l
lithium and sodium. Valence electrons 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
K L M
Number of shells 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Electronic configuration 1H = 1

e
Valency 1 2 3 4 3 2 1 0
= 2, 1
3Li

t
11 Na = 2, 8, 1 Result
Each of these three elements follow same pattern of ˜ Elements of a period have different electronic configuration and
electronic configuration and have 1 valence hence, different number of valence electrons but number of shells

n
electron in their outermost shell. is same as for all of these elements.
Valency of elements in a period increases upto a maximum value

o
Result ˜

of ‘4’ (carbon) and then decreases to ‘0’ (neon).

Since, these elements have similar outer electronic
configuration, i.e. same number of valence

e
electrons and hence, same chemical properties, so
these all belong to the same group.
1. In which property do the elements of a period differ?

l
Ans Number of valence electrons.
2. The valence electrons present in O-atom is 6, so what is its valency

a
with respect to hydrogen?
1. Group 1 elements are called ............. .
Ans Valency of O = 8 − 6 = 2, because it requires two electron to complete
Ans Group 1 elements are called alkali metals.
its octet.

w
2. Why do group 1 elements form unipositive ions?
3. Which element of second period behave as metalloid?
Ans Group 1 elements contain 1 electron in their

t
outermost shell. These elements lose this electron
Ans Boron (B).

i
easily to attain the 8 electrons in their outermost 4. Why is boron considered as metalloids?

i
shell. Hence, they form unipositive ion. Ans This is because boron resembles with metals as well as non-metals in
3. Why does all elements in a group have similar its properties.
properties? 5. Which element of second period is unreactive and why?

@
Ans All the elements in a group have similar properties Ans Neon, because of the presence of 8 electrons in its valence shell.
because they have identical valence shell electronic
configuration.
4. What is the valency of elements of group I?
ACTIVITY 5 (NCERT Pg 88)

Ans The valency of all the elements of group 1 is 1 Objective

because they have one electron in their respective To study the variation of atomic radii along a period in the
outermost shell.
periodic table.
5. Element E of group 1 form which type of
compound with chlorine? Given,
Ans Elements of group 1 form ECl type of compound Period II elements B Be O N Li C
with chlorine.
Atomic radius (pm) 88 111 66 74 152 77

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102

Procedure
1. Find the atomic number of the above written ACTIVITY 6 (NCERT Pg 89)
elements.
2. Arrange them according to their atomic number. Objective
3. Also write their radii below their symbol. To study the variation of atomic radii along a group in the

m
4. Try to find out a relation between the radii and periodic table.
atomic number.
Given,

a
Observation Group I Elements Na Li Rb Cs K
Period II elements Li Be B C N O Atomic radius (pm) 186 152 244 262 231

r
Atomic number 3 4 5 6 7 8
Procedure

g
Atomic radius (pm) 152 111 88 77 74 66 1. Write the atomic number of the above written elements.
2. Arrange them according to their atomic number.

e
Thus, as the atomic number increases, atomic radius
decreases. 3. Also write the atomic radii corresponding to that element.
4. Try to find out a relation between the radii and atomic

l
Result number.
Atomic radius decreases along a period from left to

e
Observation
right as atomic number increases.
Element Li Ne K Rb Cs Fr

t
Atomic number 3 11 19 37 55 87
Atomic radius (pm) 152 166 231 244 262 270
1. Arrange the following elements in the increasing

n
order of atomic size. Os, Pt, Hg and Ba From the above table, it is clear that atomic radius increases as the
Ans Increasing order of atomic size of given elements is atomic number increases on moving down a group.

o
Period VI elements Hg < Pt < Os < Ba
Result
Atomic number 80 78 76 56
Atomic radius increases on moving down a group as the atomic
2. What is atomic radius?

e
number increases.
Ans Atomic radius is the distance between the centre of the
nucleus and the outermost shell (which contains

l
electrons) in an isolated atom.
3. As the atomic number increases, what change in
1. Why the size of Na-atom is bigger than that of Li-atom?

a
atomic radius is observed along periods?
Ans As the atomic number increases, atomic radius Ans This is because of the presence of more number of shells in Na
decreases from left to right in periods. (2,8,1) as compared to Li (2,1).

w
4. Why the atomic radius decreases as we move from 2. As the atomic number increases on moving down a group, what
left of right in a period? change in atomic radius is observed?

t
Ans Atomic radius decreases in moving from left to right Ans As the atomic number increases on moving down a group, atomic

ii
along a period due to an increase in nuclear charge radius increases.
which tends to pull the electrons closer to the nucleus. 3. Name the smallest atom in the first group, alkali metals.
5. Why does alkali metals are largest in size while Ans The smallest metal atom is lithium in this group.
halogens are smallest in size in the whole periodic 4. Why the atomic radius increases on going from top to bottom in

@
table? a group?
Ans Alkali metals are placed at the extreme left while Ans On moving down in a group, the number of shells and the distance
halogen at the extreme right in the periodic table. On between the nucleus and valence electron increases, thus hold of
moving from left to right the number of shell remains nucleus on the valence electrons decreases. Therefore, atomic
same but number of valence electrons increases radius increases.
(in same shell). This results in increase in the nuclear
charge which tends to pull the valence electron closer 5. Name the biggest atom in the first group elements.
to nucleus and reduce the size of atom. Ans Francium Fr is the biggest atom in the first group elements.

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Periodic Classification of Elements 103

ACTIVITY 7 (NCERT Pg 89)

Procedure
(i) Look at the group 1st, group 17th and 2nd period in the
modern periodic table.
Objective (ii) See the trend of the effective nuclear charge acting on
To find the position of metals and non-metals in the the valence shell electrons across period and down in
the group.

m
periodic table.
Observation
Procedure

a
Write the elements of a period and also mention whether Third period elements Na Mg Al Si P S Cl
the element is a metal or a non-metal.
Effective nuclear charge acting on valence electron

r
Observation increases across the period.
Elements of third period

g
Group 1 Group 17
Na Mg Al Si P S Cl Ar Li Effective nuclear F

e
Metal Metal Metal Metalloid Non- Non- Non- Non- Na charge acting on Cl
metal metal metal metal valence electron

l
K increases down in Br
Rb the group I
Result

e
Cs
Metals are present at the left hand side and non-metals are
Fr
on the right hand side in the periodic table. Metalloids are

t
present in between these two.
Result
As the effective nuclear charge acting on the valence shell

n
electrons increases across a period, the tendency to lose
electrons will decrease, or the tendency to gain electrons
1. Mention the common name given to the following

o
will increase. Hence, electropositivity decrease and
elements: electronegativity increases.
Boron, silicon, germanium, arsenic, antimony Down the group, the effective nuclear charge experienced
Ans All these are metalloids as they have the properties of both

e
by valence electrons is decreasing. Therefore, tendency to
metals as well as non-metals. lose electron increases and tendency to gain electron
2. State the place of metalloids in the periodic table. decreases. Hence electropositivity increases and

l
Ans Metalloids have been placed in the middle of the periodic electronegativity decreases.
table.

a
3. On which side of the modern periodic table, will you find
metals? Are they electropositive or electronegative?
1. What do you mean by effective nuclear charge?
Ans Metals are located at left side of the modern periodic table.

w
They are electropositive because of their tendency to lose Ans The effective nuclear charge is the net positive charge
electrons. experienced by the valance shell electrons.

t
2. How electropositive character vary with effective nuclear
4. Classify the following elements into metals and

i
charge?
non-metals.

i
S, Mg, Al, P, N, Na and K Ans As the effective nuclear charge acting on the valence shell
electrons increases, electropositive character decreases and
Ans Metals - Mg, Al, Na and K vice-versa.

@
Non-metals - S, P and N
3. How electropositive character vary across the period and
5. Non-metals are also called ............ elements. down in the group?
Ans Non-metals are also called electronegative elements. Ans Electropositive character decreases across the period and
increases down in the group.
4. How electronegative character vary across the period and
ACTIVITY 8 (NCERT Pg 89, 90)
down in the group?
Ans Electronegative character increases across the period and
decreases down in the group.
Objective 5. Among Fr, Na, F and I, which of the element have most
To study how the tendency to lose electrons and to gain electropositive and most electronegative character?
electrons vary across the period and down the group in the Ans Most electropositive element = Fr,
modern periodic table. most electronegative element = F.

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Life Processes: Nutrition 131

ACTIVITY ZONE
Conclusion
This experiment proves that only chlorophyll containing areas,
ACTIVITY 1 (NCERT Pg 96) i.e. green parts of the leaf produces starch, which is a product of

m
photosynthesis. Thus, chlorophyll is essential for
photosynthesis.
Aim

a
To show that chlorophyll is essential for
photosynthesis. Check Yourself

r
Materials Required 1. Why plants are green in colour?
A potted plant of variegated leaves such as money plant Ans Chlorophyll is a green coloured pigment, which imparts green

g
or crotons, white paper sheet, pencil, beaker, water, colour to the plants.
water bath, iodine solution and alcohol. 2. In which form, food is stored in the plants?

e
Procedure Ans Food is stored in the plants in the form of starch, a complex
carbohydrate, which further breaks down into monomers, that

l
1. Keep the plant in a dark room for three days so that ultimately releases energy.
all the starch gets used up (destarching).
3. Name a process performed by the green plants to synthesise

e
2. Now, keep this plant in sunlight for about six hours. their food.
3. Pluck a variegated leaf from the plant. Mark the Ans Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants synthesise

t
green areas in it and trace them on a sheet of paper. organic food in the form of carbohydrates from carbon dioxide
4. Dip the leaf in boiling water for few minutes and and water in the presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
then immerse it in a beaker containing alcohol. 4. Why alcohol is used in the experiment?

n
5. Boil the beaker in a water bath till the leaf gets Ans Alcohol is used in the experiment because it removes chlorophyll
decolourised. from leaves. Due to which, the leaf loses its green colour.

o
6. Following this, dip the leaf in a dilute solution of 5. Give the energy transformation that takes place in the process
iodine for few minutes. of photosynthesis.
7. Take out the leaf and rinse off the iodine solution Ans Solar energy is converted into chemical energy during

e
under tap water. photosynthesis.
8. Observe the changes in the colour of the leaf and

l
compare it with the tracing of leaf done in beginning.
ACTIVITY 2 (NCERT Pg 97)

a
Blue-Black Aim
Green To show that carbon dioxide is necessary for photosynthesis.

w
Materials Required

t
Two healthy potted plants of same size, two glass plates, two

ii
White bell jars, vaseline, watch glass, potassium hydroxide, alcohol,
spirit lamp and beaker.
(a) (b) Procedure

@
Variegated leaf (a) before and (b) after 1. Keep the potted plants in dark for three days, so that the
starch test leaves are destarched.
Observation 2. Place the potted plant (a) on a glass plate and put a watch
glass containing potassium hydroxide (KOH) by the side of
1. The leaf will show two type of patches, i.e.
the pot. Cover it with a bell jar.
bluish-black and white. The bluish-black areas
contain starch and the white areas are without 3. Place the other potted plant (b) on second glass plate and
starch. cover it with a bell jar.
2. Bluish-black areas are the ones, which were green 4. Use Vaseline to seal the bottom of jars to the glass plates so
previously while, non-green areas remain pale that the set up is air tight.
coloured. 5. Keep the plants in sunlight for two hours.

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132

6. Pluck a leaf from each plant and test the same

for the presence of starch. ACTIVITY 3 (NCERT Pg 99)

Aim
To show that salivary amylase present in the saliva acts upon the

m
Bell jar
food containing starch.
Materials Required

a
Two test tubes, starch solution (1%), measuring cylinder, saliva and
Watch-glass
containing iodine solution (iodine + potassium iodide).

r
potassium
hydroxide Procedure
(KOH) 1. Take 1 mL starch solution (1%) in two test tubes marked as A

g
(a) (b)
and B.
Experimental set up (a) With potassium hydroxide 2. Add 1 mL saliva to test tube A and 1 mL water to test tube B and

e
(b) Without potassium hydroxide
leave both test tubes undisturbed for about 20-30 minutes.
3. Now, add few drops of dilute iodine solution to both the test

l
Observation tubes.
The leaf of plant (b) without potassium hydroxide 4. Observe the colour change

e
turns blue-black, while the leaf of plant (a) with
potassium hydroxide remains pale coloured or Observation

t
colourless. In test tube A→ Starch + Saliva + Iodine solution→ No colour change.
Conclusion In test tube B → Starch + Iodine solution → Colour changes to
blue-black.

n
This experiment demonstrates that the leaf of plant
(b) has synthesised starch by photosynthesis.
Leaf of plant (a) has not synthesised starch as it does

o
not contain carbon dioxide which is essential for Starch + saliva Starch + water
+ iodine solution +iodine solution
photosynthesis. CO2 is absorbed by potassium
hydroxide. So, photosynthesis did not occur in

e
No blue-black Blue-black
plant (a). A colour
B colour

l
Conclusion
Check Yourself This activity shows that salivary amylase present in saliva acts on the

a
starch breaking it down into simpler carbohydrates.
1. According to the experiment, which gas is
required for photosynthesis to occur?
Ans According to the experiment, carbon dioxide is Check Yourself

w
required for photosynthesis to occur.
2. Why KOH (potassium hydroxide) is used in 1. Name the enzyme present in saliva.

t
plant (a)? Ans Salivary amylase.

ii
Ans KOH is a chemical, which absorbs carbon dioxide. It 2. On which type of food does salivary amylase act?
is used in (a) to show that it is essential for
photosynthesis.
Ans Salivary amylase acts on the food containing starch.
3. Why does test tube B turns blue-black in the experiment?

@
3. Write the equation, which represents the
chemical changes that take place during Ans It happens because Iodine reacts with the starch present in the test
photosynthesis. tube.
Sunlight 4. Name the end product, which is formed when saliva acts on starch.
Ans 6CO2 + 12H2O → C6H12O6
Carbon Water Chlorophyll Glucose
Ans Maltose.
dioxide Note Food tests for other components
+ 6H2O + 6O2 ↑
Sodium hydroxide, Lilac/purple Proteins present
Water Oxygen
Copper sulphate colouration
4. How does CO 2 enters the plant cells for Ethanol/Water Cloudy suspension Lipids present
photosynthesis?
Benedict’s solution Brick red precipitate Glucose present
Ans Through stomata present in leaves.

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Life Processes: Respiration 161

ACTIVITY ZONE
ACTIVITY 1 (NCERT Pg 101) form of ATP only. This is evident from the fact that
whenever the body requires energy, ATP breaks down to
ADP and Pi to fulfil the need of energy.
Aim

m
4. Where does the first step of respiration takes place in
To show that carbon dioxide is produced during the cell?
respiration. Ans The first step of respiration takes place in the cytoplasm of the

a
cell in which the 6 carbon compound called glucose, breaks
Materials Required down into two molecules of 3 carbon compound called
pyruvate. This process of breaking down of glucose is known

r
Two test tubes, freshly prepared lime water, pichkari or
syringe, rubber tube and a glass tube. as glycolysis.
5. Which process is continuous, photosynthesis or

g
Procedure respiration?
1. Pour freshly prepared lime water in each test tube Ans Respiration is a continuous process which leads to the

e
(A and B ). breakdown of food and liberation of energy. It takes place
throughout day and night, while photosynthesis takes place
Pichkari/syringe

l
only in the presence of sunlight (day time).
Glass tube

e
Rubber tube
Test tube ACTIVITY 2 (NCERT Pg 101)

t
containing
Lime water lime water
Aim
A B To show that carbon dioxide is produced during alcoholic

n
A. Air passed into lime water with a fermentation.
pichkari/syringe

o
Materials Required
2. Blow air in test tube B through the lime water with the Fresh juice or 10% glucose solution, yeast, large test tube,
help of glass tube. single holed cork, twice bent glass tube (delivery tube),

e
3. Pass air through lime water in test tube A with the small test tube, freshly prepared lime water, glass rod and
help of a pichkari or syringe fitted with the fine non-drying oil.

l
rubber tube.
4. Note how long it takes for the lime water to turn milky. Procedure
1. Mix fresh juice or 10% glucose solution with yeast.

a
Observation 2. Pour this mixture upto 3/4th level in a large test tube
1. Lime water turns milky in test tube B. fitted with a one holed cork.
2. Lime water takes long time to turn milky in test tube A. 3. Pour a drop of non-drying oil over it to exclude

w
Conclusion air (oxygen).
4. Fit the cork with a bent glaes tube.

t
1. Lime water turns milky when carbon dioxide mixes
5. Dip the free end of the delivery tube into a smaller test

ii
with it.
tube containing freshly prepared lime water.
2. Air blown out from mouth contains carbon dioxide.
6. Observe the change carefully.

Check Yourself Observation

@
Mixture appears frothy because bubbles of gas that have
1. Define anaerobic respiration. passed into lime water turns it milky after sometime. Also
Ans It is defined as the process of breakdown of glucose in the on removing the cork of large test tube, smell of alcohol
absence of oxygen to release small amount of energy. Occurs evolve out.
in microorganisms like bacteria and yeast.
2. Name the gas that is exhaled out during respiration.
Oil layer
Ans Carbon dioxide is the gas that is exhaled out during the Yeast in glucose
process of respiration. solution
Lime water
3. ATP is known as the energy currency of the cell. Why?
Alcoholic fermentation produces carbon dioxide
Ans ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is known as the energy
currency of the cell because energy is stored in the cell in the

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162

Conclusion
Yeast brings about alcoholic fermentation, that
ACTIVITY 3 (NCERT Pg 103)

is accompanied by the evolution of carbon

Aim
dioxide.
To show that the rate of breathing is higher in aquatic organisms

m
than in terrestrial organisms.
Check Yourself
Rakers

a
1. Write the equation of the reaction, taking Gill arch
place in the given activity.

r
Absence of oxygen Gill filaments
Ans C6H12O6 → 2C2H5 OH + 2CO2
in yeast (Ethanol)

g
(Glucose) (Carbon
dioxide)

2. A drop of oil was poured during the activity

e
over the mixture of glucose in test tube. Why? Gill respiration in fish

l
Ans To exclude the air (oxygen), oil drop was poured
over the mixture in a large test tube. Materials Required

e
3. What was observed after two hours of the A fish in an aquarium.
experiment?
Procedure

t
Ans After two hours, water level was raised in the
bent tube placed in the beaker. Count the number of times the fish opens and closes its mouth in a
minute and compare this number with your breathing rate.
4. Another experimental set-up is given below to

n
demonstrate that carbon dioxide is given out Observation
during respiration in germinating seeds. Can The rate of breathing in fish is much higher and faster than human

o
you deduce out the logic of using KOH in this beings.
experiment? CCE 2015
Conclusion

e
Glass tube Rate of breathing is higher in aquatic animals.
Cork

l
Thread
Test tube
Check Yourself
Beaker
KOH solution
1. Name two organisms, which breathe through their skin.

a
Water
Germinating
seeds Ans Frog and earthworm are the two animals which breathe through their skin.
This type of respiration is called as cutaneous respiration.

w
Ans KOH was used in this experiment because it 2. What is the role of gills in fishes? How do they function?
absorbs carbon dioxide produced by the seeds Ans Gills are the respiratory organ in fishes. They function to take in oxygen

t
and creates partial vacuum in the flask. from water and in removal of carbon dioxide.

ii
5. Which type of respiration is occurring in the 3. Name an aquatic animal, which respire through lungs.
experimental set-up studied? Ans Whale is an aquatic animal, which respire through lungs. It comes on the
Ans Anaerobic respiration as the supply of oxygen surface of water to take in oxygen from air and to give out carbon dioxide.
was cut-off.

@
4. Name an organism which respires through both skin and lungs.
Ans Frog respires through both skin and lungs.

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184
ACTIVITY ZONE
ACTIVITY 1 (NCERT Pg 105)
Plastic bag
Plastic bag

Aim

m
To know the normal range of haemoglobin content in
human beings.

a
Procedure (a) (b)
Visit a health centre in your locality and find out what is Pot (a) Contains a living plant

r
(b) Contains a stick
the normal range of haemoglobin content in human
beings. Analyse whether its same for children and adults;

g
and the difference, if any in men and women. Observation
After half an hour you will observe that the soil in pot with
Observation the plant will loose its moisture and the plastic bag covering

e
The range of haemoglobin is lower in female than male and the plant will gain moisture.
lowest among children.

l
On the other hand, soil of the pot without plant will have lot
of moisture while there will be no moisture in the plastic
Conclusion
bag.

e
Range of haemoglobin is 14-18 gm /dL in males and 12-16
gm/dL in females. Conclusion

t
This activity proves and shows that living plants absorb
water from the soil and water gets transported to the leaves.
Check Yourself Some of the water is lost from leaves by transpiration

n
1. What is ‘haemoglobin’? through stomata.
Ans Haemoglobin is a respiratory pigment present in RBCs of the

o
blood. ‘Haem’ means iron and ‘globin’ means proteins. Check Yourself
2. What is the function of haemoglobin?
1. Why transpiration is considered as a necessary evil for

e
Ans Haemoglobin functions to carry oxygen and carbon dioxide plants?
from one part of the body to another through blood.
Or

l
3. How haemoglobin level is expressed in human being?
Why is transpiration important for plants?
Ans Haemoglobin level is expressed as the amount of Hb in gm NCERT Exemplar
per decilitre (dL) of whole blood.

a
Ans Transpiration is considered as a necessary evil, because it
4. Which disease is caused due to lack of haemoglobin? helps in:
Ans Anaemia is caused due to lack of haemoglobin in the body. (i) ascent of sap

w
(ii) loss of excess water

ACTIVITY 2

t
(NCERT Pg 109) (iii) cooling effect and regulation of temperature

i
(iv) absorption and distribution of salts
Aim

i
2. Name the process by which roots absorb water
To show that a plant absorbs water from soil through from soil.
roots and loss of water takes place by the leaves through Ans The roots absorb water from soil through osmosis.

@
transpiration.
3. What do you understand by the transpiration pull?
Procedure Ans When water vapour evaporates from leaf it creates a kind of
Take two small pots of approximately same size having suction in upward direction. It is called as transpiration pull.
same amount of soil. In one pot, place a plant shoot bearing 4. Why transpiration pull is necessary?
leaves and in another pot, place a stick of the same height
Ans Transpiration pull is necessary because it helps in the
(as the plant in the other pot). absorption and upward movement of water and minerals from
Now, cover the soil in both pots with a plastic sheet so that roots to the leaves. It protects the plants from being damaged
moisture cannot escape by evaporation. Also, cover both by bright sunlight.
sets with plastic bags and place them in bright sunlight for
about half an hour.

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226

ACTIVITY ZONE

m
ACTIVITY 1 (NCERT Pg 115)

a
Aim
To study smell as the reason of taste.

r
Materials required
Some sugar or jaggery

g
Procedure

e
Ä Put some sugar in your mouth.
Ä Feel the taste of the sugar.

l
Ä After sometime, block your nose between thumb and index finger.
Ä Breath through mouth and put some amount of sugar in your mouth.

e
Ä Repeat the above steps with your lunch.

t
Observation
In the case of sugar, even after blocking the nose, there is no difference in its taste.
As sugar has no smell, that could contribute to its taste. In the case of lunch, blocking the nose makes a difference in the taste of

n
various food items. This is because the lunch has taste as well as smell. So, for full appreciation of its taste, gustatory receptors on
tongue and olfactory recptors in the nose are required.

Check Yourself
o
e
1. Why does the food seem tasteless when you have bad cold?

l
Ans The taste is basically a smell or flavour. When we have cold the olfactory receptors present in nose are blocked. So food seems tasteless.
2. Why mouth cavity does not give smell of food?

a
Ans Olfactory receptor present in nose helps in smell detection whereas mouth does not have smell receptor.
3. Why do you avoid any food which is not smelling well?
Ans Because it gives distasteful feelings.

t w ACTIVITY 2 (NCERT Pg 121)

i
Aim

i
To study the response of plant to light.

@
Materials Required
Conical flask, small piece of wire mesh, water, two or three freshly germinated bean seeds and cardboard box open from one
side.
Procedure
1. Fill a conical flask with water.
2. Cover the neck of the flask with a wire mesh.
3. Place 2-3 freshly germinated bean seeds on the wire mesh.
4. Keep this flask in the cardboard box in such a manner that the open side of the box receives light coming from the window.
5. Observe the plant after 2-3 days.

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Control and Coordination 227

6. Turn the flask so that the shoots are away from the light and roots are towards the light.
7. Keep the apparatus undisturbed in this condition for few days.

Open
window

m
Cardboard

a
Wire mesh Plant shoots
Conical flask

r
Plant root

Response of the plant to the direction of light

Observation

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1. In the first observation, after 2-3 days of experiment it is found that the shoots bend towards light and roots away from light.

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2. In the second observation, when the flask was turned, it was seen after few days that the shoots and roots have grown again by
bending towards and away from light respectively.

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Conclusion
This shows that the shoots of plant respond by showing growth movement towards the light, i.e. positive phototropism and

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roots of plant respond by showing growth movement away from the light, i.e. negative phototropism.

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Check Yourself
1. Which type of movement is shown by the plant in given activity?

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Ans In the given activity, plant shows the tropic movement, i.e. phototropism.
2. The information below shows the function of the responses of plants such as

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(i) to gain mineral salts from the soil
(ii) to get support

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Name the response related with the above mentioned.
Ans (i) Positive geotropism

a
(ii) Nastic movement- movement of curvature.
3. Based on the diagram given below, which part of the plant can be represented by P?

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Negative Positive
phototropism P hydrotropism

ii t
Ans The part of the plant represented by P is roots.
4. The table shows a tropism and the stimulus involved
Types of tropism Stimulus

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Geotropism X
Phototropism Y
Hydrotropism Z

Write the stimuli X, Y and Z.

Ans X—Gravity. Y—Light. Z—Water.

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Class 10th Term II

ACTIVITY ZONE
ACTIVITY 1

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(NCERT Pg 143)
P-generation

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Objective
To study the basic concept of inherited traits. TT tt
Dwarf (Homozygous)
Tall (Homozygous)

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Time 5 minutes
Gametes T t

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Tt
100% tall hybrid

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(Heterozygous)
F1-generation

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(a) (b) On selfing
Tt Tt
Procedure

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X
1. Observe the ears of all the students in your class.
Gametes T t T t
2. Count the number of students having free or attached

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earlobes. TT Tt Tt tt
3. The lists of students having free or attached earlobes are
64 and 36, respectively out of 100 students.

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F2-generation
4. Understand the basic concept between the variation
among the humans having free or attached earlobes. Homozygous Heterozygous Homozygous

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tall tall dwarf

75% 25%
Check Yourself

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1. What will be the ratio of free and attached earlobes if 64 Observation
and 36 are the students out of 100? F1 -progeny has all tall plants and F2 has three tall plants and

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Ans 16 : 9 one dwarf plant.
2. What is inheritance? Conclusion

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Ans The process by which genetic traits are passed from one (i) F1 has a 100% dominant ratio. All the plants are 100% tall
generation to the next is called inheritance.
but heterozygous.
3. What is an inherited trait?

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(ii) F2 has dominant recessive ratio of1 : 2 :1 and phenotypic
Ans It is a particular genetically determined characteristic that is ratio of 3 :1.
transmitted from parent to offspring.

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4. Who all contribute to the inherited traits of a child?

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Ans Both mother and father. Check Yourself

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5. The variation in the morphology of the earlobes is an......... . 1. Which kind of cross do you think is shown in the figure?
Ans Inherited trait. Ans Monohybrid cross.

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2. Which character did Mendel take in his monohybrid cross?
ACTIVITY 2 (NCERT Pg 144)
Ans Stem height.
3. Identify the dominant and recessive traits from the figure.
Ans Tall–dominant; Dwarf–recessive.
Objective
4. What is the genotypic and phenotypic ratio so, obtained in
To show that F 2 -generation has a 1:2:1 ratio of the F2-generation of tall and dwarf plant, respectively?
T T : Tt and tt traits. Ans Genotypic ratio 1 : 2 : 1, Phenotypic ratio 3 : 1
Procedure 5. What would you call the offspring produced in
Perform a monohybrid cross between pure homozygous F1-generation?
tall and dwarf plants. Ans Hybrid or Heterozygous.

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Light : Reflection and Refraction 247

ACTIVITY ZONE

Objective
ACTIVITY 1 (NCERT Pg 161) Conclusion

a m
1. If the image formed by the mirror is diminished for all
positions of the object, then the mirror is convex.

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To know how would be the images, when the reflecting 2. If the image formed behind the mirror is larger than the
surfaces are curved. object, then the mirror is concave.

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Materials Required
Large shining spoon and an object (i.e. our face)
Check Yourself

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Procedure 1. What will be the type of mirror, when image formed is

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diminished for all positions?
Case 1st
Ans The type of mirror is convex, if image formed is diminished
1. Take a large shining spoon. Try to view your face in its

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for all positions.
curved surface.
2. Inner curved surface of large shining spoon acts as what
2. Do you get the image? Is it smaller or larger?

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type of mirror?
3. Move the spoon slowly away from your face. Observe Ans It acts as concave mirror.
the image. How does it change?
3. In first case, if we move our face slowly away, the face

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Case 2nd becomes, what?
1. Reverse the spoon and repeat the activity. How does the Ans The face becomes inverted when we slowly move away our

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face.
image look like now?
2. Compare the characteristics of the image on the two 4. Give the nature of image in 2nd case.
surfaces. Ans Image is virtual, erect and diminished.

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5. When our face is too far, image will be formed at?
Observations Ans Image will be formed at focus when our face is too far.

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Observation 1st
l The inner curved surface of a large shining spoon acts as
a concave mirror. The object is our face. When the
ACTIVITY 2

a
spoon is at a small distance from the object, it lies (NCERT Pg 162)
between pole and focus of concave mirror. We observe
enlarged and erect image of our face. Objective

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l When we move the spoon slowly away from our face we To understand the convergence of light.
observe that the image, i.e. our face becomes inverted.

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Materials Required

ii
Observation 2nd Concave mirror and sheet of paper.
l When we reverse the spoon, its curved surface/position Caution
is bulged out. It behaves as a convex mirror. Do not look at the Sun directly or even into a mirror,

@
l The image of our face is virtual, erect and diminished. As reflecting sunlight. It may damage your eyes.
we move the spoon away from our face, the image
moves away till it is at the focus of the mirror. Thus, the Procedure
image continues to be virtual, erect and diminished. 1. Hold a concave mirror in your hand and direct its
reflecting surface towards the Sun.
Outer 2. Direct the light reflected by the mirror on to a sheet of
Inner curved curved
surface
paper held close to the mirror.
surface
Object Face
3. Move the sheet of paper back and forth gradually until
(our face) you find a bright, sharp spot of light on the paper sheet.
4. Hold the mirror and the paper in the same position for a
few minutes. Then, observe.
Enlarged image Diminished image

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248

Observations 1. Take a concave mirror. Find out its approximate focal

l The Sun is the main source of light which is at infinite length in the way described above. Note down the value
distance from the concave mirror. On reflection from of focal length. (You can also find it by obtaining image
the concave mirror, the sunlight collects at focus of the of a distant object on a sheet of paper).
mirror. By moving the sheet of paper back and forth 2. Mark a line on a table with a chalk. Place the concave
gradually, we get a bright sharp spot of light on the mirror on a stand. Place the stand over the line such that

m
paper. This spot is the real, point sized image of the Sun its pole lies over the line.
at the focus of the concave mirror. 3. With a chalk, draw two more lines perpendicular to the

a
l When we hold the mirror and the paper in the same previous line such that the distance between any two
position for a few minutes, the paper starts burning, successive lines is equal to the focal length of the mirror.
because the Sun rays are concentrated on the bright These lines will now correspond to the positions of the

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sharp spot of light on paper. points P, F and C, respectively. Remember for a
Paper
spherical mirror of small aperture, the principal focus F

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lies mid-way between the pole P and the centre of
Rays of Sun
curvature C.

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Concave 4. Keep a bright object, say a burning candle, at a position
F mirror far beyond C. Place a paper screen and move it in front

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C of the mirror till you obtain a sharp bright image of the
candle flame on it.
5. Observe the image carefully. Note down its nature,

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position and relative size with respect to the object size.
6. Repeat the activity by placing the candle (i) just beyond

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Check Yourself C, (ii) at C, (iii) between F and C, (iv) at F and (v) between
P and F.
7. In one of the cases, you may not get the image on the

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1. On reflection from the concave mirror, the sunlight
collects at what position of the mirror? screen. Identify the position of the object in such a case.
Ans Sunlight collects at the focus of the mirror. Then, look for its virtual image in the mirror itself.

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8. Note down and tabulate your observations.
2. A point image is formed at?
Ans A point image is formed at the focus. Observation

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3. The sharp bright spot represents the image of what? l When we keep a bright object such as a burning candle
Ans The sharp, bright spot represents the image of the Sun. at a position beyond C and move back and forth a paper

l
screen in front of the mirror, we get a sharp bright image
4. Light rays are which type of wave? of the candle flame on the screen between F and C. This
Ans Light rays are an electromagnetic wave. image is inverted and real. When the candle is at C, we

a
5. Is there any medium required for the light ray to travel? get image at C. The image is real, inverted and of same
Ans Light rays do not require any medium to travel. size as that of object. When the candle is between C and
F, we get image beyond C. The image is inverted and

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bigger in size.
ACTIVITY 3 When the candle is between P and F, we get the image

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l
(NCERT Pg 163)
by looking into mirror. The image is enlarged and erect.

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Objective

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Conclusion
To study the formation of image by concave mirror. When the activity is repeated by placing the candle at different
positions, we conclude the following:

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Materials Required
1. Beyond C, the image is real, inverted, slightly smaller in
A concave mirror, a stand, a chalk, a burning candle and a
card board size and is situated near C as shown in Fig. (ii).
2. At C, the image is real, inverted and of same size as the
Procedure object. The image is situated at C itself as shown in
You have already learnt a way of determining the focal Fig. (iii).
length of a concave mirror. In activity 2, you have seen that 3. Between F and C, the image is real, inverted, bigger in
the sharp bright spot of light you got on the paper is, in fact, size as compared to the object and is situated beyond C
the image of the Sun. It was a tiny, real, inverted image. You as shown in Fig. (iv).
got the approximate focal length of the concave mirror by 4. At F, the image is real, inverted, much bigger in size than
measuring the distance of the image from the mirror. the object and is situated much beyond C as shown in
Fig. (v) .

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Light : Reflection and Refraction 249

5. Between P and F , the image is virtual and erect. The image is seen at the back of the mirror as shown in Fig. (vi).
M
A M A M A D
D
D B
P B P
C C BN C F
F B F P
At

m
A E
infinity B N D AN
N N
(i) (ii) (iii)
AN

a
M M M E
E
A
A A D D

r
BN C D C B C
P P B r
F F P BN
B F
AN At

g
N
N infinity N (vi)
(iv) (v)

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The observations in tabular form are

Observation Table

l
Position of object Position of image Size of image Nature of image

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(i) At infinity At F Highly diminished, point sized Real and inverted
(ii) Beyond C Between F and C Diminished Real and inverted

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(iii) At C At C Same size Real and inverted
(iv) Between C and F Beyond C Enlarged Real and inverted

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(v) At F At infinity Highly enlarged Real and inverted
(vi) Between P and F Behind mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect

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Check Yourself

l e
1. Give the nature of image of burning candle, when candle is Objective
ACTIVITY 4 (NCERT Pg 166)

a
at infinity. To study the formation of image by drawing ray diagrams.
Ans Nature of image is real and diminished.
Materials Required

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2. When object is at focus where will be the image formed?
Pen, scale and paper.
Ans Image will be formed at infinity.

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3. When the object is very far what is the measured distance Procedure

i
between the image and concave mirror called? 1. Draw neat ray diagrams for each position of the object

i
Ans Focal length of the mirror. shown in table below.
4. Minimum distance between object and image for real image 2. You may take any two of the rays mentioned in the
will be. previous section for locating the image.

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Ans Minimum distance between object and image for real image is 3. Compare your diagram.
zero.
4. Describe the nature, position and relative size of the
5. How many rays are required to form an image? image formed in each case.
Ans Two rays are required for the formation of image. 5. Tabulate the results in a convenient format.

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250

Observation
The rays for each position of the object is shown below
M
A D A M
r
BN

m
P B
C F C F P
Object at infinity
(distant tree) AN
B

a
N D N
(i) (ii)
M E
M

r
A D A
BN C B
P
B P F

g
C F
BN
AN N

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N (iv)
(iii) AN

AN

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M E
M E
A D A

e
BN
P i P
C B F C F B r BN

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Image N
at N
infinity
(v) (vi)

(i)
Position of Object

At infinity
Position of Image

At F
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Observation Table

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Size of Image

Highly diminished, point sized

Nature of Image

Real and inverted

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(ii) Beyond C Between F and C Diminished Real and inverted

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(iii) At C At C Same size Real and inverted

(iv) Between C and F Beyond C Enlarged Real and inverted

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(v) At F At infinity Highly enlarged Real and inverted

(vi) Between P and F Behind mirror Enlarged Virtual and erect

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i
Check Yourself

@ i1. Under which condition a concave mirror can form an image larger than the actual size?
Ans When object is placed between F and P, it will form larger image.
2. What is the position of an object, when the real image formed by a concave mirror is larger than the object?
Ans Real image by concave mirror will be larger, when object is in between F and C.
3. If position of object is at infinity, then position of image will be
Ans Position of image will be at focus.
4. What is the nature of image when object is at centre of curvature?
Ans Nature of image will be real, inverted, same in size and at centre of curvature.
5. Where does a ray passing from centre of curvature to the mirror goes?
Ans The ray retraces its path when it passes through centre of curvature.

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Light : Reflection and Refraction 251

ACTIVITY 5 (NCERT Pg 167) ACTIVITY 6 (NCERT Pg 167)

Objective Objective
To study the formation of image by a convex mirror. To find out which mirror will give the full image of a large

m
object, i.e. concave, convex or plane mirror.
Materials Required
A convex mirror and pencil. Materials Required

a
A concave mirror, a convex mirror, a plane mirror and
Procedure
a distant object.
1. Take a convex mirror. Hold it in one hand.

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2. Hold a pencil in the upright position in the other hand. Procedure
3. Observe the image of the pencil in the mirror. Is the 1. Observe the image of a distant object, say a distant tree,

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image erect or inverted? Is it diminished or enlarged? in a plane mirror.
4. Move the pencil away from the mirror, slowly. Does the 2. Could you see a full length image?

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image become smaller or larger? 3. Try with plane mirrors of different sizes. Did you see the
5. Repeat this activity carefully. State whether the image entire object in the image?

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will move closer to or farther away from the focus as the 4. Repeat this activity with a concave mirror. Did the
object is moved away from the mirror. mirror show full length image of the object?

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5. Now try using a convex mirror. Did you succeed?
Observation Explain your observations with reason.

t
l When we hold a pencil in the upright position in front of
a convex mirror, we view that the image of the pencil in Observation
the mirror is at the back of the mirror. The image is erect, l When we observe the image of a distant object, i.e. tree
virtual and smaller in size than the object. in a plane mirror, the full length of image is not seen. If

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l When the pencil is moved away from the mirror, the we try with plane mirrors of different sizes. We find that
image becomes smaller and smaller. the entire object in the image is seen when size of plane

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mirror is at least half the size of the object.
l While repeating the
activity, we find that as an l If we repeat this activity with a concave mirror, we
object is moved away from observe full length image of an object for certain

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the mirror, the image locations.
would move closer to focus l When we use a convex mirror, the full length of an

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of the mirror. object is seen wherever the object may be located.
The main reasons behind this activity are

a
Check Yourself (i ) In a plane mirror, size of image is always equal to the size
of an object.
1. If the image formed is always virtual, what type of the

w
mirror it can be? Plane mirror
Ans In convex or plane mirror, image formed is always virtual.

i t
2. If an object moved away, then in which type of mirror, the

i
image would move closer to the focus?
Ans If an object is moved away from convex mirror, the image
Concave mirror
would move closer to focus of the convex mirror.

@
3. What is the nature of the image of the pencil, formed?
Ans The image of pencil formed is virtual, erect and highly
diminished.
Convex mirror
4. Spherical mirror is a part of, what?
Ans Spherical mirror is a part of sphere whose one face is
polished.
(ii ) In a concave mirror, the image is smaller or equal in size
5. Where does a ray of light go, coming from focus to the to the size of an object only for certain locations of the
mirror? object.
Ans If a ray of light comes from focus to mirror, it goes parallel to (iii ) In a convex mirror, the image is always virtual, erect and
principal axis. shorter than an object, wherever an object may be
located.

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252

Check Yourself Activity 7B

1. In which type of mirror we view the complete image? Procedure
Ans In convex mirror, we view complete image. 1. Place a large shallow bowl of water on a table and put a coin
in it.
2. Which type of image is viewed in plane mirror?
2. Move away slowly from the bowl. Stop when the coin just

m
Ans In plane mirror, virtual image is formed.
disappears from your sight.
3. A full length image of a distant tall building can 3. Ask a friend to pour water gently into the bowl without
definitely be seen by using what type of mirror?

a
disturbing the coin.
Ans In convex mirror, a full length image of a distant building
is formed. 4. Keep looking for the coin from your position. Does the coin

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become visible again from your position? How could this
4. What is the size of image formed in plane mirror? happen?
Ans Image formed in plane mirror is of same size.

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Observation
5. What is the focal length of plane mirror?
Ans Focal length of plane mirror is infinity ( ∞).
Ä Consider a large shallow bowl filled with water, the coin is

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at the bottom A. Due to refraction of light, the image B of
the coin appears to be raised. When we move our eye

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slowly away from the bowl, the coin disappears from our
ACTIVITY 7 (NCERT Pg 172) sight. This happens when rays starting from coin A fail to
enter our eye, after refraction at the water surface.

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Objective Ä If a friend pours more water gently into the bowl without
disturbing the coin, the coin becomes visible again from the

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To understand the phenomenon of refraction of light. same position of our eye.
Materials Required Ä It happens because on adding water, real depth of the coin
A coin and a bucket of water. increases. The apparent depth of the coin is equal to real

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depth divided by refractive index of water. Therefore,
Activity 7A apparent depth of the coin also increases. The apparent

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position of the coin rises slightly above B and it becomes
Procedure visible from the same position of our eye.
1. Place a coin at the bottom of a bucket filled with
water.

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2. With your eye to a side above water, try to pick up

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the coin in one go. Did you succeed in picking up the
coin? B
A
3. Repeat the activity. Why did you not succeed in where, A = real position of coin

a
doing it in one go? B = apparent position of coin
4. Ask your friends to do this. Compare your
experience with their.

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Check Yourself
Observation

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Ä Consider a coin A at the bottom of a 1. Why we cannot pick up the coin in one go?

ii
bucket filled with water. When we Ans Since the coin appears little above its real position, therefore we
view this coin with our eye to a side cannot pick up the coin in one go.
above water, we observe the image 2. In going from medium water to air, rays of light bend ...........the
at a position B of the coin which is normal.

@
above A. Ans Rays of light bend away from the normal.
Ä When we try to pick up this coin in B 3. The basic cause of refraction is
one go, we do not succeed because A
Ans Basic cause of refraction is that, “the velocity of light is different
we move our hand at B, where the in different media.”
coin is being observed, but actually the coin lies at
position A, the bottom of the bucket. When our 4. What do you mean by refraction?
friends try the same way, they also fail to pick up the Ans The process of bending of a ray of light on going from one
medium to another is known as refraction.
coin. However, if someone knows that coin is at the
bottom of the bucket, then he/she can pick up 5. Give the path of light when it goes from air to water.
the coin. Ans Light will move towards the normal.

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Light : Reflection and Refraction 253

Ä The angle of emergence r2 is equal to the angle of

ACTIVITY 8 (NCERT Pg 173) incidence i 1 , because angles of bending of the ray of
light atO andO ′ at opposite parallel faces AB andCD of
the rectangular glass slab are equal and opposite.
Objective
Ä The light ray O ′ L is shifted sideways slightly, which is
To understand the phenomenon of refraction of light

m
known as lateral displacement.
through a glass slab.
Materials Required

a
A sheet of paper, drawing board, pins and glass slab. Check Yourself

r
Procedure 1. How many refractions occur on passing through a glass
1. Fix a sheet of white paper on a drawing board using slab?
drawing pins.

g
Ans There are two refractions that are taking place.
2. Place a rectangular glass slab over the sheet in the middle. 2. In the 2nd refraction O′ on the glass-air interface CD, what
3. Draw the outline of the slab with a pencil. Let us name the is angle of emergence r2?

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outline as ABCD. Ans Angle of emergence r2 is always greater than i 2 and equal

l
4. Take four identical pins. to i1.
5. Fix two pins, say E and F, vertically such that the line 3. Do the points E and F lie on the same straight line as the
joining the pins is inclined to the edge AB.

e
points G and H?
6. Look for the images of the pins E and F through the Ans No, the points E and F do not lie on the same straight line as
the points G and H.

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opposite edge. Fix two other pins, say G and H, such that
these pins and the images of E and F all lie on a 4. Velocity of light is maximum in which medium?
straight line. Ans Velocity of light is maximum in air.

n
7. Remove the pins and the slab. 5. Give the path of light when it goes from air to glass.
8. Join the positions of tip of the pins E and F and produce Ans Light will bend towards the normal.
the line upto AB. Let EF meet AB at O. Similarly, join the

o
positions of the pins G and H and produce it up to the
edge CD. Let HG meet CD at O ′.
ACTIVITY 9 (NCERT Pg 177)

e
E
N
F i1
Air

l
A B Objective
O Glass
Glass
r1 To understand, what happens when parallel rays of light
slab
N' are incident on a lens.

a
i2
M' L Materials Required
D C
O' G A convex lens and a sheet of paper.

w
Air
M' r2 H
P Caution
9. Join O and O ′. Also, produce EF up to P, as shown by a

t
Do not look at the Sun directly or through a lens while
dotted line in figure.

ii
doing this activity or otherwise you may damage your
Observation eyes, if you do so.
At point O, draw NN ′ perpendicular to AB. At pointO ′, draw Procedure
MM ′ perpendicular to CD. Also, draw O ′L perpendicular to

@
1. Hold a convex lens in your hand. Direct it towards
OP. the Sun.
The following observations are made by us 2. Focus the light from the Sun on a sheet of paper. Obtain
Ä At point O, the ray of light enters from air to glass and a sharp bright image of the Sun.
bend towards the normal NN ′ which is known as first 3. Hold the paper and the lens in the same position for a
refraction. while. Keep observing the paper. What happens? Why?
Ä At point O ′, the ray of light enters from glass to air and Recall your experience in activity 2 with the concave
bend away from the normal MM ′ which is known as mirror.
second refraction.

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254

Observation 4. The two lines on either side of the lens correspond to F

Ä When we direct a convex lens in our hand towards the and 2F of the lens, respectively. Mark them with
Sun, the light from the Sun is focussed on a sheet of appropriate letters such as 2F1 , F1 , F 2 and 2F 2 ,
paper. By moving the sheet of paper back and forth, we respectively.
obtain a sharp, bright image of the Sun on the paper. 5. Place a burning candle, far beyond 2F1 to the left.
When the paper and the lens are held in the same Obtain a clear sharp image on a screen on the opposite

m
Ä

position for some time, the paper may burn out, because side of the lens.
of heat produced by the Sun rays as they concentrate on 6. Note down the nature, position and relative size of the

a
the spot where image of Sun is being formed. This is the image.
same as we observed in activity 2 of topic 1. 7. Repeat this activity by placing object just behind 2 F1 , at
2 F1 , between F1 and 2F1 , at F1 , between F1 and O.

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8. Note down and tabulate your observations.
Sun

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Observation
Lens Paper Ä From activity 1, measure the distance between the

e
convex lens and sheet of paper on which a sharp,
bright image of the Sun is formed. Thus, this

l
Check Yourself distance is approximate focal length of the convex
lens.

e
1. If we place a convex lens towards the Sun, then where the Ä Now, place a burning candle which acts as an object on
light from the sun is focussed? the left side of the lens. Its image can be obtained on a

t
Ans Light of the Sun is focussed at focus of lens. screen on the right side of the lens.
2. What happens when the paper and the lens are kept in the Ä When the burning candle is beyond 2F1, we move the
same position for a long time? screen back and forth to obtain a sharp image of the

n
Ans The paper will start burning. candle flame on the screen. It is observed that the
image is real, inverted, highly diminished, point-sized
3. What does the spot on the paper represents during this
and the screen is located near F 2.

o
experiment?
Ans Spot on the paper represents image of the Sun. Ä Now, we proceed in this way and note the nature,
position and relative size of the image for different
4. Sun can be considered as an object present at what positions of object.

e
position?
Ans It is considered to be at infinity.

l
5. Image of the Sun will be formed at what position?
Ans Image of the Sun will be formed at focus.

ACTIVITY 10
a 2F1 F1 O F2 2F2

w
(NCERT Pg 178)
Observation Table

t
Objective Position of Position of Relative size Nature of
object image of image image

i
To understand how convex lens forms images and what is

i
At infinity At focus F2 Highly Real and
its nature. diminished inverted
Materials Required point sized

@
A convex lens, chalk, table, burning candle and lens stand. Beyond 2 F1 Between F2 Diminished Real and
and 2 F2 inverted
Procedure At 2F1 At 2F2 Same size Real and
1. Take a convex lens. Find its approximate focal length in a inverted
way described in activity 1. Between F1 and Beyond 2 F2 Enlarged Real and
2. Draw five parallel straight lines, using chalk, on a long 2 F1 inverted
table such that the distance between the successive At focus F1 At infinity Infinitely large Real and
lines is equal to the focal length of the lens. or highly inverted
3. Place the lens on a lens stand. Place it on the central line enlarged
such that the optical centre of the lens lies just over the Between focus On the same Enlarged Virtual and
line. F1 and optical side of the lens erect
centre O as the object

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Light : Reflection and Refraction 255

Check Yourself Observation

Ä A burning candle placed on one side of a concave lens
1. How can we define the focal length? acts as an object. When we see through the lens from the
Ans Focal length is the distance between the convex lens and the other side, we observe an erect, virtual and smaller image
image formed, when the object is at infinity. formed on the same side of the lens as the candle. It is not

m
2. What is the nature of image when object is present possible to get the image on the screen as the image is not
between F1 and 2F1? real. The position of the image is between focus F and
Ans Nature of image is real, inverted and enlarged. optical centre O of the lens.

a
3. What is the position of the object, if the nature of the Ä As the candle is moved away from the lens, the size of the
image is virtual and erect? image goes on decreasing. When the candle is too far

r
Ans The position of object will be between F1 and O (optical away from the lens, the image becomes highly
centre). diminished or point sized at the focus F.

g
4. Same sized, real image is formed when object is at … .
Ans Same sized, real image is formed when object is at 2F1.

e
5. When object is at focus where will the image be formed?
Ans When object is at focus, image will be formed at ( ∞) infinity. F

l
Object Image O

e
ACTIVITY 11 (NCERT Pg 179)

t
Objective Check Yourself
To study the nature, position and relative size of the

n
1. Which lens forms a virtual image which is always smaller
image formed by a concave lens. than the object?

o
Ans Concave lens always forms smaller virtual image for any
Materials Required
position of object.
A concave lens, a burning candle, lens stand, screen
2. Give the position of image in the activity.
Procedure

e
Ans Position of image in activity is in between F and O.
1. Take a concave lens. Place it on a lens stand. 3. When the candle is too far away from the lens, then the

l
2. Place a burning candle on one side of the lens. nature of image will be
3. Look through the lens from the other side and observe Ans The nature of image will be diminished, virtual and erect.
the image. Try to get the image on a screen, if possible. 4. The position of image when object is at infinity or too far will

a
If not, observe the image directly through the lens. be
4. Note down the nature, relative size and approximate Ans Position of image is at focus of the lens.
position of the image.

w
5. Which type of ray becomes parallel to principal axis after
5. Move the candle away from the lens. Note the change refraction through a concave lens?
in the size of the image. What happens to the size of the

t
Ans A ray directed towards first focus of lens becomes parallel to
image when the candle is placed too far away from principal axis after refraction from the lens.

i
the lens?

@ i

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Human Eye and The Colourful World 297

ACTIVITY ZONE
ACTIVITY 1

m
(NCERT Pg 192) where, PE = incident ray
EF = refracted ray
FS = emergent ray

a
Objective
∠A = angle of prism
To study the refraction of light through a triangular glass
∠i = angle of incidence

r
prism.
∠r = angle of refraction
Materials Required ∠e = angle of emergence

g
Sheet of white paper, drawing board, drawing pins and glass ∠D = angle of deviation.
prism.

e
Observation
Procedure Ä The given figure shows refraction of light through a

l
1. Fix a sheet of white paper on a drawing board using triangular glass prism. On surface AB, the first refraction
drawing pins. occurs at point E . The incident ray PE enters from air

e
into glass at E . It is then refracted along EF bending
2. Place a glass prism on it in such a way that it rests on its
towards normal NN ′ on face AB.
triangular base. Trace the outline of the prism using a

t
pencil. Ä On the surface AC , the second refraction occurs at point
F and the initial refracted ray EF travelling in glass
3. Draw a straight line PE inclined to one of the refracting
emerges in air at F . It emerges along FS bending away

n
surfaces, say AB, of the prism.
from normal MM ′ on face AC .
4. Fix two pins, say at points P and Q , on the line PE as Ä The angle of refraction (r) is smaller than the angle of

o
shown in figure. incidence (i ) at the first refracting surface AB. Similarly,
5. Look for the images of the pins, fixed at P and Q , the angle of emergence (e ) is larger than the angle of
refraction ( ∠EFM ′ ) at the second refracting surface AC .
through the other face AC .

e
It is similar to the kind of bending that occurs in a glass
6. Fix two more pins, at points R and S, such that the pins at slab. Net deviation in a rectangular glass slab is zero,

l
R and S and the images of the pins at P andQ lie on the except for lateral shift.
same straight line.
Ä However, due to a peculiar shape of the prism, net
7. Remove the pins and the glass prism.

a
deviation in passing through a prism is never zero. The
8. The line PE meets the boundary of the prism at point E deviation suffered by the ray is equal to ∠HGS which is
(see figure). Similarly, join and produce the points R and called the angle of deviation. Its value depends on an

w
S . Let these lines meet the boundary of the prism at E angle of incidence, angle of prism and nature of material
and F , respectively. Join E and F . of prism.

t
9. Draw perpendiculars to the refracting surfaces AB and
Conclusion

i
AC of the prism at points E and F , respectively.

i
10. Mark the angle of incidence ( ∠i ), the angle of refraction The peculiar shape of the prism makes the emergent ray
bend at an angle to the direction of the incident ray.
( ∠r ) and the angle of emergence ( ∠e ) as shown in figure.

@
A
H Check Yourself
N G M
D 1. In the activity, ray FRS is of what type?
i e Ans In the activity, FRS is an emergent ray.
r
E F
M′
2. What is angle D called?
Q N′ R
Ans Angle D is called angle of deviation produced by the prism.
P S
B C 3. In the diagram, which angle is called angle of prism?
Ans In the diagram, ∠ A is called angle of prism.

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298 SCIENCE

4. What is the angle of deviation in case of triangular prism?

Ans Angle of deviation in case of triangular prism is given by Conclusion
∠D = ∠i + ∠e − ∠A. Different wavelengths of light have different speeds
5. How many times refraction takes place, when light ray passes in the same medium.
through a prism?
Ans Refraction takes place two times when the light ray passes through a
Check Yourself

m
prism.
1. Which colour of light bends least?

a
Ans Red colour of light bends least.
ACTIVITY 2 (NCERT Pg 193) 2. Which colour of light bends most?

r
Ans Violet colour of light bends most.
Objective 3. Why dispersion takes place?

g
To understand how white light of the Sun gives us various colours Ans It is because different colours have different
of the rainbow. wavelengths.

e
4. Which colour is in middle of spectrum?
Materials Required

l
Ans Green appears in the middle of spectrum.
Sheet of paper, cardboard and glass prism.
5. What does dispersion prove?

e
Procedure Ans Dispersion proves that white light is made up of
1. Take a thick sheet of cardboard and make a small hole or seven different colours.

t
narrow slit in its middle.
2. Allow sunlight to fall on the narrow slit. This gives a narrow
beam of white light. ACTIVITY 3 (NCERT Pg 196)

n
3. Now, take a glass prism and allow the light from the slit to fall on

o
one of its faces as shown in figure. Objective
4. Turn the prism slowly until the light that comes out of it appears To understand why the sky appears blue and the
on a nearby screen. Sun red.

e
5. What do you observe? You will find a beautiful band of colours.
Materials Required
Why does this happen?

l
Transparent glass tank, screen, water, sodium
Slit A thiosulphate, concentrated sulphuric acid, two
converging lenses and source of white light.

a Procedure
1. Place a strong source (S ) of white light at the

w
R focus of a converging lens ( L1 ). This lens
Sunlight provides a parallel beam of light.

t
White light
White light spectrum 2. Allow the light beam to pass through a

i
beam B C V
Glass prism transparent glass tank (T ) containing clear water.

i
3. Allow the beam of light to pass through a
Observation
circular hole (C ) made in a cardboard. Obtain a

@
Ä In the figure, the sunlight falls on a narrow slit in a thick sheet of sharp image of the circular hole on the screen
cardboard. From the slit, a narrow beam of white light is obtained ( MN ) using a second converging lens ( L2 ).
which falls on the surface AB of a glass prism ABC .
4. Dissolve about 200 g of sodium thiosulphate
Ä If we turn the prism slowly, we see a beautiful band of seven
(hypo) in about 2 L of clean water taken in the
colours on a screen called visible spectrum. The sequence of
tank. Add about
colours seen from the lower part of the screen is violet (V ), indigo
1 to 2 mL of concentrated sulphuric acid to the
( I ), blue ( B ), green (G ), yellow (Y ), orange (O ) and red (R ). The
water. What do you observe?
acronym is VIBGYOR.

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Human Eye and The Colourful World 299

L1
M Check Yourself
L2
1. On which factor does the scattering of colour depend?
C Ans Scattering depends on the size of scatterers and wavelength
S
of light.

m
2. In the experimental activities, the wavelength of
T transmitted light has ……...... wavelength?
N
Ans In the experiment, the transmitted light has longer

a
Observation wavelength.

Light gets scattered from sulphur particles and we observe 3. Which type of wavelength get scattered by fine

r
blue colour from the three sides of tank. From the fourth side particles?
of the tank facing the hole in a cardboard, we observe Ans Fine particles scatter mainly light of shorter wavelengths.

g
transmitted light. As blue colour has been scattered, we (e.g. Blue in visible spectrum).
observe first the orange red colour and then bright crimson 4. Give the dependence of scattering over wavelength.

e
red colour on the screen. Ans The dependence of scattering over wavelength is given by
1
Conclusion scattering ∝ 4 .

l
λ
Smaller particles or very fine particles, scatter shorter
5. In which colour of light, there is least scattering?
wavelengths of light and large particles scatter longer

e
wavelengths of light. Ans Red colour of light is least scattered.

t
o n
l e
a
t w
i i
@
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Electricity 261

ACTIVITY ZONE

m
ACTIVITY 1 (NCERT Pg 204)
Check Yourself
1. Name the physical quantity whose unit is volt/ampere.

a
Objective Ans Resistance is the physical quantity whose unit is
To verify Ohm’s law. volt/ampere.

r
2. Identify the resistor used in the activity.
Materials Required
Ans Nichrome wire is used as resistor in the activity.

g
Nichrome wire XY of length 0.5 m, ammeter, voltmeter and
four cells each of 1.5 V. 3. What kind of graph is obtained by plotting the values of
V and I?

e
Procedure Ans Graph obtained is a straight line.
1. First use only one cell as the

l
+V V V V–
source in the circuit. Note the
reading in the ammeter I for the
ACTIVITY 2

e
current and reading of voltmeter I (NCERT Pg 205)
X R Y + – K
V for the potential difference A

t
across the nichrome wire XY in V
the circuit. Tabulate them in the
+ – Objective
given table. To observe the flow of current for different components.

n
2. Next, connect two cells in the circuit and note the readings Materials Required
of the ammeter and voltmeter for the values of current and Nichrome wire, torch bulb, 10 W bulb, ammeter, plug

o
potential difference across the nichrome wire. key, connecting wire and four dry cells.
3. Repeat the above steps using three cells and then four cells
in the circuit separately. Procedure

e
4. Calculate the ratio ofV to I for each pair. 1. Set up the circuit by connecting four dry cells of 1.5 V
5. Plot a graph betweenV and I and observe the nature of the each in series with ammeter leaving a gap XY as

l
graph. shown in the circuit.
Potential + –
Number of Current through A
X Y

a
difference across
cells used in the nichrome V/I
nichrome wire,
the circuit wire, I (ampere) Nichrome wire 10 W Bulb
V (volt)
+ – K

w
1 0.1 0.4 4 –
+
1.5 V Torch bulb
2 0.2 0.8 4

t
3 0.3 1.2 4 2. Complete the circuit by connecting the nichrome wire

i
in the gap XY .

i
4 0.4 1.6 4
3. Plug the key. Note the ammeter reading. Take out the
Sample graph is given as below: key from the plug.

@
4. Replace the nichrome wire with the torch bulb in the
difference (V)

1.6
circuit and find the current through it by measuring
1.2 the reading of the ammeter.
Potential

0.8 5. Now, repeat the above steps with the 10 W bulb in the
0.4 gap XY .
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 Discussion/Conclusion
Current (A )
Ammeter reading is different for different components
Discussion/Conclusion because components may offer easy flow of electric
The graph V – I is a straight line. Thus, it verifies Ohm’s law. current or may offer resistance to the flow.

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262

Check Yourself Discussion/Conclusion

It is concluded that the resistance of a wire depends on the
1. The current is different for different components. Why? following factors:
Ans It is so because certain components offer an easy path for (i ) Length of the wire (l ) (ii ) Area of cross-section (A)
the flow of electric current, while others resist the flow.
(iii ) Nature of material of wire

m
2. Name a component used to regulate current without
changing the voltage source.
Ans Variable resistance (rheostat) is used to regulate current Check Yourself

a
without changing the voltage source.
3. Which instrument is used for measuring current? 1. Does the current depend on the length of the conductor?

r
Ans Ammeter is used for measuring current. Ans Yes, the current depends on the length of the conductor.
2. If current/ammeter reading decreases to half, what happens

g
to the length of the wire?
ACTIVITY 3 (NCERT Pg 206) Ans The length of the wire is doubled.

e
3. Is there any change in current when a wire of different
Objective materials of same length and area of cross-section is used?

l
To study the factors on which the resistance of conductor Ans Yes, there will be a change in current.
depends.
ACTIVITY 4

e
Materials Required (NCERT Pg 210)
Cell, ammeter, nichrome wire and plug key.

t
Objective
Procedure
To understand resistors in series combination.
1. Complete the electric circuit consisting of a cell, an

n
ammeter, a nichrome wire of length l at point 1, a plug Materials Required
key as shown in circuit diagram. Three resistors of different values, battery, ammeter, plug key,

o
(1) K voltmeter and connecting wire.
(2)
(3) Procedure
(4)
1. Join three resistors of different values in series. Connect

e
them with a battery, an ammeter and a plug key.

l
– + + – 2. Plug the key and record the ammeter reading.
A
Electric circuit of X R1 R2 R3 Y

a
conducting wires
A +V –
2. Now, plug the key and note the current in the +
ammeter.

w
+ – K
3. Replace the nichrome wire by another nichrome ( )
wire of same thickness but twice the length that is 2l at

t
point 2. 3. Change the position of ammeter to anywhere in between

i
the resistors and record the ammeter reading each time.
4. Note the ammeter reading.

i
5. Now, use thicker wire of nichrome but of same length Discussion/Conclusion
l marked at point 3. The value of current in the ammeter is same, if it is placed

@
6. A thicker wire has a larger cross-sectional area. Note anywhere in the circuit.
the ammeter reading.
7. Replace nichrome wire with copper wire of same Check Yourself
length and same area of cross-section at point 4. Note
the value of the current. 1. What is the resistance of an ideal ammeter?
8. Record the differences in current in all cases. Ans The resistance of an ideal ammeter is zero.
Observations 2. What is the resistance of an ideal voltmeter?
1. The current I flows in case 1. Ans The resistance of an ideal voltmeter is infinite.
2. The current I flows in case 2. 3. In series combination, which physical quantity current or
voltage remains constant?
3. The current I increases in case 3.
Ans Current is constant because in series combination current
4. The current I decreases in case 4. remains same throughout all the resistor.

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Electricity 263

On adding Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii), we get

ACTIVITY 5 (NCERT Pg 211) V 1 + V 2 + V 3 = IR1 + IR 2 + IR 3
⇒ V = I (R1 + R 2 + R 3 )
Objective  V
⇒ R = R1 + R 2 + R 3 QR = 
To study the relationship between current and potential  I

m
difference when resistors are connected in series.
Materials Required Check Yourself

a
Three resistors of different values, battery, ammeter, three
1. In a circuit, three resistors of 5 Ω ,10 Ω and15 Ω are
voltmeters, plug key and connecting wires.
connected in series, compare the current passing through

r
three resistors.
Procedure
Ans The current in series combination is same. So, the ratio of
1. Join three resistors of different values in series. Connect

g
current will be 1:1:1.
them with a battery, an ammeter, plug key and voltmeter
across the ends X and Y of the series combination of 2. In a circuit, two resistors of 20 Ω and 4 Ω are connected in

e
three resistors. series, find the total resistance.
Ans R = R1 + R2 = 20 + 4 = 24 Ω

l
+ – + – + –
V1 V2 V3
3. What do you conclude from this activity?
Ans We conclude that the resistance of the combination is equal

e
X R1 P Q R2 S T R3 Y
to the sum of their individual resistances.

t
I I

+ –
K
A
ACTIVITY 6 (NCERT Pg 213)

n
– +
Relationship between current Objective
and potential difference in

o
series combination To study the relationship between current I and resistance
R in a parallel circuit.
2. Plug the key in the circuit and note the voltmeter

e
Materials Required
reading. It gives the potential difference across the series Three resistors of different values, battery, ammeter,
combination of resistors. Let it beV .

l
voltmeter, connecting wire and plug key.
3. Now, measure the potential difference across
the two terminals of the battery. Compare the two Procedure

a
values. 1. Make a parallel combination XY of three resistors
4. Take out the plug key and disconnect the voltmeter. having resistances R1 , R 2 and R 3 . Connect it with a
5. Now, insert the voltmeter across the ends X and P of the battery, a plug key and an ammeter. Also, connect a

w
first resistor. voltmeter in parallel with the combination of resistors.
6. Plug the key and measure the potential difference across 2. Plug the key and record the ammeter reading I and also

t
the first resistor. Let it beV 1 . take the voltmeter readingV across the combination.

ii
L R1 M
7. Similarly, measure the potential difference across the
R2
other two resistors. X Y
P R3 Q
Discussion/Conclusion

@
S T
V
1. The potential difference V is equal to the sum of I + – I
potential differencesV 1 , V 2 andV 3 . K
+ –
∴ V = V1 + V 2 + V 3 ( )
– A +
Relationship between current and
resistance in parallel combination
2. Ammeter reading I remains constant throughout the
circuit. 3. Take out the plug from the key.
∴ R = R1 + R 2 + R 3 4. Remove the ammeter and voltmeter from the circuit.
V = IR and V 1 = IR1 …(i) 5. Insert the ammeter in series with the resistor R1 and
V 2 = IR 2 …(ii) record the ammeter reading I 1 .
V 3 = IR 3 …(iii) 6. Similarly, measure the current through R 2 and R 3 and let
their current be I 2 and I 3 .

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264

Discussion/Conclusion
1. Ammeter reading when connected in series to the circuit
I = I1 + I 2 + I 3
2. Voltmeter reading remains constantV = IR

m
To get equivalent resistance in the circuit,
V
I1 = …(i)
R1

a
V
I2 = …(ii)
R2

r
V
I3 = …(iii)
R3

g
On adding Eqs. (i), (ii) and (iii), we get

e
V V V 1 1 1
I1 + I 2 + I 3 = + + , I =V  + + 
R1 R 2 R 3  R1 R 2 R 3 

⇒
1
=
1
+
1
+
R R1 R 2 R 3
1

el
Check Yourself
t
n
1. What is the relationship between the currents?
Ans The total current I is equal to the sum of the separate currents through each branch of the combination.

o
2. Two resistors of 30 Ω and 60 Ω are connected in parallel in an electric circuit. How does the current passing through the two
resistors, compare?
Ans 2:1, as current in 30 Ω resistor is two times in comparison to that in 60 Ω resistor.

e
3. What do you conclude from this activity?

l
Ans We conclude that the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of a group of resistances joined in parallel is equal to the sum of the
reciprocals of the individual resistance.

a
t w
i i
@
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Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 311

ACTIVITY ZONE

m
ACTIVITY 1 (NCERT Pg 223) ACTIVITY 2 (NCERT Pg 224)

a
Objective Objective
To show that a current-carrying wire behaves like a magnet. To obtain magnetic field lines around a bar magnet.
Materials Required
Copper wire, battery, plug key, variable resistance, paper and
compass needle
r
Materials Required

g
A strong bar magnet, iron filings, drawing board, sheet
of paper and adhesive material

e
Procedure Procedure
1. Fix a white sheet of paper on drawing board.

l
1. Take a straight thick copper wire and place it between the
points X andY in an electric circuit as shown in figure. The wire 2. Place the bar magnet on a plane sheet of paper.
XY is kept perpendicular to the plane of paper. 3. Sprinkle iron filings uniformly on the paper.

e
2. Horizontally, place a small compass near to this copper wire. 4. Tap the board gently and observe the pattern of field
lines.

t
See the position of its needle.
3. Pass the current through the circuit by inserting the key into
the plug.

n
4. Observe the change in the position of the compass needle.
K R

o
X

e
Iron filings near the bar magnet align
themselves along the field lines
Y

l
+ –
Compass needle is deflected on passing an Observation
electric current through a metallic conductor A bar magnet possesses a magnetic field which can be

a
detected by sprinkling iron filings around it.
Observation
As we pass current through the copper wire XY, the compass Discussion/Conclusion
The arrangement of these iron filings around the

w
needle gets deflected.
magnet represents the pattern of this magnetic field in
Discussion/Conclusion
the form of magnetic field lines.

t
Since, a magnetic needle can be deflected only by a

ii
magnetic field, so a current-carrying wire behaves like a magnet.
Check Yourself
Check Yourself 1. In which region is the density of iron filings

@
maximum?
1. Name the device which is used to draw magnetic field lines. Ans At both poles, the densities of iron filings are maximum.
Ans Compass needle is used to draw magnetic field lines.
2. What happens to the field lines pattern, if the magnet
2. In the given activity, which two physical quantities are is broken into two halves?
interrelated? Ans If the magnet is broken into two halves, then the field
Ans In the given activity, electricity and magnetism are the two physical lines pattern remains the same.
quantities that are interrelated. 3. Why two North poles are placed facing each
3. How is the direction of magnetic field at a point determined? other?
Ans The direction of magnetic field at a point is determined by placing a Ans North poles repel each other, so magnetic field lines
small compass needle. bend away from each other.

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312

ACTIVITY 3 Check Yourself

(NCERT Pg 224, 225)
1. Is the magnetic field a vector quantity or scalar quantity?
Objective Ans The magnetic field is a vector quantity.
To show that magnetic field lines of a bar magnet can be 2. Where does the magnetic field lines merge?

m
drawn using compass needle. Ans Magnetic field lines merge at the South pole.
Materials Required 3. Point out the direction of magnetic field lines inside the

a
magnet.
A bar magnet, compass needle, sheet of white paper, drawing
board and adhesive material Ans The direction of magnetic field lines inside the magnet is
from South pole to North pole.

r
Procedure
1. Take a small compass and a bar magnet.
ACTIVITY 4

g
2. Place the magnet on a sheet of white paper fixed on a (NCERT Pg 226)
drawing board using some adhesive material.
Objective

e
3. Mark the boundary of the magnet.
To show that the direction of the magnetic field due to a
4. Place the compass near the North pole of the magnet.

l
current is dependent on the direction of the current.
5. Mark the position of two ends of the needle.
6. Now, move the needle to a new position such that its South Materials Required

e
pole occupies the position previously occupied by its Copper wire, two or three cells, plug key and compass
North pole. needle

t
7. In this way, proceed step by step till you reach the South
Procedure
pole of the magnet as shown in Fig. (a).
1. Take a long straight copper wire, two or three cells of

n
1.5 V each and a plug key. Connect all of them in
series as shown in Fig. (a).

o
2. Place the straight wire parallel to and over a compass
needle.
3. Plug the key in the circuit.

e
S N N
E

l
N S North W North
S N
East S
(a) Drawing a magnetic field line with K K

a
the help of a compass needle N West N
S S
8. Join the points marked on the paper by a smooth curve.

w
Fig. (b) represents the field lines.
(a) (b)

t
An electric circuit in which a straight copper wire is placed

i
parallel to and over a compass needle showing deflection

i
S N 4. Observe the direction of deflection of the North pole
of the needle. If the current flows from North to South
as shown in Fig. (a), the North pole of the compass

@
needle would move towards the East.
(b) Field lines around a bar magnet 5. Replace the cell connections in the circuit as shown in
Fig. (b). This would result in the change of the
9. Repeat the above procedure and draw as many lines as direction of current through the copper wire, i.e. from
you can. You will get a pattern shown in Fig. (b). South to North.
These lines represent the magnetic field around the 6. Observe the change in the direction of deflection of
magnet. These are known as magnetic field lines. the needle.
Discussion/Conclusion Observation
Magnetic field is represented by field lines which tells The needle moves in opposite direction, i.e. towards the
us the direction and strength of the field at a point inside West. The direction of magnetic field produced by the
the field. electric current is reversed.

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Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 313

Check Yourself 6. Gently tap the cardboard a few times. Observe the pattern of
the iron filings.
1. On what factor does the direction of magnetic field You would find that the iron filings align themselves showing
depends? a pattern of concentric circles around the copper wire.
Ans The direction of magnetic field depends upon the
direction of current flowing through it. Observation

m
2. What is the combination of plug key, wire and cells? We observe a pattern of concentric circles around the copper
wire which represents magnetic field lines. Place a compass at a
Ans The combination of plug key, wire and cells is series point over a circle. Observe the direction of the needle. The

a
combination. direction of the North pole of the compass needle would give
3. What would be the direction of compass needle, if the the direction of the field lines produced by the electric current at

r
current flows from North to South pole? P.
Ans If the current flows from North to South pole, then the

g
direction of the compass needle is towards East. Check Yourself

e
1. What does the concentric circles represent?
ACTIVITY 5 Ans The concentric circles represent magnetic field lines.

l
(NCERT Pg 226, 227) 2. How can you find the direction of magnetic field?
Objective Ans We can find the direction of magnetic field by placing

e
To sketch the pattern of magnetic field lines due to compass needle.
current flowing through a straight conductor. 3. Which rule is applicable?

t
Ans The applicable rule is right hand thumb rule.
Materials Required
Battery (12 V), rheostat, an ammeter (0—5 A), plug key,

n
long thick straight copper wire and cardboard
ACTIVITY 6 (NCERT Pg 229)
Procedure

o
1. Insert the thick wire through the centre, normal to Objective
the plane of a rectangular cardboard. Take care that To study the pattern of magnetic field due to a current-carrying

e
the cardboard is fixed and does not slide up or circular coil.
down.
Materials Required

l
2. Connect the copper wire vertically between the
points X and Y as shown in Fig. (a) in series with the Rectangular cardboard, circular coils having number of turns,
battery and a plug key. iron filings, plug key and battery

a
Variable resistance
Procedure
– +
A
1. Take a rectangular cardboard having two holes. Insert a
X

w
circular coil having large number of turns through them,
+ normal to the plane of the cardboard.

t
P – 2. Connect the ends of the coil in series with a battery, a key and

i
a rheostat as shown in figure below:

i
Y
K B
(a) (b)

@
(a) A pattern of concentric circles indicating
A
the field lines of a magnetic field around a
straight conducting wire. The arrows in the
circles show the direction of the field lines.
– +
K
3. Sprinkle some iron filings uniformly on the Magnetic field produced by a
cardboard. current-carrying circular coil.
4. Keep the variable of the rheostat at a fixed position 3. Sprinkle iron filings uniformly on the cardboard.
and note the current through the ammeter.
4. Plug the key.
5. Close the key so that current flows through the wire.
5. Tap the cardboard gently a few times. Note the pattern of the
Ensure that the copper wire placed between the
iron filings that emerges on the cardboard.
points X and Y remains vertically straight.

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314

Observation Check Yourself

The magnetic field lines near the coil are circular and
concentric. The direction of the magnetic field at the centre
1. In which direction does the rod get displaced?
is perpendicular to the plane of the coil. Magnetic field is Ans The rod gets displaced towards right.
maximum at centre. 2. Which rule is used to find the direction of force?

m
Ans Fleming’s left hand rule is used to find the direction of force.
Check Yourself 3. How is the magnitude of force acting on a conductor in

a
magnetic field is increased?
1. What happens to the strength of magnetic field if we move Ans The magnitude of force acting on a conductor in magnetic
towards the centre of the coil? field is increased by increasing current through conductor.

r
Ans If we move towards the centre of the coil, the strength of
magnetic field increases.

ACTIVITY 8
g
2. Where is the magnetic field maximum? (NCERT Pg 234)
Ans The magnetic field is maximum at the centre.

e
3. Identify the pattern of magnetic field lines. Objective
Ans The pattern of magnetic field lines is circular and concentric. To explain how a moving magnet can be used to generate

l
electric currents.

e
ACTIVITY 7 (NCERT Pg 230)
Materials Required
Bar magnet, galvanometer and coil of wire

t
Objective Procedure
To show that force is exerted on a current-carrying 1. Take a coil of wire AB having a large number of turns.
conductor placed in a strong magnetic field.

n
2. Connect the ends of the coil to a galvanometer
(as shown in figure below).
Materials Required

o
Coil
A conducting rod AB, connecting wires, horse-shoe
A B
magnet, battery, switch and clamp stand
N S
Procedure

e
1. Connect the conducting rod AB to the battery and key.

l
2. Place a strong horse-shoe magnet in such a way that the
rod AB lies between the poles with magnetic field G Galvanometer
directed upwards, i.e. N -pole is vertically below and

a
Moving a magnet towards a coil sets up
S -pole is vertically above the rod. a current in the coil circuit as indicated
3. Plug in the key. by deflection in the galvanometer needle

w
3. Take a strong bar magnet and move its North pole
towards the end B of the coil. Note the change in the

t
galvanometer needle.

i
4. There is a momentary deflection in the needle of the

i
S galvanometer, say to the right. This indicates the presence
B of a current in the coil AB. The deflection becomes zero as
A
motion of the magnet stops.

@
– +
N 5. Now, withdraw the North pole of the magnet away from
the coil. Now, the galvanometer is deflected towards the
K left showing that the current is now set up in the
direction opposite to the first.
6. Place the magnet stationary at a point near the coil,
Current-carrying conductor
AB placed in a strong
keeping its North pole towards the end B of the coil. We
magnetic field. see that the galvanometer needle deflects towards the
right when the coil is moved towards the North pole of
the magnet. Similarly, the needle moves towards left
Observation when the coil is moved away.
A current-carrying rod AB experiences a force
7. When the coil is kept stationary with respect to the
perpendicular to its length and the magnetic field.
magnet, the deflection of the galvanometer drops to zero.

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Magnetic Effects of Electric Current 315

Coil 1 Coil 2
Observation
Motion of magnet with respect to the coil produces an
induced potential difference, which sets up an induced
electric current in the circuit.
Moving a magnet towards a coil sets up current in the coil

m
circuit as indicated by deflection in the galvanometer.
K G

a
Check Yourself Current is induced in coil 2 when
current in coil 1 is changed

r
1. Name the instrument which shows deflection.
Ans Galvanometer shows deflection. 3. Plug the key. Observe the galvanometer. Is there any
deflection in its needle?

g
2. When does the deflection of the galvanometer drops to
zero? You will observe that the needle of the galvanometer
Ans When the magnet is kept stationary with respect to the coil, instantly jumps to one side and just as quickly returns to

e
the deflection of the galvanometer becomes zero. zero indicating a momentary current in coil 2.
3. What is finally induced in the circuit? 4. Disconnect coil 1 from the battery. You will observe that

l
Ans Electric current is finally induced in the circuit. the needle momentarily moves, but to the opposite side.
It means that now the current flows in the opposite

e
direction in coil 2.
ACTIVITY 9

t
(NCERT Pg 235) Observation
Whenever electric current through coil 1 is changed, a
Objective potential difference is induced in coil 2. The coil 1 is called

n
primary coil and coil 2 is called secondary coil. The
To study whenever current is changed in a circuit induced potential difference in coil 2 is due to change in
(primary), an induced potential difference is set up in a magnetic field lines.

o
neighbouring circuit (secondary).
Materials Required Check Yourself

e
Two different coils of copper wire of different number of
turns, galvanometer, cylindrical roll, battery and plug key 1. Is there any deflection in galvanometer when the key is

l
plugged?
Procedure Ans Yes, the needle of galvanometer instantly jumps to one side
1. Take two different coils of copper wire having large and quickly returns to zero.

a
number of turns (say 50 and 100 turns respectively). 2. In which coil potential difference is induced?
Insert them over a non-conducting cylindrical roll as Ans Potential difference is induced in coil 2, i.e. secondary coil.
shown in circuit diagram.

w
3. What is the coil containing battery called?
2. Connect the coil 1 having larger number of turns in Ans The coil containing battery is called primary coil.
series with a battery and a plug key. Also, connect the

t
other coil 2 with a galvanometer as shown in figure.

i i
@
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352

ACTIVITY ZONE
ACTIVITY 1 ACTIVITY 2

m
(NCERT Pg 242) (NCERT Pg 243)

Objective Objective

a
To understand different forms of energy. To know how do we select the source needed for obtaining the
energy in its usable form.

r
Procedure
1. List four forms of energy that you use from morning Procedure

g
when you wake up till you reach the school. 1. Consider the various options we have when we choose a
2. Then, answer the following questions. fuel for cooking our food.
2. What are the criteria you would consider when trying to

e
(i ) From where do we get these different forms
of energy? categorise something as a good fuel?

l
3. Would your choice be different, if you lived
(ii ) Can we call them sources of energy? Why or
why not? (i ) in a forest?

e
(ii ) in a remote mountain village or small island?
Observations
(iii ) in New Delhi?

t
1. The four forms of energy that we use are:
(iv ) five centuries ago?
(i) Muscular energy We use this energy while we
4. How are the factors different in each case?
take bath, put on clothes and get ready to go to

n
school. Observations
(ii ) Electrical energy It is used to light up the 1. Wood, kerosene, CNG and LPG are the fuels we can

o
bathroom and other areas. choose for cooking food because they have higher calorific
(iii ) Chemical energy Our breakfast has chemical value.
energy which gets converted into heat energy in 2. A good fuel is that which

e
the body. (i ) produces more heat on burning.
(ii ) does not produce a lot of smoke.

l
(iv ) Heat energy It is stored in the form of fuel
which is used in the mode of conveyance that (iii ) is easily available.
carries us to the school. 3. (i ) Wood in a forest is my choice.

a
2. (i ) We get muscular energy from food that we take,
(ii ) Wind energy, dry leaves, cow-dung cakes, etc., are
electrical energy from hydroelectric power plant, choices in a remote mountain village or small island.
chemical energy from the food we eat and heat

w
(iii ) LPG or CNG in New Delhi.
energy in the mode of conveyance.
(iv ) Wood lived five centuries ago.

t
(ii ) Yes, all these are sources of energy because they
4. Easily available, easy to handle and transport.

i
all are derived from solar energy.

i Check Yourself Check Yourself

@
1. Which type of energy is used for getting ready for work 1. What is a fuel?
or school? Ans It is a source of energy used for different household and
Ans Muscular energy is used while getting ready for work or commercial purposes.
school. 2. Why LPG is considered as a good fuel?
2. Which type of energy is used to light up a bulb? Ans LPG is considered a good fuel because of its high calorific value
Ans Electrical energy is used to light up a bulb. (55 kJ/g).

3. From where do we get electrical energy? 3. What fuel you would select to cook food, if you lived on a
small island?
Ans We get electrical energy from hydroelectric power plant.
Ans Dry leaves, wind energy etc., are the choices on a small island.

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Sources of Energy 353

2. Compare the above answers with how you do

ACTIVITY 3 (NCERT Pg 244, 245) these tasks now.
3. Is there a difference? If yes, in which case more
Objective energy from external sources is consumed?
To demonstrate the process of thermoelectric production. Observations

m
Materials Required 1. (a) Our grandparents or elders went to school
Tennis ball, three slits, semicircular fins, metal wire, dynamo, bulb either by walking on a bicycle or a tanga.

a
and pressure cooker. (b) When our grandparents were young, they got
Procedure water from wells or nearby ponds.

r
1. Take a table tennis ball and make three slits into it. (c) They played various games and went to see
2. Put semicircular ( ) fins cut out of a metal sheet into these slits. fairs to entertain themselves.

g
3. Pivot the tennis ball on an axle through its centre with a straight 2. (a) We go to school by school bus or van.
metal wire fixed to a rigid support. Ensure that the tennis ball (b) We get water from municipal water supply or

e
rotates freely about the axle. by installing pumps.
4. Now connect a cycle dynamo to this. (c) Television, radio, cinema and mobile are our

l
5. Connect a bulb in series. sources of entertainment.
6. Direct a jet of water or steam produced in a pressure cooker at 3. Yes, there is a lot of difference between both the

e
the fins. What do you observe? life-styles. We consume a lot of energy from
Tennis ball fitted external sources for various activities.

t
Steam pipe with metal sheets

Dynamo Bulb
Pressure Check Yourself

n
cooker Coil rotates
Heat 1. Which source of energy is used to run a school van?
Ball axled to rotate freely

o
Ans Petrol or diesel.
A model to demonstrate the process of
thermoelectric production
2. Give one example of entertainment based on solar
cells.
Observation

e
Ans TV because solar cells provide radio and TV
The bulb gets lighted. transmission.

l
3. Which of the two life-styles would you prefer?
Check Yourself Ans I would prefer the life-style of our grandparents or
elders.

a
1. How does the pressure cooker act as?
Ans The pressure cooker acts as a small thermal power plant.
ACTIVITY 5 (NCERT Pg 249)

w
2. Identify the material which acts as a turbine.
Ans Tennis ball fitted with metal sheets acts as a turbine. Objective

t
3. How is electricity generated? A black surface is a good absorber of heat.

i
Ans The turbine so assembled rotates the armature in the dynamo which

i
generates electricity. Materials Required
Two conical flasks, white colour, black colour and
water.
ACTIVITY 4

@
(NCERT Pg 248)
Procedure
Objective
1. Take two conical flasks and paint one white and
To understand how technological progress increases our demand the other black. Fill both with water.
for energy. 2. Place the conical flasks in direct sunlight for half
Procedure an hour to one hour.
3. Touch the conical flasks. Which one is hotter?
1. Find out from your grandparents or other elders.
You could also measure the temperature of the
(a) How did they go to school? water in the two conical flasks with a
(b) How did they get water for their daily needs when they thermometer.
were young? 4. Can you think of ways in which this finding could
(c) What means of entertainment did they use? be used in your daily life?

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354

Observation
The temperature of water in the conical flask painted black is more than the temperature of water in the conical flask painted
white.

Check Yourself
1. Which surface absorbs more heat?
Ans A black surface absorbs more heat.
2. Can you imagine which could be used in daily life?

a m
r
Ans Solar cooker and solar water heater could be used in daily life.
3. Which source of energy is used in the above activity?

g
Ans Sunlight is used as a source of energy in the activity.

Objective
ACTIVITY 6

l e (NCERT Pg 249, 250)

e
To understand working of a solar cooker.

t
Materials Required
Metal box, wooden box, container having food.

n
Procedure
1. Study the structure and working of a solar cooker and/or a solar water-heater, particularly with regard to how it is insulated
and maximum heat absorption is ensured.

o
2. Design and build a solar cooker or water-heater using low-cost material available (as shown below) and check what
temperatures are achieved in your system.

e
3. Discuss what would be the advantages and limitations of using the solar cooker or water-heater.
Sun

l
Sun rays

Reflector

a
Glass sheet cover Inner metal
box

w
Container having
food to be cooked

t
Outer

i
wooden box
Solar cooker

@ i
Observation
Refer to text on page 363.

Check Yourself
1. Why is solar cooker box painted black from inside?
Ans Because black colour is a good absorber of heat.
2. Why is solar cooker box covered with a glass sheet?
Ans Because the glass sheet allows infrared rays and visible rays to enter the solar cooker but does not allow the infrared radiations to move
out of the device due to greenhouse effect.
3. Give one limitation of solar cooker.
Ans Solar cooker cannot be used to cook food on cloudy days and during nights.

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Our Environment

ACTIVITY ZONE
ACTIVITY 1

m
(NCERT Pg 256)
How Long
Items Classification Harmful Effects
do these Last

a
Objective Wooden table Biodegradable 1-3 yrs As it is biodegradable
To study decomposition of waste materials and hence, no harmful
effects

r
identify the substances as biodegradable and
non-biodegradable. TV

g
Books
Procedure
1. Collect waste material from your homes. The waste Tubelight/CFL

e
material could consist of vegetable peels, milk Plastic bags
packets, old socks, paper bags, medicine wrappers,
Clothes

l
empty cartons, etc.
Cold-drink
2. Bury these materials in a pit in your backyard
cans

e
garden or in an old bucket and cover it with at least
15 cm of soil. Silver foil

t
3. Keep this material moist and observe at 15 day Ans.
intervals.
How Long do
Items Classification Harmful Effects

n
these Last
Check Yourself Wooden Biodegradable 1-3 yrs As it is biodegradable
table hence, no harmful

o
1. Which material remains unchanged over a long period effects.
of time? The metals and glass
TV Non-biodegradable 500-2000 yrs
Ans Non-biodegradable materials from TV cause various

e
diseases.
2. Which among the following is non-biodegradable?
(paper, wood, sewage) Books Biodegradable 6 weeks Do not cause any kind

l
of harm.
Ans None
Tubelight/ Non-biodegradable 1-2 million yrs The glass and other
3. Which materials change their form and structure over components cause
CFL
time?

a
pollution.
Ans Biodegradable materials Cause unstoppable
Plastic bags Non-biodegradable 20-1000 yrs
4. Name the organisms that can degrade waste material. harm to life and

w
property.
Ans Saprobes
Clothes Biodegradable 1-5 yrs Cause harm if by
5. From the list, choose a biodegradable waste

t
mistake eaten by
(vegetable peel, plastic bag, fungicide, frying pan). animals.

i
Ans Vegetable peel Cold-drink Non-biodegradable 200-500 yrs Do not degrade and

i
cans cause pollution.

ACTIVITY 2 Silver foil Non-biodegradable 50-80 yrs It is not decomposed

@
(NCERT Pg 257) by microbes and
causes pollution.
Objective
To study the harmful effects of non-biodegradable Check Yourself
substances and the reasons to use biodegradable
substances. 1. Some materials are biodegradable whereas some are
non-biodegradable. Give reason.
Time 20 Minutes Ans This is due to the property of microbes due to which they can
Instructions decompose only products made from natural material like paper,
jute, etc., as biodegradable wastes. These organisms are specific in
Fill the left out blanks according to headings. One has their action but are unable to degrade materials like plastic, etc.,
been done for you. which are therefore classified as non-biodegradable wastes.

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334

2. Name two biodegradable and non-biodegradable 4. Why is an aquarium called as artificial ecosystem?
substances. Ans Because they are modified and managed by human beings.
Ans Non-biodegradable Metals, plastics, certain dyes, etc.
5. From where do the fishes get oxygen to breathe?
Biodegradable Paper, wood, cotton, etc.
Ans The oxygen is available in the form of dissolved oxygen in
3. Do biodegradable wastes also pollute the environment? water to fishes.

m
Ans Biodegradable wastes usually do not pollute the 6. If large aquatic animals are added what will you observe ?
environment. These pollute the environment only when their
Ans The larger fishes will feed on smaller ones thus making their
amount is large which cannot be degraded (or decomposed)
number low.

a
into harmless substances in nature at the right time.
4. Name some non-biodegradable materials that can be
recycled.

r
Ans Materials like glass, metals and certain plastics can be
recycled.
ACTIVITY 4 (NCERT Pg 261)

g
5. Name two non-biodegradable pesticides banned in our Objective
country due to their harmful effects.
To enhance the understanding of students on the effect of

e
Ans The pesticides like DDT and aldrin are banned in our
country because these cannot be decomposed into simple, pesticides.

l
harmless substances and pass along the food chain to crops
and further to man through other animals, birds, etc., and
Time 2-3 hour
harm them.

e
Procedure
Answers 1. Compile the various reports from newspapers, radio and

t
TV about the presence of high levels of pesticide in
beverages and readymade food items.
ACTIVITY 3 (NCERT Pg 258) 2. Find out why it has been banned in some states.

n
3. Find out the causes of pesticide contamination.
Objective
Theory

o
To prepare an aquarium and study the relationship of the The pesticides are the chemicals that are used to kill insects
organisms interacting with each other. Also to check the and pests present in the fields.
effect of wastes or pollutants on the organisms present in

e
The power in regulations in the US, that
the aquarium. put a check on pesticides in cold-drinks

l
0.025
Time 5-8 hour
45 times*
Total pesticides (mg/L)

Procedure
0.0223

0.02 37 times*

a
1. To design an aquarium, the jar should be large for free
0.0187

swimming of the fishes and other water creatures. 0.015

2. Plant some water ferns and attach some oxygen pumps

w
to provide oxygen to the water animals. 0.01

t
3. Add some pebbles and stones and some artificial plants

ii
and accessories to immitate a natural waterbody. 0.005
4. Keep filters and cleaners or clean it once a week or so.
0.0000 0.0000
0.0000
(Coca-cola, India) (Coca-cola, US) (Pepsi, India) (Pepsi, US)

@
Check Yourself Brands
* Number of lines in excess of EEC limit for total pesticides.
1. What is an ecosystem?
Ans All the interacting organisms in an area together with the These are harmful chemicals whose intake causes various
non-living constituents of environment form an ecosystem. kinds of diseases and abnormalities in the body. These might
2. Is the aquarium, a natural ecosystem or a man-made also get in the food web and cause biological magnification.
ecosystem? Looking at the harmful effects of the use of pesticides, these
Ans Aquarium is an artificial or man-made ecosystem. have been banned. Pesticides have recently been
3. Name the ecosystem of which aquarium is an artificial encountered in soft drinks and readymade beverages. These
mimic. drinks also have been banned as these may directly affect the
Ans Pond ecosystem. health of the consumer.

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Our Environment 335

Check Yourself Check Yourself

1. What are pesticides? 1. Define a food chain.
Ans Pesticides are non-biodegradable chemicals used for the Ans The food chain is a linear network of organisms related
protection of crop plants from pests/insects. through food, in which each organism feeds on the one
below it in the series.

m
2. What is the accumulation of non-biodegradable pesticides
in the food chain in increasing amount at each higher 2. What are trophic levels?
trophic level known as? Ans These are various steps or levels in the food chain where

a
Ans Biomagnification. transfer of food or energy takes place.

3. How do these chemicals enter the food chain? 3. Give the significance of food web.

r
Ans The significance of food web is as follows:
Ans These chemicals wash down into soil, reach water table, pass
into waterbodies and also enter into the plant parts such as (i) Food chain provides pathways for availability of food.
vegetables. In this manner, they make their way into food (ii) It allows endangered populations to grow in size.

g
chain. (iii) Food webs provide stability to ecosystem and help in its
4. Why are human beings harmed maximum by these development.

e
chemicals? 4. Name the ultimate source of energy for the earth.
Ans Human beings are maximally harmed because they occupy Ans Sun or solar energy is the ultimate source of energy for the

l
the top level in most of the food chains. Earth.
5. What are the ways to overcome the problem of pollution 5. When does an organism become extinct?

e
through pesticides? Ans When the organism is killed deliberately for food or other
Ans (i) Organic farming commercial purposes, its population keeps on decreasing in

t
(ii) Filtering the water before its use. number. This results in extinction of the species with time.
6. What leads an organism to increase in number?
Ans When predator for a particular organism decreases in

n
ACTIVITY 5 (NCERT Pg 259)
number, the organisms start increasing in number. As the
animals which used to feed on them decrease in number,

o
therefore, the population of those organisms increases.
Objective
To understand the interrelationship between organisms
within the food web and to know how one species ACTIVITY 6 (NCERT Pg 262)

e
population affects the other.

l
Objective
Time 1 hour
To study the ozone layer depletion.
Instructions

a
Study the figure and understand the concept of the food Time 20 minutes
web. Analyse the populations and their effects on each Instructions
other.

w
1. Fill in the bubbles with the correct statements
corresponding the heading of the bubbles.

t
2. Information can be collected from literary sources like
library, newspaper, etc.

ii
Ozone depleting
substances

@
1

Formation of ozone Effects of ozone

depletion
2
Ozone Layer 5

Where is it found? What is ozone?

3 4
Food web

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336

Answers 2. Doesn’t sound very good,

1. CFCs, halogens, nitrous oxide, CCl4 and CH4 . does it? Actually, raw sewage
2. Atomic oxygen is highly reactive. It combines with oxygen to can make you sick. It can also
form ozone. make your neighbours and
UV your pets sick. These things
O2 → [O] + [O] can happen when

m
2O2 + 2 [O] → 2O3 l You use straight pipes and have no septic system.
Ozone
l The drainfield isn’t working right.
3. Mainly stratosphere

a
4. Ozone is a triatomic molecule made up of three atoms of
l The septic tank is too full and needs to be pumped.
oxygen (O3 ). It is present in atmosphere as an ozone shield that 3. How can sickness be spread? By

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protects us from high energy UV radiations. l walking in polluted streams.
5. Cancers, mutations, effect on eyesight, global warming, l walking in sewage water.
weakening of immune system, etc.

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l not washing your hands after handling your pets.
l by flies that land in sewage water and then food.
Check Yourself

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l eating vegetables grown by watering with polluted
water.
1. Name the rays against which ozone layer provides

l
4. Small children and older adults are most likely to get
protection? sick from polluted water.
Ans UV rays.

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Some of the symptoms are:
2. Which type of disease is caused by ozone layer depletion? l Diarrhoea Dermatophytoses
l

Ans Skin cancer and cataract (damage of eyesight)

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l Fever Tiredness
l

3. Name one effect of depletion of ozone on the environment. l Hepatitis Stomach cramps
l

Ans Global warming. l The presence of unexplained viruses, parasites and

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4. What is the height of ozone layer from the equator? worms
Ans 23-25 km. l Sudden weight loss

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5. Where was the first hole in the ozone layer of the Earth seen?
Ans Antarctica. Check Yourself

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ACTIVITY 7 (NCERT Pg 263)
1. Different types of diseases can be spread by sewage.
Name a few such diseases.

l
Ans Diarrhoea, dermatophytoses, worm infections, stomach
Objective cramps, etc., spread through sewage.

a
To check the sewage decorum of the society and mechanism to 2. What kind of waste does sewage contain?
Ans Sewage basically contains faeces and urine, household dirt,
analyse the treatment of sewage for reduction of its ill effects. cleaners and soap, bacteria and viruses.

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Time 10 minutes 3. Give ways for treatment of sewage.
Ans Sewage treatment generally involves three stages called
Instructions

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primary, secondary and tertiary treatement.

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Health Effects of Sewage Water Pollution (i) Primary treatment consists of temporarily holding the

i
Raw sewage doesn’t smell good. But, there are even more sewage in a quiescent basis where heavy solids can
important reasons that every home needs adequate sewage settle to the bottom while oil, grease and lighter solids
treatment. float to the surface. The settled and floating materials are

@
removed and the remaining liquid may be discharged or
1. What’s in the sewage water that’s running out of a pipe in
subjected to secondary treatment.
someone’s backyard or into a stream?
(ii) Secondary treatment removes dissolved and suspended
l Toilet paper biological matter. It is typically performed by indigenous
l Faeces and urine waterborne microorganisms in a managed habitat.
l Bacteria and viruses (iii) Tertiary treatment is disinfection chemically or
physically prior to discharge into a stream, river, bay
l Worms lagoon or wettand. If it is very clear, it can also be used
l Cleaners and soap for groundwater recharge or agricultural purposes.
l Dirt

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Our Environment 337

4. How are waterbodies affected by sewage disposal? Check Yourself

Ans The factories and industries release polluted water into the streams, the
waterbodies in turn release all the harmful chemicals and heavy metals
along with, the sewage into the rivers and ponds. This makes the water 1. Identify the hazardous materials which have to be
unsafe for drinking or other purposes. dealt with while disposing of electronic items.
Ans Lead, barium and phosphorus along with other
5. Give one useful product that can be produced from sewage.

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heavy metals are the hazardous materials which
Ans Sewage can be used to produce biogas, which is used for cooking and have to be dealt with while disposing off electronic
in electricity generation. items.

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2. How is plastic recycled?

ACTIVITY 8 Ans Plastic is recycled with shredding, in which it is

r
(NCERT Pg 263) landfilled or sent to smelters.
3. Name the processes used for disposing of plastic
and electronic items.

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Objective
Ans The processes used for disposing of plastic and
To find out which hazardous materials have to be dealt with
electronic items are:

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while disposing of electronic items. (i) Shredding
Time 15 minutes (ii) Municipal incineration

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(iii) Pyrometallurgical recovery
E-wastes Hazards to Environment (iv) Thermal depolymerisation

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and Process to Dispose them (v) Plasma arc gasification
E-waste Potential Environmental (vi) Bioleaching

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Process Used
Components Hazard 4. What impact does recycling of plastic have on
Cathode ray tubes Breaking and Lead, barium and other heavy environment?
(used in TVs, removal of yoke, then metals leaching into the Ans The recycling of plastic leads to emission of

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computers monitors, dumping. groundwater and release of toxic brominated dioxins, heavy metals and hydrocarbons,
ATM, video cameras phosphorus. which do not degrade and enter into food web. This

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and more). causes biomagnification and many other potential
Printed circuit board De-soldering and Air emissions as well as discharge hazards fatal to life and property.
(a thin plate on removal of computer into rivers of glass dust, tin, lead, 5. What are the potential environmental hazards of
which chips and chips; open burning brominated dioxin, beryllium,

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the process so used?
other electronic and acid baths to cadmium and mercury.
Ans The potential environmental hazards of the
components are remove final metals

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placed). after chips are removed.
process used are:
(i) Air emissions as well as discharge into rivers of
Chips and other Chemical stripping Hydrocarbons, heavy metals, glass dust, tin, lead and mercury lead to air and
gold plated using nitric and brominated substances

a
water pollution.
components. hydrochloric acid and discharged directly into rivers
burning of chips. acidifying fauna and flora. Tins (ii) Tin and lead contamination of surface and
and lead contamination of surface groundwater.

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and groundwater. Air emissions of (iii) Hydrocarbon ashes released into air, water and
brominated dioxins, heavy metals soil cause pollution.
and hydrocarbons.

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(iv) Heavy metals leach into groundwater and release
lead, barium, etc., into water.

i
Plastics from Shredding and low Emissions and brominated
printers, keyboards, temperature melting dioxins, heavy metals and (v) Hydrocarbons get discharged directly into rivers

i
monitors, etc. to be used. hydrocarbons. acidifying fish and flora.
Computer wires. Open burning and Hydrocarbon ashes released into (vi) All these toxins are either released through smoke
or slag causing pollution.

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stripping to remove air, water and soil.
copper.

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368

ACTIVITY ZONE
ACTIVITY 1

m
(NCERT Pg 266)
˜ Get Energy Efficient Improving the efficiency of your
buildings, computers, cars and products is the fastest and
most lucrative way to save money, energy and carbon
Objective

a
emissions. Energy efficiency is about increasing
To know about the international norms formed in order productivity but doing more with less.
to regulate carbon dioxide emission.

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˜ Switch to Low Carbon Energy If possible, switch to
Procedure energy sources that emit less carbon and help in its
1. Find out about the international norms to regulate the evaporative emission control. Generally, coal produces

g
emission of carbon dioxide. twice the emissions of gas, six times the amount of solar,
2. Have a discussion in class about how we can 40 times the amount of wind and 200 times the amount of

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contribute towards meeting those norms. hydroenergy.
Buy Green, Sell Green The market for green products

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˜
Observation and services is growing rapidly. In many countries,
1. International norms for regulation of CO2 emission. consumer surveys report that growing numbers of

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(i) Kyoto Protocol An international treaty between consumers are willing to buy green products, if given the
nations to curb the global emission of choice.

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greenhouse gases. It was adopted in Kyoto,
Japan on 11 Dec. 97.
(ii) Mitigation policy An international policy
Check Yourself

n
between nations to reduce to emission of 1. Name a greenhouse gas.
greenhouse gases. It is issued by United Nations Ans Carbon dioxide

o
Framework Convention on Climate Change
(UNFCCC) 2. What is meant by evaporative emission control?
2. Some steps you can take to reduce CO2 emissions. Ans Reducing refueling loses

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There are a number of steps you can take to reduce the 3. Consumers are willing to buy which type of products?
carbon emissions: Ans Green products

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˜ Make a Commitment Reducing your carbon 4. Which protocol was signed by many nations to pledge for
footprint is not different from any other task. Telling reducing CO 2 emission?
people you can reduce carbon emissions may seem Ans Kyoto protocol on 11 Dec. 97

a
simplistic, but even simple actions like announcing 5. Name some thrust area for the reduction of CO 2 .
your commitment to go carbon neutral can be
Ans (i) Increasing vegetation cover.
effective, while the simple act of asking for ideas can

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(ii) Reducing CO 2 emission by improving technology.
lead to creative and innovative solutions. (iii) Stop burning of organic wastes.

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˜ Assess Where You Stand It is likely that carbon will

i
eventually be judged as an atmospheric pollutant as it
is a greenhouse gas and regulated accordingly, with
ACTIVITY 2

i
consequent costs and opportunities for all sectors of (NCERT Pg 266)
society.

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˜ Decide and Plan Where You Want to go Based on Objective
your assessment of climate related risks and To know more about roles of individual and groups in
opportunities, a strategy and action plan can be environmental conservation.
developed. Targets help to focus efforts and also Procedure
provide a benchmark for measuring success.
There are a number of organisations that seek to spread
˜ De-carbon Your Life There is a broader way to think awareness about environment and promote activities and
about carbon and climate. If every consumer, attitude that lead to the conservation of environment and
manufacturer and lawmaker promote the natural resources.
environment with low carbon yielding activities and 1. Find out about the organisation (s) active in your
become climate friendly, savings in carbon emissions neighbourhood/ village/town/city.
will multiply. 2. Find out how you can contribute towards the same cause.

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Mangement of Natural Resources 369

Observation 4. Write full form of TERI. Where is it located?

The organisations that seek to spread awareness about our Ans TERI stands for The Energy and Resources Institute. It is
environment and promote such activities and attitudes are: located in New Delhi.
˜ Assam Science Society (ASS) It imparts environmental 5. What does IAEM aims at?
education and training through camps for teachers and Ans Educating people about the environment encourage them
students and conduct surveys on an environment. for its conservation and spreading knowledge about it.

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˜ BAIF Development Research Foundation Kamdhenu It
does consultancy for afforestation, wasteland and watershed
management. It encourages the use of non-conventional
ACTIVITY 3 (NCERT Pg 268)

a
sources of energy.
˜ Centre for Environmental Education (CEE) It mainly aims

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to create environmental awareness in the communities and Objective
conducts widespread environmental education and training To understand how development in physical

g
programmes through a very vast network.
surroundings affects the environment.
˜ Centre for Science and Environment (CSE) It is involved
in research, investigative and educational work in the field of Procedure

e
pollution, forest, wildlife, land and water use. Have you ever visited a town or village after many
Dasholi Gram Swarajya Mandal (DGSM) Its aims are to years? If so, have you noticed new roads and houses

l
˜

encourage forest conservation and the use of forest products that have come up, since you were there last? Where
for self-employment. The world famous Chipko Andolan was do you think the materials for making these roads and

e
spread by this organisation. It gives a great deal of buildings have come from?
importance to forest conservation in the Himalayas. 1. Try and make a list of the materials and their

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˜ Darpana Academy of Performing Arts (DAPA) Through probable sources.
its various activities, it spreads the message of a better
2. Discuss the list you have prepared with your
environment. It has launched a programme Jagruti, a school
classmates. Can you think of ways in which the use

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project for environmental empowerment.
of these materials be reduced?
˜ Development Alternatives (DA) It designs options and
3. Visit your home town or village after few years,

o
promote sustainable development through programmes of
economic efficiency, equity, social justice, resource since you left this place. Make a report about the
conservation and self-reliance. They are working in the field changes you think occurred.
of pollution monitoring and control; waste recycling

e
management; wasteland development, etc. Observation
˜ Green Future Foundation (GFF) It promotes and works The changes may be:

l
towards environmental protection, energy and ecological
˜ New roads have been built.
conservation and pollution control. It imparts environmental ˜ New houses have been constructed.
education and training by organising forest based camps for ˜ Natural forests have been replaced by agricultural

a
adults and youths. fields.
˜ Indian Association for Environmental Management
(IAEM) Educating people about the environment,

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encouragement for its conservation and spread knowledge Check Yourself
about it.

t
1. What changes have you seen on visiting your
˜ The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI) Develops and home-town after few years?

i
promotes technologies, policies and institutions for efficient Ans New roads and houses have been built.

i
and sustainable use of natural resources.
2. What has replaced natural forests?
Ans Natural forests have been replaced by agricultural fields.
Check Yourself

@
3. What were the condition of houses?
1. Name the correct organisation for the statement “develop and Ans Most of the houses were newly constructed.
promote technologies, policies and institutions for efficient and 4. What is the effect of this development on natural
sustainable use of natural resources.” resources?
Ans The Energy and Resources Institute (TERI). Ans Natural resources such as forests have been used
2. Name the organisation that conveys message for better indiscriminately. This has ill-effects on an environment
environment through various activities or programmes like such as pollution, loss of biodiversity, etc.
Jagruti. 5. It is right to put the environment at risk in the name
Ans Darpana Academy of Performing Arts.
of development?
Ans No, it is not right to put the environment at stake in the
3. What is centre for science and environment is mainly related to? name of development. We should meet current basic
Ans Research, investigative and educational work in the field of human needs, while preserving the resources for the
environment. needs of future generations.

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370

ACTIVITY 4 (NCERT Pg 270) ACTIVITY 5 (NCERT Pg 271)

Objective
Objective
To know more about the forest based industries and their
To know more about the importance of forests for the

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impact on our surroundings.
people living in and around them.
Procedure
Procedure

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1. Find out any two forests produce that are the basis for
1. Make a list of forest produce that you use
an industry.
˜ What do you think a person living near a forest

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2. Discuss whether this industry is sustainable in the long run or
would use?
do we need to control our consumption of these products?
˜ What do you think a person living in a forest

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would use? Observation
2. Discuss with your classmates how these needs ‘Wood’ is used in paper industry and ‘Tendu’ leaves are used in

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differ or not and the reasons for the same. bidi industry. These industries are not sustainable in the long run
and therefore we need to control our consumption of paper and
Observation

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bidi.
A. The things which people living in a forest take
from it. Check Yourself

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˜ Large quantities of firewood.
˜ Small timber and thatch. 1. Name the product used in paper industry.

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˜ Bamboo sticks. Ans Wood.
˜ Implements for agriculture, fishing and hunting. 2. What are the various commercial products obtained from
Nuts and raw medicines. forests?

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˜

˜ Fodder and the grass for cattle. Ans Rubber, resin, tannins, lac, cork, camphor, drugs, etc.

o
B. The things which people living near a forest, take 3. What is poorman’s timber?
from the forest. Ans Bamboo is called poorman’s timber as it is used in hatching huts,
˜ Large quantities of timber. preparing baskets and a number of other articles including
furniture.

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˜ Tendu leaves to make bidis.
˜ Bamboo and other wood products for preparing 4. Name some forest plants from which paper is obtained.

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paper. Ans Paper is prepared from cellulose rich plants like Bamboos,
˜ Spices like cardamon, cinnamon, nutmeg, etc., Booswellia, Eucalyptus, etc.
to relieve their taste buds. 5. Mention some factors on which sustainability of industry

a
˜ Destruction of vegetation to get agriculture depends.
land. Ans The sustainability of the industry depends upon:
(i) Recycling (ii) Sustained yield block cutting

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˜ Plantation of one species for their use in
industries.
ACTIVITY 6

t
(NCERT Pg 273)

i
Check Yourself

i
Objective
1. Which leaves are used for making bidis? To understand about the distribution of rainfall pattern in
India.

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Ans Tendu leaves
2. Which plant is used for preparing paper? Procedure
Ans Bamboo 1. Study the rainfall patterns in India from an atlas.
3. Name the spices obtained from forest plants. 2. Identify the regions where water is abundant and the regions
Ans Cardamom, cinnamon, nutmeg and cloves. of water scarcity.
4. What is the effect of deforestation? Observation
Ans Soil erosion, desertification, floods, etc.
From the studied pattern of rainfall of India, it is clear that the
5. Why should we conserve forests? maximum rainfall in India occurs in the North-Eastern States
Ans Forest must be conserved because of their immense followed by the Western coastal region. It is followed by the
economic, protective and regulative properties. Eastern States like West Bengal, Jharkhand, etc.

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Mangement of Natural Resources 371

Least rainfall is observed in North-West States like Rajasthan, We cannot imagine life without the use of electrical
Haryana, some parts of Punjab and Gujarat. appliances and transportation.
68° 72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° 96° So, can you think of the ways in which our
consumption of coal and petroleum products be
36°
INDIAN 36° reduced?
Annual Rainfall

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Observation
N
The various ways in which our consumption of coal
32° 32°

a
Pakistan
and petroleum products can be reduced are as
China
(Tibet) follows:

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˜ Switch off the lights, fans, television and other
28° 28°
electrical appliances when not needed. This will
save a lot of electricity.

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˜ Use energy efficient electrical appliances to save
24° 24°
electricity. This can be done by using Compact

e
Fluorescent Lamps (CFL) and fluorescent tube
lights instead of traditional filament type electric

l
Myanmar
20°
Bay of
Bengal
20° bulbs.
Pressure cookers should be used for cooking

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˜
Rainfall in cms
Above 400 16° food to save fuels like kerosene and LPG.

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16° 200 - 400 ˜ Good quality stoves should be used to burn
100 - 200
60 - 100
fuels like kerosene and cooking gas (LPG), so as
40 - 60 to obtain maximum heat.

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12°
12° 20 - 40 ˜ Solar cookers should be used to cook food
0 - 20
Andaman and Nicobar Islands
whenever possible.

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Lakshadweep (India)
(India)
0 200 400 600 km
˜ The use of biogas as domestic fuel should be
8° Sri 8° encouraged in rural areas.
Lanka
˜ Bicycles should be used for covering short

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INDIAN OCEAN

72° 76° 80° 84° 88° 92° distances to save precious fuel like petrol (which
is used in cars, scooters and motorcycles).

l
Check Yourself ˜ Travel by train rather than driving your own
car.
1. Name the region with least rainfall in India.

a
Ans North-West ˜ Wear extra sweater in winter instead of using a
heating device.
2. Name the state having maximum rainfall.

w
Ans Assam ˜ Avoid attending night-time weddings.
3. Identify the region having water scarcity.

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Ans Rajasthan Check Yourself

ii
4. What is the outcome of uneven distribution of water?
Ans It has lead to the benefits being taken by a few people only. 1. What does CFL stand for?
Ans Compact Fluorescent Lamps
5. What is water harvesting?

@
Ans It means capturing rainwater wherever it falls. 2. Which gas should be encouraged as fuel in rural
areas?
Ans Biogas
ACTIVITY 7 (NCERT Pg 277) 3. Which vehicle should be used for shorter distance?
Ans Bicycle
Objective
To think of ways that reduce consumption of coal and petroleum 4. How can we save electricity in winters?
Ans By wearing extra sweater instead of using a heating
in order to reduce pollution. device.
Procedure 5. What can be done to save cooking fuels?
Coal is used in thermal power stations where petroleum products Ans Pressure cookers should be used for cooking to save
like petrol and diesel are used in means of transport like motor fuels like kerosene and LPG.
vehicles, ships and aeroplanes.

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