DATA COLLECTION

Prof. Lhars M. Barsabal

 LEARNING OBJECTIVES
By the end of this session, the learner must be able to:
1. Discuss how definition of variables need to be
considered in the following phases of research:
a. Formulation of research objectives;
b. Development of data collection tools; and
c. Data analysis
2. Identify the different types of variables based on:
a. How they are measured; and
b. How they are related to each other
3. Identify the different modes of data collection;
4. Discuss the different issues in data collection and
how they affect the quality of the data collected;
and
5. Apply the different guidelines in developing a data
collection tool
1. DEFINITION OF VARIABLES
The main questions to be answered
when defining variables are:
a. What variables are needed for this
research?
b. What specific data elements
need to be collected to measure
the variable?
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN VARIABLES
AND DATA ELEMENTS

VARIABLE DATA ELEMENT(S)

Sex Sex (male, female)
Nutritional Status • Weight
• Height
• Age
• sex
THREE PHASES OF RESEARCH
WHERE VARIABLE IDENTIFICATION
IS CONSIDERED

1. formulation of research
objectives;
2. development of data collection
tools;
3. data analysis
1.1 Formulation of Specific Objectives

 involves transforming abstract

concepts presented in the
theoretical or conceptual
framework into

observable, measurable and

operational indicators
CONSIDER THIS CONCEPTUAL
FRAMEWORK:
Individual
Characteristics

Family/Household Level of Disaster

Characteristics Preparedness
of an Individual

Community
Characteristics
 RESEARCH OBJECTIVES WHICH
CAN BE FORMULATED BASED ON
CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK PRESENTED
GENERAL OBJECTIVE:
To determine if there is a relationship
between the characteristics of an individual
and his/her level of disaster preparedness
SPECIFIC OBJECTIVE:
To determine if there is a relationship
between a person’s age, sex and educational
attainment and his/her level of knowledge
on actions to be taken when a disaster occurs
1.2 DEVELOPMENT OF DATA
COLLECTION TOOL
 Involves identifying data elements needed
to measure or compute the variable or
indicator of interest
Weight
Nutritional Age
Status Sex
Height
1.2 DEVELOPMENT OF DATA
COLLECTION TOOL
 Involves developing operational definitions of
variables
 Involves selecting an indicator which is the most
relevant to the phenomenon or outcome considered
grade per course

Student’s grades for selected

Grade courses taken
weighted average for all
courses taken
1.3 DATA ANALYSIS
 needs to answer question, “How will
the data be treated in the analysis?”
 An important factor to consider in
deciding the most appropriate way to
analyse the data is who will use the
study results and how it will be used
 One of the first decisions to be made
in data analysis is determining
categories of variables
1.3.1 COMMON WAYS OF DETERMINING
CATEGORIES OF VARIABLES
a. Based on common practice
Example:
Age: <1, 1-4, 5-9, 10-14, etc.
Educational Attainment: None,
Elementary, High School, College
b. Based on standard definitions
Example:
Birthweight: <2500 gms (LBW)
≥ 2500 gms (normal)
 1.3.1 COMMON WAYS OF DETERMINING
CATEGORIES OF VARIABLES

c. Based on study objectives

Example:
How will you categorize religion based on the
following study objectives?
a. To determine the relationship between
religion and family planning practice
b. To determine the relationship between
religion and the incidence of dietary-
related diseases
 1.3.2 TYPES OF VARIABLE
1.3.2.1 BASED ON HOW VARIABLES ARE MEASURED
a. QUALITATIVE b. QUANTITATIVE

• Its categories are simply • Categories can be measured and

ordered according to quantity or
descriptions or labels to amount and can be expressed
distinguish one group from numerically
another • Examples
o Age
• Examples:
o Systolic and diastolic blood
o Gender pressure (mm/Hg)
o Region in the country o Height measured in terms of
centimeters or feet
o Height categorized as • Can be either discrete (whole
short, medium, tall numbers) or continuous (can be
expressed in decimals or fractions)
1.3.2 TYPES OF VARIABLES
1.3.2.2 BASED ON HOW VARIABLES ARE
RELATED TO EACH OTHER
a. DEPENDENT variable - refers to the
output, outcome or the response variable
b. INDEPENDENT variable – refers to the
variable which is presumed to cause,
effect, influence or stimulate the outcome
1.3.1 TYPES OF VARIABLES
c. CONTROL variable
• a variable which by itself may produce
changes which may be mistaken to be the
effect of the independent variable being
considered
• needs to be controlled, held constant or
randomized so that its effects are
neutralized, cancelled out or equated for all
conditions
1.3.2 LEVELS OF VARIABLE
DEFINITION
• Conceptual definition -- refers to the concept or
issue of interest
• Operational definition -- actual data element
collected in the study, in order to obtain
information on the issue of interest
• Analytic Variable definition – variable
constructed from the data, to be used in the
analysis
 Examples of Levels of Variable Definition

Conceptual Effectiveness of Household

Definition mastectomy as economic status
intervention for cancer
patients

Operational Patient Survival Household income

Definition
Analytic • Duration of time • Gross household
Definition between surgery and income
death • Net household
• 5-year survival rate income
• Per capita
household
income
2. ISSUES IN DATA COLLECTION
2.1 What data do we collect?
• involves transforming concepts into
operational indicators
• identification and definition of
variables to be collected in the study
2.2 How do we collect the data?
• two aspects of “how”:
o Mode of data collection
o Design
2. ISSUES IN DATA COLLECTION
 Modes of data collection
• review records
o cheap and fast
o common problems include
incompleteness of records, non-
comparability of definitions, and
the difficulty of validating entries
• ask people questions
o personal interviews
o self-administered questionnaires
o group discussions (focus groups,
nominal groups, etc.)
2. ISSUES IN DATA COLLECTION
 Modes of data collection
• observe and/or document events as
they happen
o qualitative/ethnographic
research
o requires rigid training of data
collectors; ensuring objectivity
of observations may be a
problem
o can provide more in-depth
picture of non-quantitative
phenomenon
2. ISSUES IN DATA COLLECTION
 Design
• Use of primary vs secondary data
• Observational vs Experimental
• Cross-sectional vs Longitudinal
• Paired/related vs Independent Samples
• With or without a control group
• Quantitative vs qualitative approaches
2. ISSUES IN DATA COLLECTION
2.3 From whom do we collect data?
• identification of the most appropriate
respondent
• crucial issue when the subjects of the
study are not in a position to provide
answers (e.g., babies, sick elderly)
2.4 Who should be the data collector?
• factors to consider:
o required skills
o cost
o potential biases that can be
committed
2. ISSUES IN DATA COLLECTION
2.5 When and how often should data be
collected?
• factors to consider:
o objectives of the study
o design
o variable(s) being collected
• important factor to consider when
variable being studied is affected by
time or seasonal patterns
2. ISSUES IN DATA COLLECTION
2.6 Where should data be collected?
• subject’s home vs health facility vs
public meeting place (e.g., barangay
hall)
• involves issues of practicality, the need
to maximize study yield as well as to
minimize biases
• Can data collection be implemented so
that the target population (population
to which study results will be
generalized) will be the same as the
sampling population (population from
which the samples are taken)?
2. ISSUES IN DATA COLLECTION
2.7. What procedures, activities or
mechanisms are needed to minimize
data collection problems?
• memory/recall bias
• lack of cooperation
• Hawthorne effect (tendency of
people to change their behavior
because they are observed)
• Observer bias
 3. DEVELOPMENT OF DATA
COLLECTION TOOLS

3.1. TYPES OF DATA COLLECTION TOOLS

a.Interview Schedule – a tool used by the
interviewer to ask questions and record
responses during the conduct of personal
interviews
b.Questionnaire – a data collection tool which
is self-administered or completed without
the assistance of an interviewer.
c. Form – a concise data collection tool. It
contains only labels or names of variables
(ex., age) instead of the items being phrased
in question form (How old are you?)
 3. DEVELOPMENT OF DATA
COLLECTION TOOLS
3.1. TYPES OF DATA COLLECTION TOOLS
d. Checklists - a pre-set listing of
items/activities to which the data collector
will note its presence/absence or whether
they are done or not done. The use of
checklists is applicable when the objective is
to determine the extent to which a set of
items or activities which represent the
standard are adhered to
e. Guide questions – a listing of questions
which serve as discussion or observation
guides to be used for qualitative modes of
data collection like focus group discussions,
nominal group techniques, participant
observation, etc.)
 3.2 GOALS IN DESIGNING
DATA COLLECTION TOOLS

a. RELEVANCE
• What specific kinds of data are needed by
the researcher?
• The inclusion of each item in the data
collection tool must be justified in relation
to:
o why the item or question will be asked
(STUDY OBJECTIVES)
o what will be done with the
information (DATA ANALYSIS)
 3.2 GOALS IN DESIGNING
DATA COLLECTION TOOLS

b. ACCURACY
• enhanced when the wording and the
sequence of the items/questions are
designed to facilitate recall or to
motivate the respondent to answer
accurately
 Precision versus accuracy

"Precise" means sharply defined or

measured.

"Accurate" means truthful or correct.

Both Accurate Accurate
and Precise Not precise

Not accurate
But precise
Neither accurate
nor precise
 3.3 CONSIDERATIONS IN THE
CONSTRUCTION OF DATA COLLECTION
TOOLS
• Who will make the entries?
• Wording of questions
• Sequence and flow of questions
• Number of questions or items asked
• Purpose and relevance
• Is the questionnaire or interview schedule
to be used repeatedly?
• What type of data processing will be used?
 3.4 GUIDELINES TO QUESTION
DEVELOPMENT AND FORMATTING
3.4.1 General Guidelines
• Remember that the aim of designing data collection tools is
to obtain complete and accurate information which is
relevant to the objectives of the data collection activity
• Remember that the respondent is doing the data collector a
favor by providing the necessary information.
• Justify the relevance of each question or item in the data
collection tool.
• Avoid extraneous or irrelevant questions
• Avoid “back-rider” questions to the extent possible.
• Be sensitive to concerns the respondent may have to
his/her privacy
• Empathy – think as a respondent when developing the data
collection tool
 3.4 GUIDELINES TO QUESTION
DEVELOPMENT AND FORMATTING

3.4.2 Question Wording

• Be careful about questions which require
respondents to recall events or facts which
occurred sometime in the past
o need to minimize recall or memory bias
o the respondent can be helped in recalling
events by tying-up dates with significant
events
• Use simple, generally familiar words which
respondents might use in a conversation. Avoid
technical jargon, formal language and
colloquialism.
 3.4 GUIDELINES TO QUESTION
DEVELOPMENT AND FORMATTING

3.4.2 Question Wording

• Avoid questions which are ambiguous
because of a generally inadequate
frame of reference (ex., “How many
times were you sick?”
• Avoid “multi-barrelled” questions. These
are questions which ask for more than
one item at the same time.
• Avoid “leading” questions. These are
questions which are phrased in such a
way that the respondent gets a clue on
what the desired response is, and will
be encouraged to provide it.
 3.4 GUIDELINES TO QUESTION
DEVELOPMENT AND FORMATTING
3.4.3 Format
• When arranging the sequence of the questions
or items in the data collection tool, start with
those which are easy to administer or to
answer. The first questions should be an
attempt to:
o create the respondent’s interest and
motivation
o build the respondent’s confidence in the
data collection activity
• Respondents should be eased into embarrassing
or sensitive questions by a series of lead-in
questions
• Items or questions should be grouped according
to subject areas to avoid an unnatural flow
 3.4 GUIDELINES TO QUESTION
DEVELOPMENT AND FORMATTING
3.4.3 Format
• A good data collection tool must be:
o easy to understand
 important words and phrases are underlined
or printed in italics
 use of all capital letters for instructions to
interviewers
o easy to follow
 use of instructions
 sequential numbering
 indentation
• Consider data processing when developing the format
and listing of response options to closed response
questions
 3.4 GUIDELINES TO QUESTION
DEVELOPMENT AND FORMATTING
3.4.4 Formulating pre-set categories of
answers to survey questions
• When asking questions where
respondents are asked to choose from a
pre-set categories of answers, make sure
that the categories are exhaustive and
mutually exclusive
• When respondents are asked to respond
to statements using a Likert scale, make
sure that both statement to which the
respondent is asked to react, as well as
the choices presented in the form of a
Likert scale are appropriate for this type
of measurement
 COMMENT ON THE APPROPRIATENESS OF THE USE OF THE
LIKERT SCALE IN THE FOLLOWING SURVEY QUESTIONS
Rate your extent of knowledge about mentally challenged individuals using the
following scale:
5 – Knowledgeable to a very high extent
4 – Knowledgeable to a high extent
3 – Knowledgeable to some extent
2 – Knowledgeable to a limited extent
1 – No knowledge at all

Situations 1 2 3 4 5
1. Mentally challenged individuals have poor mental ability.
2. Communication problem is apparent among mentally
challenged individuals.
3. Mentally challenged individuals differ in mental levels.
4. Mentally challenged individuals need special care.
5. Constant aid is needed by mentally challenged individuals.
 COMMENT ON THE APPROPRIATENESS OF THE USE OF THE
LIKERT SCALE IN THE FOLLOWING SURVEY QUESTIONS

Objective: To assess the intranatal services and degree of satisfaction of mothers

who delivered their babies in Hospital X
Direction: Put a check ( ) on the blank provided that would correspond to your
satisfaction. 5 – Always 4 – Oftentimes 3- Sometimes 2- Seldom 1- Never

5 4 3 2 1
1. I had a companion of choice during labor.
2. I had a companion of choice during delivery.
3. I was well accommodated by the midwife during
her assessment upon admitting.
4. My baby was placed on my abdomen to properly
bond with my new born baby. (What can you
about how this statement is phrased?)
5. The midwife was focused on my wellbeing rather
than the convenience of the health care
providers. (What can you say about this statement?)
 3.5 PRE-TESTING A DATA
COLLECTION TOOL
3.5.1 General Guidelines
• If the data collection tool was developed using a
language/dialect which is different from the one
which will be used during the actual data
collection, it should be translated first before it is
pre-tested. The translated version should be the
one used for pre-testing.
• Select a sample of individuals who are
representative of the population towards which
the data collection tool is eventually intended
• Administer the pre-test under conditions
comparable to those anticipated in the actual
data collection activity
 3.5 PRE-TESTING A DATA
COLLECTION TOOL
3.5.1 General Guidelines
• Examine the returned trial forms or
questionnaires for trouble signs –
items left blank or yielding no useful
information, ambiguous answers, etc.
• Analyze the results to assess the
effectiveness of the draft of the data
collection tool to yield the desired
information.
• Make appropriate deletions, additions
and modifications to the data
collection tool
 3.5 PRE-TESTING A DATA
COLLECTION TOOL
3.5.2 Evidence for the Need for Revision
• High incidence of incomplete interviews
• Responses to one or more questions fall
into only one category
• Too many ambiguous or qualified
responses (e.g., “It depends”)
• Responses elicited are irrelevant to the
objectives of the data collection activity
 EXERCISE
Do the following questions need improvement? If
yes:
a. State the reason why
b. Recommend a better way of phrasing
them
1. Do you intend to resign from your job and look for
another one?
2. it is definitely better to take a post-graduate degree while
you are still young, isn’t it?
3. How many times did you feel unwanted?
4. What do you think are some of the inhibiting factors
affecting the resilience of your barangay after it was hit
by the last earthquake? (The respondent is a Barangay
Captain who has reached only Grade 4)