Network Models
Slide Source: B. A. Forauzan, Data Communications and Networking,
McGraw-Hill Online Learning Centre
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NETWORK MODELS
Network- combination of hardware and software that
sends data from one location to another
Hardware- physical equipment that carries signal
Software- consists instruction sets that make
network services possible
2.2
2-1 LAYERED TASKS
We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an
example, let us consider two friends who communicate
through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a
friend would be complex if there were no services
available from the post office.
Topics discussed in this section:
Sender, Receiver, and Carrier
Hierarchy
2.3
Figure 2.1 Tasks involved in sending a letter
2.4
2-2 THE OSI MODEL
ISO standard that covers all aspects of network
communications is the Open Systems Interconnection
(OSI) model; introduced in the late 1970s
To Facilitate communication between different systems
without requiring changes to the underlying hardware and
software
Layered framework for the design of network systems
that allows communication between all types of
computer systems
Composed of 7 separate but related layers (ordered)
2.5
Note
ISO is the organization.
OSI is the model.
2.6
Figure 2.2 Seven layers of the OSI model
2.7
OSI MODEL …
Each layer defines part of the process of moving information
across a network
Networking functions with related uses are collected into
discrete groups layers
Allows complete interoperability between incompatible
systems
Subgroups: Network support layers (Physical, Data link and
Network layer), User support layers (Application, Presentation
and Session); Transport layer -interface between the two
Within a single machine, each layer calls upon the services of
a layer just below it
Peer Processes: processes on each machine that
communicate at a given layer
2.8
Figure 2.3 The interaction between layers in the OSI model
2.9
Figure 2.4 An exchange using the OSI model
2.10
2-3 LAYERS IN THE OSI MODEL
In this section we briefly describe the functions of each
layer in the OSI model.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
2.11
Physical layer
Coordinates functions required to carry a bit stream over
physical medium
Electrical specifications of the interface and transmission
medium
Defines procedures and functions to be performed by physical
devices and interfaces
2.12
Figure 2.5 Physical layer
2.13
Physical layer
Physical layer is also concerned with following:
Physical characteristics of interfaces and medium
Representation of bits (encoding; 0s and 1s changed
to signals)
Data rate (bit duration)
Synchronization of bits (clock synchronization)
Line configuration (point-to-point/ multipoint)
Physical topology
Transmission mode (simplex/duplex)
2.14
Note
The physical layer is responsible for movements of
individual bits from one hop (node) to the next.
2.15
Data Link layer
Data link layer transforms the physical layer from raw
transmission facility to a reliable link
responsible for moving frames from one hop (node) to the next
Responsibilities
Framing: divides the stream of bits received into manageable
data units called Frames
Physical Addressing: Address of sender and receiver of frame
Error control: adds reliability to the physical layer; detect and
retransmit damaged or lost frame
Flow control: avoid overwhelming the receiver
Access control: defines which device has right to use the shared
link/channel
2.16
Figure 2.6 Data link layer
2.17
Note
The data link layer is responsible for moving
frames from one hop (node) to the next.
2.18
Figure 2.7 Hop-to-hop delivery
2.19
Network layer
Responsible for source-to-destination delivery of
packets across multiple networks
Needed when two systems are connected to different
networks, with connecting devices between the networks
Responsibilities
Logical Addressing: physical address cannot be used when
packet passes the network boundary
Logical addressing used to distinguish source and destination
system
Routing: Route packets to final destination over a large
network or an internetwork of independent networks
2.20
Figure 2.8 Network layer
2.21
Note
The network layer is responsible for the
delivery of individual packets from
the source host to the destination host.
2.22
Figure 2.9 Source-to-destination delivery
2.23
Transport layer
Responsible for process-to-process delivery of packets
Process- an application program running on host
Transport layer ensures that whole message arrives intact and
in order
Responsibilities
Service-point Addressing: Port addressing
Network layer gets each packet to correct computer,
Transport layer gets the entire message to correct process
Segmentation and Reassembly: message divided into
transmittable segments; sequence number
Connection control
Flow control and Error control
2.24
Figure 2.10 Transport layer
2.25
Note
The transport layer is responsible for the delivery
of a message from one process to another.
2.26
Figure 2.11 Reliable process-to-process delivery of a message
2.27
Session Layer
Is the network dialog controller; session manager
Establishes, maintains and synchronizes the interaction among
communicating systems
Responsibilities
Dialog control: allows dialog between two systems;
communication can take place in half-duplex or full-duplex
Synchronization: Check points/synchronization points added
to stream of data
e.g large file of 1000 pages; checkpoint every 100 page
2.28
Figure 2.12 Session layer
2.29
Note
The session layer is responsible for dialog
control and synchronization.
2.30
Presentation Layer
Concerned with syntax and semantics of the information
exchanged
Responsibilities
Translation: changes the information from machine dependent
format to machine independent format
Compression: reduce the amount of bits/data in the
information
Encryption: ensure privacy
2.31
Figure 2.13 Presentation layer
2.32
Note
The presentation layer is responsible for translation,
compression, and encryption.
2.33
Application Layer
Enables users to access the network; provides user
interfaces and support for services
Responsible for providing services to the user
Services provided-
Network virtual terminal: allows user to log on to remote host
File transfer, access and management: allows user to access
files on remote host
Mail services: e-mail forwarding and storage
Directory services: provides database sources and access for
global information about various objects and services
2.34
Figure 2.14 Application layer
2.35
Note
The application layer is responsible for
providing services to the user.
2.36
Figure 2.15 Summary of layers
2.37
2-4 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
The layers in the TCP/IP protocol suite do not exactly
match those in the OSI model.
The original TCP/IP protocol suite had four layers:
host-to-network, internet, transport, and application.
When TCP/IP is compared to OSI, we can say that the
TCP/IP protocol suite is made of five layers: physical,
data link, network, transport, and application.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical and Data Link Layers
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
2.38
Figure 2.16 TCP/IP and OSI model
2.39
2-5 ADDRESSING
Four levels of addresses are used in an internet employing
the TCP/IP protocols: physical, logical, port, and specific.
Topics discussed in this section:
Physical Addresses
Logical Addresses
Port Addresses
Specific Addresses
2.40
Figure 2.17 Addresses in TCP/IP
2.41
Figure 2.18 Relationship of layers and addresses in TCP/IP
2.42
Example 2.1
In Figure 2.19 a node with physical address 10 sends a
frame to a node with physical address 87. The two nodes
are connected by a link (bus topology LAN). As the
figure shows, the computer with physical address 10 is
the sender, and the computer with physical address 87 is
the receiver.
2.43
Figure 2.19 Physical addresses
2.44
Example 2.2
As we will see in Chapter 13, most local-area networks
use a 48-bit (6-byte) physical address written as 12
hexadecimal digits; every byte (2 hexadecimal digits) is
separated by a colon, as shown below:
07:01:02:01:2C:4B
A 6-byte (12 hexadecimal digits) physical address.
2.45
Example 2.3
Figure 2.20 shows a part of an internet with two routers
connecting three LANs. Each device (computer or
router) has a pair of addresses (logical and physical) for
each connection. In this case, each computer is
connected to only one link and therefore has only one
pair of addresses. Each router, however, is connected to
three networks (only two are shown in the figure). So
each router has three pairs of addresses, one for each
connection.
2.46
Figure 2.20 IP addresses
2.47
Example 2.4
Figure 2.21 shows two computers communicating via the
Internet. The sending computer is running three
processes at this time with port addresses a, b, and c. The
receiving computer is running two processes at this time
with port addresses j and k. Process a in the sending
computer needs to communicate with process j in the
receiving computer. Note that although physical
addresses change from hop to hop, logical and port
addresses remain the same from the source to
destination.
2.48
Figure 2.21 Port addresses
2.49
Note
The physical addresses will change from hop to hop,
but the logical addresses usually remain the same.
2.50
Example 2.5
As we will see in Chapter 23, a port address is a 16-bit
address represented by one decimal number as shown.
753
A 16-bit port address represented
as one single number.
2.51
Note
The physical addresses change from hop to hop,
but the logical and port addresses usually remain the same.
2.52
