Network Models

Course Code: COE 3201 Course Title: Data Communication

Dept. of Computer Engineering

Faculty of Engineering

Lecture No: 2 Week No: 2 Semester:

Lecturer: DEBRAJ DAS
Lecture Outline

1. Layered Tasks
2. Introduction to OSI Model
3. Introduction to TCP/IP Model
4. Data Encapsulation
 Layered Tasks
We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As
an example, let us consider two friends who
communicate through postal mail The process of
sending a letter to a friend would be complex if
there were no services available from the post
office.

Fig: Tasks involved in sending a letter

Importance of Layering
Troubleshooting: The protocols, actions, and data contained in each layer
of the model relate only to the purpose of that layer. This enables
troubleshooting efforts to be pinpointed on the layer that carries out the
suspected cause of the problem.

Standards: Probably the most important reason for using a layered model is
that it establishes a prescribed guideline for interoperability between the
various vendors developing products that perform different data
communications tasks.

Change: When changes are made to one layer, the impact on the other
layers is minimized. If the model consists of a single, all-encompassing
layer, any change affects the entire model.
 Introduction to OSI
Model
 The Open System Interconnection Reference Model (OSI Reference Model
or OSI Model) is an abstract description for layered communications and
computer network protocol design. How data will transfer from one computer
to another computer using computer network!
 It divides network architecture into seven layers which, from top to bottom, are
the Application, Presentation, Session, Transport, Network, Data Link, and
Physical Layers. It is therefore often referred to as the OSI Seven Layer
Model.
 In 1978, the International Standards Organization (ISO) began to develop its
OSI framework architecture.
Introduction to OSI
Model OSI Model
Data unit Layer Function
7. Application Network process to application

Data 6. Presentation Data representation, encryption

5. Session Interhost communication

End-to-end connections and reliability, Flow
Segments 4. Transport
control

Packet 3. Network Path determination and logical addressing

Frame 2. Data Link Physical addressing
Bit 1. Physical Media, signal and binary transmission

The mnemonic for remembering the seven layers in OSI Model is

 Going from layer 1 to 7: Please Do Not Throw Sausage Pizza Away
 Going from layer 7 to 1: All People Seem To Need Data Processing
Introduction to OSI
Model
Application Layer
 The application layer is the OSI layer closest to the end
user, which means that both the OSI application layer and
the user interact directly with the software application.
 Some examples of application layer implementations
include
 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)
 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)
 Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
It is used by network applications like computer
applications that used internet. Like Google Chrome,
Outlook etc.
Presentation Layer
 Before being transmitted, information in the form of
characters and numbers should be changed to bit streams.
The presentation layer is responsible for interoperability
between encoding methods as different computers use
different encoding methods. It translates data between the
formats the network requires and the format of the
computer.
 This layer provides independence from differences in data
representation, such as – Encryption, Compression
Session Layer
 Session layer provides mechanism for controlling the
dialogue between the two end systems. It defines how to
start, control and end conversations (called sessions)
between applications.
 Any necessary log-on or password validation is also
handled by this layer.
 Session layer is also responsible for terminating the
connection.
Transport Layer
 It is a combination of segmentation, flow control and
Error control
 Segmentation: It breaks a data set into segments and will
send to the destination. It helps to send data to the correct
destination say WhatsApp, Web Browsers. etc.
 Purpose of this layer is to provide a reliable mechanism for the
exchange of data between two processes in different computers.
 Ensures that the data units are delivered error free.
 Ensures that data units are delivered in sequence.
 Ensures that there is no loss or duplication of data units.
Use two protocol
 TCP-Transmission Control Protocol
 UDP- User Diagram Protocol
 Network Layer
 Routing: The network layer protocols determine which route is
suitable from source to destination. This function of network
layer is known as routing.
 Logical Addressing: In order to identify each device on
internetwork uniquely, network layer defines an addressing
scheme. The sender & receiver’s IP address are placed in the
header by network layer. Such an address distinguishes each
device uniquely and universally.
 Data Link
 TheLayer
Data Link Layer is like a traffic controller or supervisor
between two directly connected devices (like computer to
switch, or router to router over a wire or Wi-Fi).
It ensures that data is sent safely and correctly over a physical
medium.
Main Job of the Data Link Layer:
1.Framing – Breaks the data into small units called frames.
2.Error Detection and Correction – Checks if the data was
sent correctly. If there’s an error, it can request to resend.
3.Flow Control – Makes sure the receiver isn't overwhelmed
by too much data.
4.Media Access Control (MAC) – Controls who can use the
shared network (important in Wi-Fi or Ethernet networks).
 Data Link
Layer
How it Works: (Real-Life Analogy)
Imagine sending a package through a courier
service:
•You put your item in a box (this is the frame).
•You label the box with your address and the
receiver’s address (MAC addresses).
•The courier checks if the address is correct and
delivers it.
•If the package gets damaged, you report it, and
they resend it (error detection).
Services of Data-Link Layer
Contd.
 Error control: The data link layer adds reliability to the
physical layer by adding mechanisms to detect and
retransmit damaged or lost frames. It also uses a
mechanism to recognize duplicate frames. Error control is
normally achieved through a trailer added to the end of the
frame.
 Access control: When two or more devices are connected
to the same link, data link layer protocols are necessary to
determine which device has control over the link at any
given time.
Services of Data-Link Layer
 Framing: The data link layer divides the stream of bits
received from the network layer into manageable data units
called frames.
 Physical addressing: The Data Link layer adds a header to
the frame in order to define physical address of the sender or
receiver of the frame.
 Flow control: If the rate at which the data are absorbed by
the receiver is less than the rate at which data are produced
in the sender, the data link layer imposes a flow control
mechanism to avoid overwhelming the receiver.
Data Link Layer - Frame

The data link layer is responsible for

moving frames from one hop (node)
to the next
 Data Link Layer - Frame
•Data: This is the actual information received from the network
layer.
•H2 (Header 2): The data link layer adds a header (H2) to the
beginning of the data. This header typically contains control
information such as source and destination physical addresses
(MAC addresses), frame type, and error control information.
•T2 (Trailer 2): A trailer (T2) is added to the end of the data. The
trailer often includes error detection codes (like CRC - Cyclic
Redundancy Check) to ensure data integrity during transmission.
•Frame: The combination of H2, Data, and T2 forms a complete
frame. This frame is then passed "To physical layer" for actual
transmission as bits over the physical medium (e.g., cables,
wireless signals).
Physical
Layer
 Bit synchronization: The physical layer provides the synchronization
of the bits by providing a clock. This clock controls both sender and
receiver thus providing synchronization at bit level.
 Bit rate control: The Physical layer also defines the transmission rate
i.e. the number of bits sent per second.
 Physical topologies: Physical layer specifies the way in which the
different, devices/nodes are arranged in a network i.e. bus, star or
mesh topology.
 Transmission mode: Physical layer also defines the way in which the
data flows between the two connected devices. The various
transmission modes possible are: Simplex, half-duplex and full-
duplex.
Introduction to TCP/IP Model

 The Internet Protocol Suite (commonly known

as TCP/IP) is the set of communications protocols used
for the Internet and other similar networks.
 It is named from two of the most important protocols in
it:
 the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and
 the Internet Protocol (IP), which were the first two
networking protocols defined in this standard.
TCP/IP Model in relation to OSI
Model:
Layer 1 – Application Layer

•Topmost layer in TCP/IP model.

•Purpose: Provides network services directly to users.
 Functions:
•Defines protocols for communication between applications.
•Handles user interaction, data formatting, and session management.
 Examples of Protocols:
•HTTP, HTTPS (Web Browsing)
•FTP (File Transfer)
•SMTP, POP3, IMAP (Email)
•DNS (Domain Name System)
Layer 2 – Transport Layer
•Purpose: Ensures end-to-end communication and reliability.
•Functions:
 Segmentation and reassembly of data.
 Error detection and correction.
 Flow control and congestion control.
•Key Protocols:
 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Reliable,
connection-oriented.
 UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Unreliable,
connectionless, faster.
 Layer 3 – Internet Layer
•Purpose: Responsible for addressing, routing, and delivering packets.
•Functions:
 Logical addressing with IP addresses.
 Packet forwarding across networks.
 Routing decisions via routers.
•Key Protocols:
 IP (Internet Protocol): IPv4, IPv6
 ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol): Error reporting
 ARP (Address Resolution Protocol): Resolves IP to MAC
 RARP (Reverse ARP): Resolves MAC to IP
Layer 4 – Network Access Layer (Link
Layer)
•Bottom layer of TCP/IP.
•Purpose: Deals with physical transmission of data.
•Functions:
 Defines how data is physically sent (wired or wireless).
 Encapsulation of IP packets into frames.
 Error detection at data link level.
•Components:
 Hardware: Network Interface Cards (NIC), cables, switches.
 Protocols: Ethernet, Wi-Fi, PPP, Frame Relay.
Working of TCP/IP Model

•Data Encapsulation Process:

1.Data → Application Layer (protocol data unit: message)
2.Transport Layer (segment)
3.Internet Layer (packet)
4.Network Access Layer (frame → bits)
•Data travels through layers at sender and reverses at receiver.
•Include diagram showing encapsulation & decapsulation.
Advantages of TCP/IP

• Open standard protocol suite.

• Supports large, heterogeneous networks.

• Highly scalable and robust.

• Basis for Internet communication.

Data Encapsulation
The term encapsulation is used to describe a process of adding headers and
trailers around some data. This process can be explained with the four-layer
TCP/IP model, with each step describing the role of the layer.
For example, here is what happens when you send an email using your favorite
email program (such as Outlook or gmail):
1. The email is sent from the Application layer to the Transport layer.
2. The Transport layer encapsulates the data and adds its own header with its
own information, such as which port will be used and passes the data to the
Internet layer
3. The Internet layer encapsulates the received data and adds its own header,
usually with information about the source and destination IP addresses. The
Internet layer than passes the data to the Network Access layer
4. The Network Access layer is the only layer that adds both a header and a
trailer. The data is then sent through a physical network link.
Figure: Data Encapsulation
(a) Upper Layers (Application, (b) Transport Layer (TCP/UDP)
Presentation, Session) •Adds the TCP Header → This ensures
•This is where the data originates (like the data can be tracked and delivered
writing a letter). correctly (like putting a label with sender
•Data is prepared in the correct format. & receiver details).
•The data here is called a Segment.

(c) Network Layer (IP)

•Adds the IP Header → This gives the (d) Data Link Layer (LLC & MAC)
•Adds LLC & MAC Headers + FCS (Frame Check
logical address (IP address) so that
data can travel across different Sequence) → This provides physical (MAC)
networks (like writing the city & postal addresses for devices within the same network
code on the envelope). (like putting the street address).
•The data here is called a Packet. •The data here is called a Frame.

(e) Physical Layer

•Converts the frame into Bits (0s and 1s) to
send over cables or wireless (like sending the
letter physically through the postal system).
•The actual transmission happens here.
Books

1. Forouzan, B. A. "Data Communication and Networking. Tata McGraw." (2005).

References

1. Prakash C. Gupta, “Data communications”, Prentice Hall India Pvt.

2. William Stallings, "Data and Computer Communications”, Pearson
3. Forouzan, B. A. "Data Communication and Networking. Tata McGraw." (2005).