Motion Notes PDF

Introduction:

• One of the most common phenomena in the physical world is motion.

Mechanics is the branch of Physics that deals with the behavior of moving
objects.
• Mechanics is divided further into two sections: Kinematics and Dynamics.
• Kinematics is the study of motion without regard for the cause of motion.
• Dynamics is concerned with the source of motion, which is force.

Motion and Rest:

• An object is said to be in motion if its position in relation to its surroundings

changes in a given time.
• An object is said to be at rest if its position in relation to its surroundings
does not change.
• A frame of reference is another object or scene against which we compare
the position of an object.

Types of Motion:

There are three types of motion:

• Translatory motion
• Rotatory motion
• Vibratory motion

Translatory Motion:

• A particle in translatory motion moves from one point in space to another.

This movement may be in a straight line or in a curved path.
• Rectilinear motion is defined as motion along a straight line.
• Curvilinear motion is defined as movement along a curved path.
• As an example, consider a car driving down a straight road.
Curvilinear Motion:

Rotatory Motion:

The particles of the body describe concentric circles around the axis of motion is
rotatory motion.

Vibrational Motion:

Particles in vibratory motion move back and forth around a fixed point.

(Image will be uploaded soon)

Distance and Displacement:

The distance between termini A and B is 150 kilometers. A bus connects Terminus
A and Terminus B. The bus travels a distance of 150 kilometers. The bus returns
from terminus B to terminus A along the same route. As a result, the total
distance traveled by the bus from A to B and then from B to A is 150 km + 150 km
= 300 km.

(Image will be uploaded soon)

A bus traveling from point A to point B and back again.

• The distance traveled by a moving object is the length of the path the
object takes.
• The measure of distance is a scalar quantity. The meter is the SI unit of
distance.
• The bus's position changed when it moved from Terminus A to Terminus B.
The distance between A and B is 150 kilometers. The distance traveled on
the return trip is also 150 kilometers.
• Displacement is the shortest path covered by a moving object in a specified
direction from the point of reference (the initial position of the body).
Note:

• However, the displacement when the bus moves from A B to B B is zero.

The meter is the SI unit of displacement.
• Displacement is a vector, which means that it is represented by a number
with appropriate units and directions.
• To emphasize the distinction between displacement and distance, consider
a few more examples.

Assume a person moves 3 meters from point A to point B and 4 meters from point
B to point C, as shown in the figure. He has traveled a total distance of 7 meters.
But is he really 7 meters away from his starting point? No, he is only 5 meters
away from his initial position, implying that he is displaced by the shortest
distance between his initial and final positions.

Distance and Displacement

To determine the displacement in this example, we can use Pythagoras' theorem.

Consider an object that is changing its position with respect to a fixed point is
known as the origin 0.

xixi and xfxf are the initial and final positions of the object. Then the displacement
of the

object =xf−xi=xf−xi

Case 1:

Suppose the object is traveling from +1+1 to +4+4, then displacement

=xf−xi=xf−xi

=+4−(+1)=+4−(+1)

=+3=+3

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Displacement: Case 1
Case 2:

If the object is traveling from -3 to -1, then displacement

If the object is travelling from −3−3 to −1−1, then displacement

=xf−xi=xf−xi

=−1−(−3)=−1−(−3)

=+2=+2

(Image will be uploaded soon)

Displacement: Case 2

Case 3:

If the object is travelling from +4 to +2, then displacement

=xf−xi=xf−xi

=+2−(4)=+2−(4)

=−2=−2

Displacement: Case 3

Case 4:

If the object follows the path depicted in the figure, the final and initial positions
are the same, implying that the displacement is zero.

Displacement: Case 4

We can conclude from the preceding examples that a body's displacement is

positive if its final position is on the right side of its initial position and negative if
its final position is on the left side of its initial position. The displacement of a
moving object is said to be zero when it returns to its original position. Consider
an athlete running in a clockwise direction along a circular track with radius r,
beginning at A.

A Circular Track of Radius r

What is the athlete's total distance traveled when he arrives at point B?

The athlete's total distance traveled when he arrives at point B equals to half of
the circumference of the circular track, that is, 2πr2=πr2πr2=πr.

Displacement =AB=2r==AB=2r= Diameter of circle (the shortest distance between

the initial and final positions).

If the athlete arrives at the starting point AA, the distance covered is equal to the
circumference of the circular track, i.e., 2πr.2πr. However, the displacement is
zero because the athlete's initial and final positions are the same.

Difference between Distance and Displacement

Distance Displacement
It is the actual length of a It is the shortest distance between the moving
moving object's path. object's initial and final positions.
Scalar quantity Vector quantity

Motion:

Uniform Motion and Non-uniform Motion:

The distances covered by car A and car B with respect to time is given below:

Car A:

Time in seconds 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Distance covered in meters 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Car B:

Time in seconds 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Distance covered in meters 0 10 15 20 30 60 65 75

The car A travels equal distances in equal time intervals, whereas the car B does
not travel equal distances in equal time intervals. That is, car A's motion is an
example of uniform motion, whereas car B's motion is an example of non-uniform
motion.

A body is said to describe uniform motion when it covers equal distances in equal
intervals of time.

When a body moves unequal distances in equal time intervals, or vice versa, this
is referred to as non-uniform motion.

Speed:

Ram and Krishna compete in various races over varying distances. Ram covers
1000 m1000 m in 20 minutes and Krishna covers 700 m700 m in 10 minutes. Who
is the fastest?

To determine who is faster, we will calculate the distance they cover in one
minute.

Distance covered by Ram in one minute

=1000 m20 min=500 m/min=1000 m20 min=500 m/min

Distance covered by Krishna in one minute

=700 m10 min=70 m/min=700 m10 min=70 m/min

Krishna covered more ground in the same amount of time. We conclude that
Krishna is the faster of the two.

Speed is defined as the distance traveled by a moving object in one unit of time.

speed = distance time =St speed = distance time =St

Where S denotes the distance traveled and t denotes the time spent.

The SI unit of speed is millimeters per second (m/s). Speed is defined as a scalar
quantity.
Uniform Speed:

The graph depicts the distance traveled by a ball every 2 seconds.

(Image will be uploaded soon)

Every 2 seconds, the ball travels 10 meters. At any point between A and E, the ball
moves at a speed of 5 m/s. The object is moving at a constant speed.

If an object travels the same distance in the same amount of time, it is said to be
moving at a uniform speed.

Surface friction or resistance is ignored in this case.

Variable Speed or Non-Uniform Speed:

The distance covered varies with time.

(Image will be uploaded soon)

Variable Speed:

For example, when a rubber ball is dropped from a certain height (h1), it bounces
up to a height less than the initial one (h2). It keeps bouncing, but the height to
which it rises keeps decreasing (h3, h4). The ball's distance traveled per unit time
decreases. The ball's speed varies from point to point. This type of speed is known
as variable speed.

Average Speed and Instantaneous Speed:

When we travel by car, the speed varies depending on the road conditions at the
time. The speed is calculated in this case by dividing the total distance traveled by
the vehicle by the total time required for the journey. This is known as the
average speed.

The average speed of an object traveling S1 in time t1, S2 in time t2, and Sn in
time tn is given by,

Average speed =S1+S2+S3+…+Snt1+t2+t3+…+tn Average

speed =S1+S2+S3+…+Snt1+t2+t3+…+tn
When we say that the car travels at an average speed of 60 km/h, we do not
mean that it will travel at that speed for the duration of the journey. The actual
speed of the car may be less than or greater than the average speed at a given
location.

The speed of a moving body at any given point in time is referred to as

instantaneous speed.

Velocity:

The diagram below depicts the various routes Shyam can take from his house to
school.

(Image will be uploaded soon)

Shyam drives himself to school every day, averaging 60 km/h. Is it possible to find
out how long it will take to get to the destination? Yes, you can use the relation to
determine the time.

speed = distance time speed = distance time

But you don't know what path he would have taken. As a result, simply providing
the speed of a moving object does not allow one to determine the exact position
of the object at any given time. As a result, there is a need to define a quantity
that has both magnitude and direction.

Starting with A, consider two objects P and Q. Allow them to travel equal
distances in equal time intervals, i.e. at the same speed. Can you guess where
each of them will be in 20 seconds? P and Q are free to move in any direction. To
determine the exact position of P and Q, we must also know their direction of
motion.

Pictorial Representation of the Position of the Objects P and Q:

As a result, another physical quantity known as velocity is introduced to provide

us with an idea of both speed and direction.

Velocity is defined as the distance traveled in a given direction by a moving object

in a given time or speed in a given direction.
velocity(v)= distance travelled in a specified direction (s) time
taken (t)velocity⁡(v)= distance travelled in a specified direction (s) time taken (t)

Note:

Velocity is defined as the distance traveled in a given direction in a given amount

of time. Displacement is the distance traveled in a specified direction.

As a result, velocity can be defined as the rate at which displacement changes.

Uniform Velocity and Non-Uniform Velocity:

Assume that two athletes, Ram and Shyam, are running at a constant speed of 5
m/s. Ram moves in a straight line, while Shyam follows a circular path. For a
layperson, both Ram and Shyam are moving with uniform velocity, but for a
physicist, only Ram is running with uniform velocity because his speed and
direction of motion do not change.

In the case of Shyam, who is running on a circular track, the direction of motion
changes at every instant because a circle is a polygon with infinite sides, and
Shyam must change his direction at every instant.

A body is said to be moving with uniform velocity if it travels the same distance in
the same amount of time in the same direction.

A body is said to be moving with variable velocity if it covers unequal distances in

equal intervals of time and vice versa in a specified direction, or if its direction of
motion changes.

Acceleration:

We are all aware that a car moving down the road does not have a uniform
velocity. Either the speed or the direction of travel shifts. We say that a vehicle is
accelerating when it is speeding up, i.e. when the speed increases.

Let us look at the change in velocity of a train traveling from Bangalore to Mysore
to get an idea of acceleration. The train, which was initially at rest, begins to
move; its velocity gradually increases until it reaches a constant velocity after a
certain time interval. As the train approaches the next station, its speed gradually
decreases until it comes to a halt.

When a train starts from a stop, its speed increases from zero, and we say it is
accelerating. After a while, the speed becomes uniform, and we say that the train
is moving at a uniform speed, which means that it is not accelerating. However, as
the train approaches Mysore, it slows down, indicating that the train is
accelerating in the opposite direction. When the train comes to a halt in Mysore,
it stops accelerating once more.

As a result, it is clear that the term "acceleration" does not always imply that the
speed of a moving body increases; it can also decrease, remain constant, or
become zero.

In general, acceleration is defined as the rate at which the velocity of a moving

body changes over time.

This change could be a change in the object's speed, direction of motion, or both.

Let us now look up a mathematical formula for calculating acceleration.

If an object moves with an initial velocity 'u' and reaches a final velocity 'v' in time
't,' then the acceleration 'a' produced by the object is

Acceleration = Rate at which velocity changes over time.

a=v−uta=v−ut

Unit of Acceleration:

The SI unit of acceleration is m/s2 and it is a vector quantity.

Different Types of Acceleration:

It is clear from the preceding example that acceleration takes various forms
depending on the change in velocity.

Positive acceleration:
When an object's velocity increases, it is said to be moving with positive
acceleration.

Positive Acceleration

(Image will be uploaded soon)

Example: a ball rolling downhill on an inclined plane.

Negative acceleration:

When an object's velocity decreases, it is said to be moving with negative

acceleration. Negative acceleration can also be referred to as retardation or
deceleration.

Example:

(1) A ball moving up an inclined plane.

(2) A vertically thrown upwards ball has a negative acceleration as its velocity
decreases over time.

Zero Acceleration:

If the change in velocity is zero, indicating that the object is either at rest or
moving at uniform velocity, the object is said to have zero acceleration.

A parked car, for example, or a train moving at a constant speed of 90 km/hr.

Uniform Acceleration:

The object is said to be moving with uniform acceleration if the change in velocity
at equal intervals of time is always the same.

As an example, consider a body falling from a great height towards the earth's
surface.

Non-uniform or Variable Acceleration:

If the change in velocity over equal time intervals is not the same, the object is
said to be moving with variable acceleration.

Motion:

Distance-Time Table and Distance-Time Graph:

Mr. X is taking a bus from New Delhi to Agra and recording his observations.

Distance in
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
km
10.00 10.15 10.30 10:45 11:00 11:15 11:30
Time
am am am am am am am

According to the table above, the bus travels equal distances at equal times. The
bus is moving at a constant speed. In such a case, we can compute the distance
traveled by the bus at any given point in time.

Consider an object moving from its initial position xi to its final position xf in time
t at a uniform speed v.

uniform speed = total distance time taken uniform speed = total distance time
taken

v=xf−xitv=xf−xit

xf−xi=vt⋯⋯(1)xf−xi=vt⋯⋯(1)

The relationship between distance, time, and average speed is given by equation
(1). This relationship can be used to generate distance-time tables as well as to
determine the position of any moving object at any given time. However, it is a
time-consuming and tedious process, especially when we need to determine the
position after a long period of time or compare the motion of two objects. In such
cases, graphs such as the distance-time graph can be useful. A distance-time
graph is a line graph that shows how distance changes over time. A distance-time
graph plots time along the x-axis and distance along the y-axis.

Distance-Time Graph for Non - Uniform Motion

Let us now look at the nature of a distance-time graph for a non-uniform motion.
The distance traveled by a bus every 15 minutes is shown in the table below.

Distance covered in km 0 5 15 20 25 30 35
Time in minutes 0 15 30 45 60 75 90

We can deduce from the above table that the motion is non-uniform, i.e. it covers
unequal distances in equal time intervals.

• Measure time along the x-axis and distance along the y-axis.
• Analyze the provided data and select the appropriate scale for time and
distance.
• Plot the points.
• Join the points.
• Consider any two points (A, B) on the graph.
• Draw perpendicular from A to B to x and y axes.
• Join A to C to get a right angled ACB.

The slope of the graph is shown below.

AB=BCACAB=BCAC

=St=St

=speed=speed

• Write the title and scale chosen for the graph.

speed =15−530−15 speed =15−530−15

=1015=1015

=23=23

=0.666 km/min=0.666 km/min

• Consider another two points on the graph, P and Q, and draw a right-
angled triangle PRQ.

slope = speed slope = speed

PQ=QRPRPQ=QRPR

=35−3090−75=35−3090−75

=515=515

=0.333Km/min=0.333Km/min

• Complete Graph

Nature of s-t Graph for Non-Uniform Motion:

Figure (a) depicts the S-t graph as the speed of a moving object increases, while
Figure (b) depicts the S-t graph as the speed of a moving object decreases. The
nature of the S-t graph allows us to determine whether the object is moving at a
constant or variable speed.

Uses of Graphical Representation:

• Because it provides a visual representation of two quantities, graphical

representation is more informative than tables (e.g., distance vs. time)
• A graph provides more information than a table at a glance. Both of the
graphs shown here depict increasing speed.

Figure (1) depicts the nature of the variation in speed, indicating that the increase
is greater in the beginning up to time t1 and relatively lower after t2.

Similarly, fig (2) depicts how the increase in speed becomes greater after t1. A
similar explanation applies to the decreasing speed.

• Graphs are simple to read at a glance.

• Graph plotting takes less time and is more convenient.
• Graphs can be used to determine the position of any moving object at any
point in time.
• Two moving objects' motions can be easily compared.
• Graphs reveal information about the nature of motion.

Uses of Velocity-time Graphs

The velocity-time graph can be used to derive the following results.

 • The acceleration produced in a body.
• The distance traveled by a moving object.
• The equations of motion.

Speed - Time Graph

To compute the distance traveled by a moving object using a speed-time graph.

The graph below depicts the speed-time graph of a car traveling at a constant
speed of 60 km/h for 5 hours.

(Image will be uploaded soon)

Speed-Time Graph of a Car Moving with Uniform Speed

Distance travelled by the car,

Distance travelled by the car

(S)=v×t(S)=v×t

=60×5=60×5

=300 km=300 km

But 60 km/h=OC=60 km/h=OC= breadth of the rectangle OABCOABC

5h=OA=5h=OA= length of the rectangle OABCOABC

i.e., the distance covered by the car = length ×× breadth =300 km=300 km.

To calculate the distance traveled by a moving object using a speed-time graph,

find the area enclosed by the speed-time graph and the time axis. In the case of
non-uniform motion, the distance covered by the object increases in steps as the
object's speed increases. During the time intervals
0−t1,t1−t2,t2−t3,……0−t1,t1−t2,t2−t3,……, the speed remains constant.

The motion of an object moving at a variable speed is depicted in the figure

below.
Speed - Time Graph for an Object Moving with Variable Speed

Calculation of Distance:

The object's total distance traveled during the time interval.

0- t6 = Area of rectangle 1 + area of rectangle 2 + …… + area of rectangle 6.

Motion

Equations of Motion

Time, speed, distance covered, and acceleration are the variables in a uniformly
accelerated rectilinear motion. These quantities have simple relationships. These
relationships are expressed using equations known as equations of motion.

The equations of motion are:

(1) v=u+atv=u+at

(2) S=ut+12at2S=ut+12at2

(3) v2−u2=2aSv2−u2=2aS

Derivation of the First Equation of Motion

Consider a particle moving in a straight line with a constant acceleration ‘a’. Let
the particle be at A at t=0, and u be its initial velocity, and v be its final velocity at
t=t.

a=v−uta=v−ut

v−u=atv−u=at

v=u+atv=u+at

I Equation of Motion

Second Equation of Motion

Average velocity = total distance travelled total time taken Average
velocity = total distance travelled total time taken

=St……(1)=St……(1)

Average velocity can alsobe written as

u+v2⋯⋯(2)u+v2⋯⋯(2)

From equation (1) and (2),

St=u+v2⋯⋯(3)St=u+v2⋯⋯(3)

The first equation of motion is v=u+atv=u+at. Substituting the value of vv in

equation (3), we get

St=u+u+at2=(u+u+at)t2St=u+u+at2=(u+u+at)t2

=(2u+at)t2=(2u+at)t2

S=ut+12at2S=ut+12at2

II equation of motion

Third Equation of Motion

The first equation of motion is

v=u+atv=u+at

v−u=at…(1)v−u=at…(1)

Average velocity =St⋯⋯(2)=St⋯⋯(2)

Average velocity =u+vt⋯⋅(3)=u+vt⋯⋅(3)

From equation (2) and equation (3) we get,

u+vt=St⋯…(4)u+vt=St⋯…(4)

Multiplying equation (1) and equation (4) we get,

(v−u)(v+u)=at×2St(v−u)(v+u)=at×2St

(v−u)(v+u)=2aS(v−u)(v+u)=2aS

(v2−u2)=2aS(v2−u2)=2aS

III equation of motion

Derivations of Equations of Motion (Graphically)

First Equation of Motion

Consider an object moving in a straight line with a uniform velocity u. When its
initial velocity is u, give it a uniform acceleration an at time t = 0. The object's
velocity increases as a result of the acceleration to v (final velocity) in time t, and
S is the distance covered by the object in time t.

The graph depicts the velocity-time graph of the object's motion.

The acceleration of a moving object is given by the slope of the v - t graph.

Thus, acceleration = slope

AB=BCAC=v−ut−0AB=BCAC=v−ut−0

a=v−uta=v−ut

v−u=atv−u=at

v=u+atv=u+at

I equation of motion

Second Equation of Motion

Let u be an object's initial velocity and 'a' be the acceleration produced in the
body. The area enclosed by the velocity-time graph for the time interval 0 to t
gives the distance travelled S in time t.

(Image will be uploaded soon)

Graphical Derivation of Second Equation

Distance travelled S = area of the trapezium ABDO

Distance travelled S=S= area of the trapezium ABDO

== area of reactangle ACDO+ACDO+ area of △ABC△ABC

=OD×OA+12BC×AC=OD×OA+12BC×AC

=t×u+12(v−u)×t=t×u+12(v−u)×t

=ut+12(v−u)×t=ut+12(v−u)×t

v=u+v=u+ at ∣∣ equation of motion; v−u=atv−u=at

S=ut+12at×tS=ut+12at×t

=ut+12at2=ut+12at2

II equation of motion

Third Equation of Motion

Let 'u' be an object's initial velocity and a be the acceleration produced in the
body. The area enclosed by the v - t graph gives the distance travelled 'S' in time
't'.

Graphical Derivation of Third Equation

S=S= area of trapezium OABDOABD

=12(b1+b2)h=12(b1+b2)h

=12(OA+BD)AC=12(OA+BD)AC

=12(u+v)t⋯⋯(1)=12(u+v)t⋯⋯(1)

But we know that a=v−uta=v−ut or t=v−uat=v−ua

Substituting the value of tt in equation (1) we get,

S=12(u+v)(v−u)aS=12(u+v)(v−u)a

=12(v+u)(v−u)a=12(v+u)(v−u)a

2as=(v+u)(v−u)2as=(v+u)(v−u)

(v+u)(v−u)=2as(v+u)(v−u)=2as

v2−u2=2asv2−u2=2as

III Equation of Motion

Circular Motion

We classified motion along a circular track as non-uniform motion in the example

discussed under the topic uniform and non-uniform motion. Let's take a look at
why circular motion is considered non-uniform motion. The figure depicts an
athlete running at a constant speed on a hexagonal track.

Athlete Running on a Regular Hexagonal Track

The athlete runs at a constant speed along the track segments AB, BC, CD, DE, EF,
and FA, and at the turns, he quickly changes direction to stay on the track without
changing his speed. Similarly, if the track had been a regular octagon, the athlete
would have had to change directions eight times in order to stay on the track.

Athlete Running on a Regular Octagonal Track

The athlete must turn more frequently as the number of sides of the track
increases. If we increase the number of sides indefinitely, the track will take on
the shape of a circle. As a result, because a circle is a polygon with infinite sides,
motion along a circular path is classified as non-uniform motion.

Athlete Running on a Circular Track

Thus, an object moving at uniform speed along a circular track is an example of

non-uniform motion because the object's direction of motion changes at every
instant of time.

Expression for Linear Velocity

If an athlete takes t seconds to complete one circular path of radius r, then the
velocity v is given by the relation,

v= distance travelled time v= distance travelled time

Distance travelled = circumference of the circle

=2πr=2πr

Linear velocity = 2r t

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