MT8701 ROBOTICS AND MACHINE VISION SYSTEM

UNIT I
BASICS OF ROBOTICS
Introduction- Basic components of robot-Laws of robotics- classification of robot-work
space-accuracy resolution –repeatability of robot. Power transmission system: Rotary to
rotary motion, Rotary to linear motion, Harmonics drives – gear system - belt drives.

Introduction
Robotics is an applied engineering science that has been referred to as a combination
of machine tool technology and computer science. It includes such as seemingly diverse
fields as machine design, control theory, microelectronics, computer programming, artificial
intelligence, human factors and production theory.
Robotics have evolved from simple mechanisms that can pick and place objects that
can interact with environment using vision, sensors, artificial intelligence (AI) etc. One must
understand, the use of sensors in robotics, the way robots are programmed end effectors to
handle parts and tools.
Robots work with sensors, tools and grippers.
Definition of Robot:
-According to Robotics Institute of America (RIA), the Robot is define as follows:
A robot is a reprogrammable multifunctional manipulator designed to move materials,
parts, tools or specialized devices through variable programmed motions for the performance
of a variety of tasks.
Robotics Terminology:
Robot- Mechanical device that performs human tasks, either automatically or by remote
control.
Robotics- Study and application of robot technology.
Telerobotic-Robot that is operated remotely.
Laws of Robotics:
Advanced step in Innovative Mobility (AsIMo) Proposed Laws:
Law 1- A robot may not injure a human being or through inaction, allow a human being to
come to harm.
Law 2- A robot must obey orders given to it by human beings, except where such orders
would conflict with the first law.
Law 3- A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict.
 Types of robot
Industrial Robots
Materials handling
Welding
Inspection
Improving productivity
Laboratory applications

Mobile Robots
Robots that move around on legs,
Tracks or wheels.

Educational Robots
Robotic kits.
E.g. Robolab,
lego and Robocup soccer.

Domestic Robots
Household tasks and Modern toys

Robotic Applications
Exploration
- Space Missions
- Robots in the Antarctic
- Exploring volcanoes
- Underwater Exploration
Medical Science
- Surgical assistant
Assembly-factories parts:
- Handling
- Assembly
- Painting
- Surveillance
- Security (bomb disposal etc)
- Home help (grass cutting, nursing)
The robot control map:
Sense:
Speech, vision, Acceleration, Temperature, Position, Distance Touch, Force magnetic field,
Light sound, Position Sense.
Think:
Task planning, Plan classification, Learn, Process data, Path planning, Motion planning
Act:
Output information move, speech text, visuals wheels legs, Arms tracks.
Robot Components:
Manipulator or Rover: Main body of robot-like links, joints, other structural element of the
robot.
End Effecter: The part that is connected to the last joint hand of a manipulator.
Actuators: Muscles of the manipulators (Servomotor, Stepper motor, pneumatic and
hydraulic cylinder.
Sensors: to collect information about the internal state of the robot or to communicate with
the outside environment.
Controller: Similar to cerebellum. It controls and coordinates the motion of the actuators.
Processor: The brain of the robot. It calculates the motions and the velocity of the robot’s
joints etc.
Software: Operating system, robotic software and the collection of routines.
Sensors:
It provides awareness of the environment by sensing things. Sensors are the core of the
robots. It is the system that alerts the robots.
Sensing can be in different forms like- Light, Sound, Heat, Chemicals, Force, Object
proximity, Physical orientation/Position, Magnetic and electrical fields and resistance.
End Effectors:
End effector is a device at the end of a robotic arm, designed to interact with the
environment.
End effectors may consist of a gripper or a tool. The gripper can be of two fingers, three
fingers or even five fingers.
Actuators:
Actuators are devices which provide the actual motive force for the robot joints. They
commonly get their power from one of three sources: Compressed air, pressurized fluid or
electricity. They are called Pneumatic, hydraulic or electric actuators respectively.
Locomotion
-Legs
-Wheels
-Other exotic means
Manipulation
- Independent controllable components of motionArms
 - Conventional method to allow full movement in 3D
- More often used in fixed robots due to power and weight
- Even more difficult to control (due to extra degrees of freedom.
Grippers
- May be simple to pick up objects
- - may be complex device with fingers of an arm
- Probably need feedback to control grip force.
Degrees of freedom:
The individual joint motions associated with the performance of a task are referred to by the
term degrees of freedom (DOF)
Purpose of robotics:
Robots are used for the following tasks:
Dirty tasks
Repetitive tasks
Dangerous tasks
Impossible tasks
Robots assisting the handicapped
Can operate equipment at much higher precision than humans
Cheaper on a long-term basis
Robot Anatomy
Robot anatomy is concerned with the physical construction of the body, arm, and
wrist of the machine. Most robots are used in plants and are mounted on a base which is
fastened to the floor.
The body is attached to the base and arm assembly is attached to the body. At the end
of the arm is the wrist. The wrist consists of a number of components that allow it to be
oriented in a variety of position.
Relative movements between the various components of the body, arm and wrist are
provided by a series of joints. These joints movement can be rotating or sliding.
The body, arm and wrist assembly may also be called as manipulator. The device
attached to the end of the wrist is called as hand or tool or end effector.
The end effector is not as part of the body of the robot. The arm and body joints of the
manipulator are used to orient the end effector.
Robot configurations:
Industrial robots are available wide variety of shapes, sizes and physical configurations. The
four-common configuration of the Robot are as follows:
1. Polar configuration
2. Cylindrical configuration
3. Cartesian coordinate configuration
4. Jointed-arm configuration
Polar configurations:
It uses a telescoping arm that can be raised or lowered about a horizontal pivot. This pivot is
mounted on a rotating base. This will enable the robot to move its arm within spherical space,
hence it can also be called as spherical coordinate system.It is shown in Fig1. (a).
Cylindrical configuration:
It uses a vertical column and a slide that can be moved up or down along the column. The
robot arm is attached to the slide so that can be moved radially with respect to the column. By
rotating the column, the robot is capable of achieving a work space (reach ability of the robot
arm) that approximates a cylinder.It is shown in Fig1. (b).
Cartesian coordinate:
It uses three perpendicular slides to construct x,y and z axes. Other names are sometimes
applied to this configuration, including xyz robot and rectilinear robot. By moving the three
slides relative to one another, the robot is capable of operating within a rectangular work
envelop.It is shown in Fig1. (c).
Jointed Arm robot:
It is made up of rotating joints. This configuration is sometimes called as anthropomorphic as
its anatomy is like human arm.It is shown in Fig1. (d).
 Figure.1 (a-d) Robot Anatomy

Robot Motions

Robot Motions
a) Linear Motions
b) Rotational Motions
c) Revolving motions
d) Twisting motions
e) Cylindrical (both linear and RevoluteSpherical
Industrial robots are used to perform productive work like pick and place. Welding,
assembly etc. The work is accomplished by enabling the robot to move its body, arm and
wrist through a series of motions and positions. Attached to the wrist is the end effector
which is used by the robot to perform a specific work task. The individual joint motions
associated with the performance of a task are referred as degrees of freedom (DOF).
The robot’s motions are powered by joints. These joints are normally associated with
the action of the arm and body, and two or three joints are generally used to actuate the
wrist.Connecting the various manipulator joints together are rigid members that are called
links. The links can be considered to form a serial chain or a parallel chain.
 The joints used in the design of industrial robots typically involve a relative motion of
the adjoining links that is either linear or rotational.Linear joints involve a sliding or
translational motion of the connecting links. The linear joint or prismatic joint is also can be
called as P joint. And, there are three types of rotating or revolute joints that can be
distinguished in robot manipulators and all are shown in Figure.2(b-d).
In these three types, the rotation takes place about an axis perpendicular to the axis or
parallel to the axis between the two adjacent links. Sometimes, the revolute joint is further
classified as pure rotational ®, Twisting (T), and Revolving. The revolute joint is mostly
referred to as a type R joint.
This P joint and R joint has one DOF. Combining a R joint and P joint, we can get
cylindrical joint and it has two DOF. This joint is shown in Figure.2 (e).
Another joint that is not common in robot, but very common in biological system is
the ball and socket joint as shown in Figure.2 (f). This joint has largest range of DOF and has
three DOF.
The arm and body joints are designed to enable the robot to move its end effector to a
desired position within the limits of the robot’s size and joint movements.
For robots of polar, cylindrical, or jointed-arm configuration, the three degrees of
freedom associated with the arm and body motions are:
Vertical traverse: This is the capability to move the wrist up or down to provide the desired
vertical attitude.
Radial traverse: This involves the extension or retraction (in or out movement) of the arm
from the vertical centre of the robot.
Rotational traverse: This is the rotation of the arm about the vertical axis.
The degrees of freedom associated with the arm and body of the robot for polar coordinate
system are shown in Figure.3. for polar configuration robot. Similar degrees of freedom are
associated with the cylindrical configuration and jointed-arm robot.
For a cartesian coordinate robot, the three degrees of freedom are: vertical movement (z-
axis), in-and-out movement (y-axis) and right-of-left movement (x-axis).
 Figure.2 (a-f) Robot Motions

Figure.3Three degrees of freedom associated with the arm and body of the
robot for polar coordinate system

Wristmovement:
The wrist movement is designed to enable the robot to orient the end effector properly with
respect to the task being performed. The Figure.4 shows the Three degrees of freedom
associated with robot wrist.
Wrist roll: It is also called as wrist swivel; this involves rotation of the wrist mechanism
about the arm axis.
Wrist pitch: Given that wrist roll, Wrist pitch would involve up and down rotation of the
wrist. It can also call as wrist bend.
Wrist yaw: Again, given that the wrist swivel is in the centre position of its range, wrist yaw
would involve the right or left rotation of the wrist.

Figure.4Three degrees of freedom associated with robot wrist

Robot Drive Systems:

The body, arm and wrist of the robot can be moved by using the drive system. The drive
system determines: the speed of the operation, load carrying capacity and its dynamic
performances. The following drive systems are used to drive the robot:
 - Hydraulic drive system
- Electric drive system
- Pneumatic drive system
- Advanced actuators
Hydraulic drive system:
1. Hydraulic drives are mostly used in robot.
2. It has greater speed and strength.
3. It needs more space.
4. It would leak the oil.
5. It is designed to actuate rotational joints and linear joints.
6. It is used in larger robot.
Electric Drive system
1. It is rarely used in the robot.
2. It has lower speed.
3. Its accuracy and repeatability are more.
4. It requires less space. Rotational joints motions can be made using gear system.
5. Linear joints motion is possible with pulleys set up.
Pneumatic drive system:
1. It is simple and used to pick and place operations.
2. It is used in smaller sized robot.

Speed motion and load carrying capacity:

Speed Motion:
The speed of course determines how quickly the robot can accomplish a give work cycle. In
deciding the speed of the robot, the following factors are considered.
1. The accuracy with which the wrist must be positioned.
2. The weight of the object
3. The distance to be moved.
Speed and accuracy of the robot inversely proportional. When the accuracy is increased,
robot need more time to reduce the location errors. The weight of the object will induce
inertia and momentum during handling. Therefore, the robot should be operated slowly to
safely deal with these factors. The influence of the distance to be moved by the robot
manipulator is illustrated as follows and is shown in Figure.5.
Because of acceleration and deceleration problems, a robot is capable of traveling long
distances in less time than a sequence of short distances whose sum is equal to the long
distance. The short distances may not permit the robot to ever reach the programmed
operating speed.
 Figure.5Influence of distance Vs speed

Load carrying capacity:

Factors determines the load carrying capacity:

1. Size
2. Configuration
3. Construction
4. Drive systems.
Load carrying capacity of robot should be mentioned before the robot become week. In case
polar, cylindrical and jointed arm, this would mean that the robot arm is at maximum
extension. Whereas, a human, can not lift the load with arms fully extended. The rated weigh
carrying capacities of industrial robots ranges from less than a Kg for small robots. Range
would be few Kgs to 2 Kg.
An example, robot MAKER 110 have weight carrying capabilities of approximately a few
Kg. The manufacturing specification of load carrying capabilities would be stated as gross
weight.
An example:
The gross weight as specification, the robot user must consider the weight of the end effector.
If the rated load carrying capacity of a given robot is 5 Kgs. The end effector weight must be
2 Kg and the load carrying capacity of the robot would be only 3Kg.
work space/volume of robot
work space:
Work volume is the term that refers to the space within which the robot can manipulate its
wrist end. The work volume is determined by:
1. The robot’s physical configuration (type of joints, structure of links)
 2. The sizes of the body. Arm and wrist components.
3. Knowing the limits of the robot’s joint movements.
The influence of the physical configuration on the shape of the work volume is shown Figure
.6

Figure.6influence of the physical configuration on the shape of the work volume

Control system in Robot

A robot must have a means of controlling its drive system to properly regulate its motions.
Types:
1. Limited-Sequence robots
2. Playback robots with point to point
3. Playback robots with continuous path control
4. Intelligent robots
Limited-Sequence robots:
- It does not use servo control to indicate relative positions of joints.
- It uses limit switches, mechanical stops to establish end points travel
- Individual joints can only be moved to their extreme limits of travel
- Sequence motion is done using pegboard, stepping switch or sequence device.
- No feedback system to intimate that the end point reached its position
- Mostly pneumatic type drive is used.
- It is applied for pick and place operations only.
Playback robots with point to point
- Serious of motions can be taught to the robot and can be recorded into memory. Then,
it can be repeated.
- The procedure of teaching and recording into memory is referred to as programming
the robot.
- 2-type: it is classified as point to point and continuous one. It has capacity to perform
series of motion cycles that consist designing point locations and related actions.
 - Robot is controlled to move from one point to another point in sequence.
- If the programmer wants to control over the path followed, a programming a series of
points along the desired path.
- Applications: Control of sequence of position is quite adequate for many kinds of
applications like – loading, unloading and spot welding.
Playback robots with continuous path control:
- It has the capability in performing motion cycles in which the path followed by the
robot is controlled.
- The individual points are defined by the control unit rather than the programmer.
- Straight line motion is a common form of continuous path control for industrial
robots.
- The programmer specifies the starting point and the end point of the path. The control
unit calculates the sequence of individual points that permits the robot to follow a
straight-line trajectory.
- To get curved path, controller unit be capable of string a large number of individual
point location that define the compound curved path. Microprocessor is used as
controller.
- Applications: Spray painting, Arc welding.
Intelligent Robot:
- Its control unit consist digital computer, programmable controller.
- It can able to interact with environment
- Intelligent robot can alter their programmed cycle in response to condition that occur
in the work place.
- It has good feedback system. It can communicate with human.
- Applications: Assembly tasks, Space applications, Under sea, Nuclear applications
and Defence applications.
- Intelligent robots made by the availability of cheap electronics, smaller and faster
processor, smart materials-based actuators and sensors.

Precision on Movement
- A robot is expected to perform repeated task in a real world.
- Its performance is measured by its ability to position and orient the end effector at the
desired location a large number of times.
- The precision of a robot is defined as function of:
1. Spatial resolution
2. Accuracy
3. Reputability
1. Spatial resolution
- It is about smallest increment of movement into which the robot can divide its work
volume.
- Spatial resolution depends on: Controller resolution and Robot’s mechanical
inaccuracies.
- It is the controller ability to divide the total range of movement for a particular joint.
- Increments can be also be referred to as addressable points.
 - The number of separate, identifiable increments for a particular axis is given by
Number of increments = 2n
n-Number of nits in the control memory.
For 8-bit storage = 28 = 256 (discrete positions or points)
- The number of control increments for 12-bit storage can be calculated as:
Number of increments = 2 12 = 4096.
The range of 1m = 1/4096 = 0.000244m or 0.244mm.
Mechanical Inaccuracies:
- In the robot link, joint components and its feedback system
- Deflection of structural members
- Gear backlash
- Stretching pulleys cords
- Leakage of hydraulic fluids.
2.Accuracy
- Accuracy refers to robot’s ability to position its wrist end at a desired target point within
the work volume.
- The accuracy of the robot is defined in terms of spatial resolution
- Accuracy would be in the middle between two adjacent control increments.
- Due to mechanical inaccuracy, the accuracy is defined in this worse situation.
- The relationship is illustrated if Figure.7. In fact, the mechanical inaccuracies would
affect the ability to reach the target position. Accordingly, we can define the robot’s
accuracy to be one-half of its spatial resolution as portrayed in Figure.8.

Figure.7influence of the accuracy and control resolution when mechanical

inaccuracies are assumed to be zero
 Figure.8illustration of accuracy and spatial resolution in which
mechanical inaccuracies are represented by a statistical distribution

3.Repeatability
- Repeatability is concerned with the robot’s ability to position its end effector at a
point in space repeatedly.
- Accuracy relates to the robot’s capability to be programmed to achieve a given target
point.
- Repeatability refers to the robot’s ability to return to the programmed point when
commanded to do so.
4.Compliance
- The compliance of the robot manipulator refers to the displacement of the wrist end in
response to a force or torque exerted against it.
- A high compliance means that the wrist is displaced a large amount by a relatively
small force.
- A low compliance means that the manipulator is relatively stiff and is not displaced
by a significant amount.
- Compliance is important because it reduces the robot’s precision of movement under
load. If the robot is handling a heavy load, the weight of the load will cause the robot
arm to deflect.
- If the robot is pressing a tool against a work part, the reaction force of the part may
cause deflection of the manipulator.
- If the robot has been programmed under no-load conditions to position its end
effector, and accuracy of position is important in the application, the robot’s
performance will be degraded because of compliance when it operates under loaded
conditions.
 Power transmission system
Power transmission systems are used to actuate the manipulator to perform the task with the
exact speed -force or speed-torque to locate the manipulator exactly.
Actuators like stepper motor, servo motor alone can not be used to locate the manipulator.
Therefore, power transmission system like:
- Power screws
- Belt and pulleys
- Chains and sprockets
- Gears
- Transmission shafts
In other words, the transmission systems are used to transfer the movement of the
motor/actuator to actuate the manipulator in the form of rotational/translational motions.
Power transmission systems:
- Rotary to linear motion
- Rotary to rotary
- Harmonic drives
- Gear systems
- Belt drives.
Power screw:
Power screw/lead screw is widely used to transmit rotary into linear motion. A lead screws
also known as a power screw or translational screw. It is a screw used as a linkage in a
machine to translate turning motion into linear motion.
The parameter of a screw which is analogous (same) to gear ratio is the screw pitch often
called.
Gear Ratio:
n=N1/N2
ωo= nωn
To=Tin/n
Where,
n- Gear ratio
N1- No of teeth on pinion
N2-No of teeth on gear
ωo - Speed of output
ωn - Speed of Input
To-Torque output
Tin - -Torque Input

Lead screw is used to drive changes in the vertical and horizontal orientation of robot
arms. This type of screw is used to transform the rotary output from as electric motor into the
linear motion needed to drive the joint of the arm. Therefore, industrial robots can be used to
manipulate parts, tools, materials and specialized devices.
 As the industrial robots have been used to manipulate parts, tools, material and
specialized devices, robots demand greater levels of adaptability, agility and flexibility to
enhance a linear motion control.

The challenge in industrial robots is to find ways to position and control robotic
movement with which need to get accuracy, rigidity and speed and low run out (it means
inaccuracy).Another factor is weight, in real applications, inertia has to be minimized.
Therefore, this type of screw is used to drive the joint of the arm.

Advantages of lead screw than other mechanisms:

- It is low cost
- They are self-locking and do not require a braking system.
- It is better for vertical applications

Helix angle of the screw thread and coefficient of friction between nut and screw are
important factor to get reliable mechanisms to position loads.

Screws are available in variety of materials such as: Carbon steel, stainless steel, bronze for
nut. Helix precision screw assembles are:
- Compact
- Incorporate the wear compensating and anti-backlash design

The pitch defines the distance that the screw travels in a single rotation. The conversion for
the screw’s angular rotation to linear motion is given by
V(t) = Pω(t)
V(t) – It is the linear velocity in inches/min
ω(t) – Angular velocity in rotation/min
P- Screw pitch inch/rotation

Spur gears
Spur gears or straight-cut gears are the simplest type of gear. They consist of a cylinder or
disk with the teeth projecting radially, and although they are not straight-sided in form, the
edge of each tooth is straight and aligned parallel to the axis of rotation. These gears can be
meshed together correctly only if they are fitted to parallel shafts.

Spur Gears: are Used to Control Power Transmission in These Ways

Changing the direction through which power is transmitted (i.e. parallel, right angles,
rotating, linear etc.), Changing the amount of force or torque, Changing RPM.Spur Gears,
are cogged wheels whose cogs or teeth project radially and stand parallel to the axis.

Harmonic drive
The harmonic drive is a type of gear arrangement often referred to as a strain wave gear
because of the way it works.
It is a kind of reduction gear mechanism consisting of a minimum of three main
components. These components interact in a way that allows for very high precision
reduction ratios that would otherwise require much more complex and voluminous
mechanisms.

 One of the many advantages of a harmonic drive is the lack of backlash due to the
unique design. However, the fact that they are lightweight and extremely compact is
also important.
 High gear reduction ratios of up to 30 times that achieved with planetary gears
are possible in the same space.

Backlash:

Backlash, sometimes called lash or play, is clearance between mating components,

sometimes described as the amount of lost motion due to clearance or slackness when
movement is reversed and contact is re-established.

Planetary Gears

What are Planetary Gears? A planetary gear set is made up of three types of gears; a sun
gear, planet gears, and a ring gear.

How are Planetary Gears used? Generally, planetary gears are used as speed reducers. They
are used to slow down motors and increase the torque. Torque is the working power of the
machine.

The harmonic drive is a type of gear arrangement often referred to as a strain wave gear
because of the way it works. It is a kind of reduction gear mechanism consisting of a
minimum of three main components. These components interact in a way that allows for
very high precision reduction ratios that would otherwise require much more complex and
voluminous mechanisms.

The workings of a harmonic drive

The rotational motion comes from an input shaft that can be a servo motor axis for example.
This is connected to an element called “wave generation” which has an elliptical shape and
is encircled by an elliptical ball bearing.

As the shaft rotates, the edges change position, so it looks like it is generating a motion wave.

This part is inserted inside a flex spline that is made out of a torsionally stiff yet flexible
material.

The material takes up this wavy motion by flexing according to the rotation of the input
shaft and also creates an elliptical shape.

The outer edge of this flex spline features gear teeth that are suitable for transferring
high loads without any problem.

To transfer these loads, the flex spline is fitted inside the circular spline which is a round
gear featuring internal teeth.

This outer ring is rigid and its internal diameter is marginally larger than the major
axis of the ellipse formed by the flex spline.

This means that the circular spline does not assume the elliptical shape of the other two
components, but instead, it simply meshes its inner teeth with those of the outer flex spline
side, resulting in the rotation of the flex spline.
The rate of rotation is dependent on the rotation of the input shaft and the difference in the
number of teeth between the flex spline and the circular spline. The flex spline has fewer
teeth than the circular spline, so it can rotate at a much-reduced ratio and in the opposite
direction than that of the input shaft.

The reduction ration is given by:

(number of flex spline teeth = number of circular spline teeth) / number of flex spline teeth.

if the flex spline has 100 teeth and the circular spline has 105, the reduction ratio is (100 –
105) / 100 = -0.05 which means that the flex spline ratio is -5/100 (minus indicates the
opposite direction of spin). The difference in the number of teeth can be changed to
accommodate different reduction ratios and thus different specialized needs and
requirements.

Advantages

 Achieving reduction ratios of 1/100 and up to even 1/300 by simply using such a
compact light arrangement of gears cannot be matched by any other gear type.
 The harmonic drive is the only gear arrangement that doesn’t feature any backlash or
recoil effect, or at least they are negligible in practice. This is mainly thanks to the
elliptical bearing fitted on the outer rim of the input shaft allowing the free rotation of
the flex spline.
 The positional accuracy of harmonic drives even at an extreme number of repetitions
is extraordinary.
 Harmonic drives can accommodate both forward and backward rotation with no need
to change anything, and they retain the same positional accuracy on both spin
directions.
 The efficiency of a typical harmonic drive measured on real shaft to shaft tests by the
manufacturer goes up to 90%. There are very few mechanical engineering elements
that can claim such an operational efficiency level.

1. Motor

2. Wave generation” which has an elliptical shape-flexible material.

3. Flex spline flexible material. (Wavy motion by flexing according to the rotation of the
input shaft and also creates an elliptical shape)

4. Circular spline