LECTURE NOTES

ON
HVDC TRANSMISSION

2021 – 2022

B.Tech IV Year I Semester (R18)

VEERESH.P, Assistant Professor

Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering

Joginpally BR Engineering College

 UNIT – I
Basic Concepts & Analysis of HVDC Converter

INTRODUCTION:

A high-voltage, direct current (HVDC) electric power transmission system (also called a
power super highway or an electrical super highway) uses direct current for the bulk transmission of
electrical power, in contrast with the more common alternating current (AC) systems.For long-
distance transmission, HVDC systems may be less expensive and suffer lower electrical losses. For
underwater power cables, HVDC avoids the heavy currents required to charge and discharge the
cable capacitance each cycle. For shorter distances, the higher cost of DC conversion equipment
compared to an AC system may still be justified, due to other benefits of direct currentlinks.
HVDC allows power transmission between unsynchronized AC transmission systems. Since
the power flow through an HVDC link can be controlled independently of the phase angle between
source and load, it can stabilize a network against disturbances due to rapid changes in power. HVDC
also allows transfer of power between grid systems running at different frequencies, such as 50 Hz
and 60 Hz. This improves the stability and economy of each grid, by allowing exchange of power
between incompatible networks.
Power Transmission was initially carried out in the early 1880s using Direct Current (DC).
With the availability of transformers (for stepping up the voltage for transmission over long distances
and for stepping down the voltage for safe use), the development of robust induction motor (to serve
the users of rotary power), the availability of the superior synchronous generator, and the facilities of
converting AC to DC when required, AC gradually replaced DC. However, in 1928, arising out of the
introduction of grid control to the mercury vapor rectifier around 1903, electronic devices began to
show real prospects for high voltage direct current (HVDC) transmission, because of the ability of
these devices for rectification and inversion. The most significant contribution to HVDC came when
the Gotland Scheme in Sweden was commissioned in 1954 to be the World's first commercial HVDC
transmission system. This was capable of transmitting 20 MW of power at a voltage of -100 kV and
consisted of a single 96 km cable with seareturn.

COMPARISION OF AC AND DC TRANSMISSION:

ADVANTAGES OF HVDC OVER AC:

Technical Merits of HVDC:

The advantages of a DC link over an AC link are:
 A DC link allows power transmission between AC networks with different frequencies or
networks, which cannot be synchronized, for other reasons.
  Inductive and capacitive parameters do not limit the transmission capacity or the maximum
length of a DC overhead line or cable. The conductor cross section is fully utilized because
there is no skin effect.
For a long cable connection, e.g. beyond 40 km, HVDC will in most cases offer the only technical
solution because of the high charging current of an AC cable. This is of particular interest for
transmission across open sea or into large cities where a DC cable may provide the only possible
solution.
 A digital control system provides accurate and fast control of the active power flow.
 Fast modulation of DC transmission power can be used to damp power oscillations in an AC
grid and thus improve the system stability.

Economic considerations:

For a given transmission task, feasibility studies are carried out before the final decision on
implementation of an HVAC or HVDC system can be taken. Fig.1 shows a typical cost comparison
curve between AC and DC transmission considering:

 AC vs. DC station terminal costs

 AC vs. DC line costs

 AC vs. DC capitalized value of losses

Fig 1: total cost/distance

 The DC curve is not as steep as the AC curve because of considerably lower line costs per
kilometer. For long AC lines the cost of intermediate reactive power compensation has to be
 taken into account. The break-even distance is in the range of 500 to 800 km depending on a
number of other factors, like country- specific cost elements, interest rates for project
financing, loss evaluation, cost of right of way etc.

 During bad weather conditions, the corona loss and radio interference are lower for a HVDC
line compared to that in an AC line of same voltage and same conductor size.

 Due to the absence of inductance in DC, an HVDC line offers better voltage regulation.
Also, HVDC offers greater controllability compared toHVAC.
 AC power grids are standardized for 50 Hz in some countries and 60 Hz in other. It is
impossible to interconnect two power grids working at different frequencies with the help of
an AC interconnection. An HVDC link makes this possible.
 Interference with nearby communication lines is lesser in the case of HVDC overhead line
than that for an HVACline.
 In longer distance HVAC transmission, short circuit current level in the receiving system is
high. An HVDC system does not contribute to the short circuit current of the interconnected
ACsystem.
 Power flow control is easy in HVDClink.
 High reliability.

DISADVANTAGES OF HVDC OVER HVAC:

 Converter stations needed to connect to AC power grids are very expensive. Converter
substations are more complex than HVAC substations, not only in additional converting
equipment, but also in more complicated control and regulating systems.
 In contrast to AC systems, designing and operating multi-terminal HVDC systems is
complex.
 Converter substations generate current and voltage harmonics, while the conversion
process is accompanied by reactive power consumption. As a result, it is necessary to
install expensive filter-compensation units and reactive power compensation units.

 During short-circuits in the AC power systems close to connected HVDC substations, power
faults also occur in the HVDC transmission system for the duration of the short-circuit.
 The number of substations within a modern multi-terminal HVDC transmission
system can be no larger than six to eight, and large differences in their capacities are not
allowed. The larger the number of substations, the smaller may be the differences in their
capacities.
 The high-frequency constituents found in direct current transmission systems can cause
radio noise in communications lines that are situated near the HVDC transmission line.
 Grounding HVDC transmission involves a complex and difficult installation, as it is
 necessary to construct a reliable and permanent contact to the Earth for proper operation and
to eliminate the possible creation of a dangerous “step voltage.”

APPLICATION OF HVDC TRANSMISSION:

Connecting remote generation

Some energy sources, such as hydro and solar power, are often located hundreds or thousands of
kilometers away from the load centers. HVDC will reliably deliver electricity generated from
mountain tops, deserts and seas across vast distances with low losses.

Interconnecting grids

Connecting ac grids is done for stabilization purposes and to allow energy trading. During some
specific circumstances, the connection has to be done using HVDC, for example when the grids
have different frequencies or when the connection has to go long distances over water and ac
cables cannot be used because of the high losses.

Connecting offshore wind

Wind parks are often placed far out at sea, because the wind conditions are more advantageous
there. If the distance to the grid on land exceeds a certain stretch, the only possible solution is
HVDC - due to the technology‟s low losses.

Power from shore

Traditionally, oil and gas platforms use local generation to supply the electricity needed to run the
drilling equipment and for the daily need of often hundreds of persons working on the platform. If
the power is instead supplied from shore, via an hvdc link, costs go down, emissions are lower
and the working conditions on the platform are improved.

Dc links in ac grids

HVDC links within an ac grid can be successfully utilized to strengthen the entire transmission
grid, especially under demanding load conditions and during system disturbances. Transmission
capacity will improve and bottlenecks be dissolved.

City-center in feed

HVDC systems are ideal for feeding electricity into densely populated urban centers. Because it
is possible to use land cables, the transmission is invisible, thus avoiding the opposition and
uncertain approval of overhead lines.

Connecting remote loads

Islands and remotely located mines often have the disadvantage of a weak surrounding ac grid.
 Feeding power into the grid with an HVDC link, improves the stability and even prevents black-
outs.

TYPES OF DC LINKS:
For connecting two networks or system, various types of HVDC links are used. HVDC links are
classified into three types. These links are explained below:

Monopolarlink:
It has a single conductor of negative polarity and uses earth or sea for the return path of current.
Sometimes the metallic return is also used. In the Monopolar link, two converters are placed at
the end of each pole. Earthling of poles is done by earth electrodes placed about 15 to 55 km
away from the respective terminal stations. But this link has several disadvantages because it uses
earth as a return path. The monopolar link is not much in use nowadays.

Fig 2: monopolar DC link

Bipolarlink:
The Bipolar link has two conductors one is positive, and the other one is negative to the earth.
The link has converter station at each end. The midpoints of the converter stations are earthed
through electrodes. The voltage of the earthed electrodes is just half the voltage of the conductor
used for transmission the HVDC. The most significant advantage of the bipolar link is that if any
of their links stop operating, the link is converted into Monopolar mode because of the ground
return system. The half of the system continues supplies the power. Such types of links are
commonly used in the HVDC systems.
 Fig 3: bipolar DC link

Homopolarlink:
It has two conductors of the same polarity usually negative polarity, and always operates with earth
or metallic return. In the homopolar link, poles are operated in parallel, which reduces the insulation
cost. The homopolar system is not used presently.

Fig 4: homopolar DC link

TYPICAL LAYOUT OF HVDC SYSTEM:

Fig 5: Layout of HVDC system

The major components of a HVDC transmission system are converter stations where conversions
from AC to DC (Rectifier station) and from DC to AC (Inverter station) are performed. A point to
point transmission requires two converter stations. The role of rectifier and inverter stations can be
reversed (resulting in power reversals) by suitable converter control.

The HVDC system has the following main components.

 ConverterStation
 ConverterUnit 
 ConverterValves 
 ConverterTransformers
 Filters
• AC filter
• DC filter
• High-frequencyfilter
 Reactive PowerSource
 Smoothing Reactor
 HVDC SystemPole

CONVERTE STATION:
The terminal substations which convert an AC to DC are called rectifier terminal while the terminal
substations which convert DC to AC are called inverter terminal. Every terminal is designed to work
in both the rectifier and inverter mode. Therefore, each terminal is called converter terminal, or
rectifier terminal. A two-terminal HVDC system has only two terminals and one HVDC line.

Fig 6: schematic diagram of typical HVDC converter station

CONVERTER UNIT:

The conversion from AC to DC and vice versa is done in HVDC converter stations by using
three-phase bridge converters. This bridge circuit is also called Graetz circuit. In HVDC
transmission a 12-pulse bridge converter is used. The converter obtains by connecting two or
6-pulse bridge in series.

Fig 7: circuit for 6-pulse bridge

CONVERTER TRANSFORMER:

The converter transformer converts the AC networks to DC networks or vice versa. They have
two sets of three phase windings. The AC side winding is connected to the AC bus bar, and the
valve side winding is connected to valve Bridge. These windings are connected in star for one
transformer and delta to another.

The AC side windings of the two, three phase transformers are connected in stars with their
neutrals grounded. The valve side transformer winding is designed to withstand alternating
voltage stress and direct voltage stress from Valve Bridge. There are increases in eddy current
losses due to the harmonics current. The magnetization in the core of the converter transformer
is because of the following reasons.

 The alternating voltage from AC network containing fundamentals and several harmonics.
 The direct voltage from valve side terminal also has some harmonics.

FILTERS:

The AC and DC harmonics are generated in HVDC converters. The AC harmonics are injected
into the AC system, and the DC harmonics are injected into DC lines. The harmonics have the
 following advantages.

 It causes the interference in telephone lines.

 Due to the harmonics, the power losses in machines and capacitors are connected in the
system.
 The harmonics produced resonance in an AC circuit resulting in over voltages.
 Instability of converter controls.

The harmonics are minimized by using the AC, DC and high-frequency filters. The types of filter are
explained below in details.

 AC Filters – The AC filters are RLC circuit connected between phase and earth. They
offered low impedances to the harmonic frequencies. Thus, the AC harmonic currents are
passed to earth. Both tuned and damped filters are used. The AC harmonic filter also
provided a reactive power required for satisfactory operation of converters.
 DC Filters – The DC filter is connected between the pole bus and neutral bus. It diverts the
DCharmonics to earth and prevents them from entering DClines.

CONVERETR VALVES:

The modern HVDC converters use 12-pulse converter units. The total number of a valve in each
unit is 12. The valve is made up of series connected thyristor UNITs. The number of thyristor valve
depends on the required voltage across the valve. The valves are installed in valve halls, and they are
cooled by air, oil, water orFreon.

Fig 8: circuit for 12-pulse converter

 REACTIVE POWER SOURCE:
Reactive power is required for the operations of the converters. The AC harmonic filters provide
reactive power partly. The additional supply may also be obtained from shunt capacitors
synchronous phase modifiers and static VAR systems. The choice depends on the speed of control
desired.
SMOOTHNING REACTOR
Smoothing reactor is an oil filled oil cooled reactor having a large inductance. It is connected in
series with the converter before the DC filter. It can be located either on the line side or on the
neutral side. Smoothing reactors serve the following purposes.

 They smooth the ripples in the direct current.

 They decrease the harmonic voltage and current in the DClines.
 They limit the fault current in the DCline.
 Consequent commutation failures in inverters are prevented by smoothing reactors by
reducing the rate of rising of the DC line in the bridge when the direct voltage of another
series connected voltage collapses.
 Smoothing reactors reduce the steepness of voltage and current surges from the DC line.
Thus, the stresses on the converter valves and valve surge diverters are reduced.

HVDC SYSTEM POLE

The HVDC system pole is the part of an HVDC system consisting of all the equipment in the HVDC
substation. It also interconnects the transmission lines which during normal operating condition
exhibit a common direct polarity with respect to earth. Thus, the word pole refers to the path of DC
which has the same polarity with respect to earth. The total pole includes substation pole and
transmission line pole.

TYPES OF HVDC SYSTEM

There are different types of HVDC systems:

BACK TO BACK SYSTEM

The HVDC system which transfers energy between the AC buses at the same location is called back-
to-back system or an HVDC coupling system. In back-to-back HVDC stations, the converters and
rectifiers are installed in the same stations. It has no DC transmission line.

The back-to-back system provides an asynchronous interconnection between the two adjacent
independently controlled AC networks without transferring frequency disturbances. The back-to-
back DC link reduces the overall conversion cost, improve the reliability of the DC system. Such
type of system is designed for bipolar operation.
 TWO TERMINAL HVDC SYSTEM
The terminal with two terminals (converter station) and one HVDC transmission line is called two
terminal DC system point-to-point system. This system does not have any parallel HVDC line and
no intermediate tapings. The HVDC circuit breaker is also not required for two-terminal HVDC
system. The normal and abnormal current is controlled effective converter controller.

MULTI TERMINAL HVDC SYSTEM

This system has more than two converter station and DC terminal lines. Some of the converter
stations operate as rectifier while others operate as an inverter. The total power taken from the
rectifier station is equal to the power supplied by the inverter station. There are two type of
MTDC Systems

 Series MTDC System

 Parallel MTDC System

In series MTDC system the converters are connected in series while in parallel MTDC system, the
converters are connected in parallel. The parallel MTDC system may be operated without the use of
an HVDC circuit breaker.

ADVANTAGES OF MTDC:
The following are the advantages of MTDC systems

 The MTDC system is more economical and flexible.

 The frequency oscillation in the interconnected AC networks can be damped quickly.

 The heavily load AC networks can be reinforced by using MTDC systems.

 1.7.3.2 APPLICATIONS OF MTDC:

 The following are the applications of the HVDC systems

 It transfers the bulk power from several remote generating sources to several load centres.

 The systems are interconnected between two or more AC systems by radial MTDC systems.

 It reinforces the heavy load urban AC networks by MTDC systems

 HVDC circuit breaker is used in two terminal DC link and Multiterminal DC link for
transferring from ground to metallic run.
 ANALYSIS OF HVDC CONVERTER

1.1 ANALYSIS OF GRATEZ CIRCUIT:

Fig 1: circuit diagram for Graetz Bridge

Let the instantaneous line – to – neutral source voltages be

ea = EmCos( ωt+60º)
eb = EmCos( ωt-60º )
ec = Em Cos(ωt-180º)
Then the line-to-line voltages are
eac = ea-ec = √3EmCos( ωt+30º )
eba = eb-ea = √3EmCos( ωt-90º )

ecb = ec-eb = √3EmCos( ωt+150º )

For the 6-valve bridge, with zero firing delay, the voltage waveforms across the thyristors are shown
in figure. At any given instant, one thyristor valve on either side is conducting. The conducting
period for the thyristor valve R1 is shown on the diagram.
 Fig 2: Thyristor voltage waveforms (α=0)

Fig 3: dc output waveforms (α=0)

It can be shown that for the 6-valve bridge, the total r.m.s. ripple is of the order of 4.2% of the d.c.
value (for zero delay α=0 and zero commutationγ=0.
The use of a choke reduces the ripple appearing in the direct current transmitted. If E is the r.m.s.
line-to-line voltage, then if α=0 and γ=0, the direct output voltage is given by

CONTROL ANGLE (DELAY ANGLE):

The control angle for rectification (also known as the ignition angle) is the angle by which firing is
delayed beyond the natural take over for the next thyristor. The transition could be delayed using
grid control. Grid control is obtained by superposing a positive pulse on a permanent negative bias to
make the grid positive. Once the thyristor fires, the grid loses control.

Assuming no commutation (2 thyristors on same side conducting simultaneously during transfer),

the voltage waveforms across the thyristors as shown in figure:

Fig 4: Thyristor voltage waveforms (with delayα)

In this case, the magnitude of the direct voltage output is given by the equation
 COMMUTATION ANGLE (OVERLAP ANGLE):
The commutation period between two thyristors on the same side of the bridge is the angle by which
one thyristor commutates to the next. During this period γ 2 conducting thyristors on the same side.
This is shown in figure.

Fig 5: Thyristor voltage waveforms (with overlap)

With both the delay angle and commutation being present, the magnitude of the direct voltage may
be determined from equation

An alternate method of derivation of the result is based on comparison of similar areas on the
waveform. Figure
 Fig 6: Thyristor voltage waveforms (alternate method)

d.c. output = average value of waveform

In this integral, in graphical form, area A1 can be replaced by area B1. Similarly, area A2 can be
replaced by area B2 and area A3 by area B3. The integral equation then reduces to the form shown
below.

Where √2 E is the peak value of the line voltage. Simplification gives the desired result as inequation

CURENT WAVEFORM:

If Commutation is not considered, the current waveforms through each thyristor (assuming a very
high value of inductance Ld in the DC circuit to give complete smoothing) is a rectangular pulse
lasting exactly one-third of a cycle. This is shown in figure for the cases without delay and with
delay.
 Fig 7: Thyristor current waveforms

When commutation is considered, the rise and fall of the current waveforms would be modified as
they would no longer be instantaneous, as shown in figure.

Fig 8: Thyristor current waveforms (commutation)

Since each phase has 2 thyristors on the opposite half cycles, the a.c. current waveform on the
secondary side of the transformer has a non-sinusoidal waveform as shown in figure

Fig 9: Thyristor current waveforms

If commutation angle is not considered, we can easily calculate the r.m.s. value of the AC current on
the transformer secondary Is as in equation.

Usually harmonic filters are provided on the AC system, so that only the fundamental component
need to be supplied/absorbed from the AC system. From Fourier analysis, it can be shown that the
fundamental component is given as follows, resulting in equation.

If filters were not provided, it can be shown, using the Fourier series analysis, that the RMS ripple on
the AC system would be 0.242 Id (or 31 % of the fundamental)
Note: For normal operation neglecting the commutation angle, in the above calculations of the
alternating current, gives rise to an error only of the order of 1%.
As can be seen from the voltage and current waveforms on the AC side, the current lags the voltage
due to the presence of the delay angle α and commutation angleγ.

VOLTAGE WAVEFORM:
The DC voltage waveform contains a ripple whose fundamental frequency is six times the supply
frequency. This can be analyzed in Fourier series and contains harmonics of the order
h = np
where, p is the pulse number and n is an integer.
The rms value of the hth order harmonic in DC voltage is given by

The waveforms of the direct voltage and calve voltage are shown for different values of α
 .

Fig 9: Thyristor voltage waveforms

INVERSION:
The inverter characteristics are similar to the rectifier characteristics. However, the operation as an
inverter requires a minimum commutation margin angle during which the voltage across the valve is
negative. Hence the operating region of an inverter is different from that for a rectifier.
So, the margin angle (ξ) has different relationship to γ depending on the range of operation which are

First Range: β < 60o and ξ = γ

Second Range: 60o < β < 90o and ξ =60o – μ = γ-(β-60o )
Third Range: β > 90o and ξ = γ – 30o

In the inverter operation, it is necessary to maintain a certain minimum margin angle ξo which results
in 3 sub-modes of the 1st mode which are

Mode 1

β < 60o for values of μ < (60o - ξo )

The characteristics are linear defined by
Vd = cosγo – Id

1(b) 60o < β < 90o for

μ = 60o – ξo = 60o – γo = constant

The characteristics are elliptical.

1(c) 90o < β < 90o + ξo

for values of μ in the range60o – ξo ≤ μ ≤ 60o

The characteristics in this case are line and defined bY
Vd| = cos( γo + 30o ) – Id
Mode 2

For μ > 60o corresponding to β > 90o + γo

The characteristics again are linear but with a different slope and is defined by
Vd| = √3 cosγo - 3Id
In the normal operation of the converter Id
| is in the range of 0.08 to 0.1

CHARACTERISTICS OF 12 PULSE CONVERTER:

As long as the AC voltages at the converter bus remain sinusoidal (with effective filtering), the
operation of one bridge is unaffected by the operation of the other bridge connected in series. The
region of rectifier operation can be divided into five modes as

Fig 10: 12 pulse converter

The second mode is a continuation of the first and similarly fifth is a continuation of thefourth.
The equivalent circuit of the twelve-pulse converter is the series combination of the equivalent
circuits for the two bridges. This is because the two bridges are connected in series on the DC side
and in parallel on the AC side. The current waveforms in the primary winding of the star/star and
star/delta connected transformers and the line current injected into the converter bus are shown.

Fig 11: 12 pulse converterwaveform

As the denominator in the final equation is small, even small changes in the voltage magnitude Er or
Eican result in large changes in the DC current, the control variables are held constant. As the
voltage changes can be sudden, it is obvious that manual control of converter angles is not feasible.
Hence, direct and fast control of current by varying αr or γr in response to a feedback signal is
essential.

While there is a need to maintain a minimum extinction angle of the inverter to avoid commutation
failure, it is economical to operate the inverter at Constant Extinction Angle (CEA) which is slightly
above the absolute minimum required for the commutation margin. This results in reduced costs of
the inverter stations, reduced converter losses and reactive power consumption. However, the main
drawback of CEA control is the negative resistance characteristics of the converter which makes it
difficult to operate stably when the AC system is weak (low short-circuit ratios). Constant DC
Voltage (CDCV) control or Constant AC Voltage (CACV) control are the alternatives that could be
used at the inverter.
Under normal conditions, the rectifier operates at Constant Current (CC) control and the inverter at
the CEA control.

The power reversal in the link can take place by the reversal of the DC voltage. This is done by
increasing the delay angle at the station initially operating as a rectifier, while reducing the delay
angle at the station initially operating as the inverter. Thus, it is necessary to provide both CEA and
CC controllers at both terminals.
The feedback control of power in a DC link is not desirable because

 At low DC voltages, the current required is excessive to maintain the required level of power.
This can be counterproductive because of the excessive requirements of the reactive power,
which depresses voltagefurther.

 The constant power characteristic contributes to negative damping and degrades dynamic
stability.