LECTURE 5.

THE PETROLEUM SYSTEM

GL5534 FUNDAMENTALS OF PETROLEUM GEOSCIENCE

PAGE 1
Lecture 5 – Learning Outcomes part 1

1. Explain the 2. Describe how 3. Recognise reservoir

geological elements hydrocarbons are formed forming rock types, their
needed for a working from source rocks textures and pore
petroleum system - Organic matter structures
- Kerogen - Sedimentary Rocks
- “5 steps to heaven” - Porosity
- The Kimmeridge Clay
- Permeability

PAGE 2
Lecture 5 – Learning Outcomes part 2

4. Define the rock 5. Understand the 6. Explain the process of

properties needed for an importance of timing of exploration
effective seal generation relative to trap - Plays and Play Fairways
- Permeability of seals formation - Prospects and Leads
- Evaporites - Trap definition - Discoveries and Fields
- Migration - Exploration workflow
- Timing

PAGE 3
 Rocks to
Resources
usgs.com

cordax.com bp.com
WHAT IS GEOLOGY?
LEARNING OUTCOME 1 – EXPLAIN THE GEOLOGICAL ELEMENTS NEEDED FOR A
WORKING PETROLEUM SYSTEM

PAGE 5
GEOLOGIC ELEMENTS NEEDED FOR A WORKING PETROLEUM SYSTEM

We need a combination of:

1. A source rock
2. A reservoir rock (clastic or carbonate)
3. A seal
4. A trap (structural or stratigraphic)
5. Maturation, migration and timing

If all these are present, a subsurface hydrocarbon

accumulation will be formed and can be found

These are sometimes informally called the “5 steps to heaven”

1. 5 Steps 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 6
WHAT IS GEOLOGY?
LEARNING OUTCOME 2 – DESCRIBE HOW HYDROCARBONS ARE FORMED FROM
SOURCE ROCKS

PAGE 7
GEOLOGIC ELEMENTS NEEDED FOR A WORKING PETROLEUM SYSTEM

We need a combination of:

1. A source rock
2. A reservoir rock (clastic or carbonate)
3. A seal
4. A trap (structural or stratigraphic)
5. Maturation, migration and timing

If all these are present, a subsurface hydrocarbon

accumulation will be formed and can be found

These are sometimes informally called the “5 steps to heaven”

1. Play 2. Source 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 8
SOURCE ROCKS
A sediment (usually shale or limestone) rich in organic matter which, if heated
sufficiently will generate hydrocarbons

• Organic-rich rocks (at least 2% Organic Matter/Total Organic Content; TOC)

• Algal or animal remains: Type 1 and 2 kerogens Oil prone

• Plant remains (including coal): Type 3 kerogen Gas prone

• Need non-oxidising conditions of deposition (Deep lakes, oceans or seas)

• Until buried deeply enough it is a “potential” source rock

1. Play 2. Source 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 9

KEROGEN Algal/animal
remains Oil prone

• Kerogen refers to the dispersed organic matter in

sedimentary rocks (and concentrated form in coals)
• Mixture of different types of organic material, not a
specific molecule
• No chemical formula can be written
• A typical elemental proportion would be: C 215, H 330,
O 12, N 5, S 1 Plant remains
• The Van Krevelen diagram shows the distinction of (including coal)
Gas prone
types I, II and III kerogen
• Fresh organic matter in unconsolidated sediments up
to 100m deep is not regarded as kerogen.

1. Play 2. Source 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 10

 Formation of Type I and II Kerogen: Oil prone

Type I – Non marine algae, bacterially modified organic matter

Type II – marine algae, land plant matter, bacterially modified organic matter

1. Play 2. Source 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 11

Type III Kerogen:
Gas Prone

1. Play 2. Source 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 12

 The “Kimm Clay”

• xxx

• Kimmeridge Clay: Dorset

• 156 million years old
• Marine (algal remains)
• Main source rock in NW Europe
1. Play 2. Source 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 13
WHAT IS GEOLOGY?
LEARNING OUTCOME 3 – RECOGNISE RESERVOIR FORMING ROCK TYPES, THEIR
TEXTURES AND PORE STRUCTURES

PAGE 14
GEOLOGIC ELEMENTS NEEDED FOR A WORKING PETROLEUM SYSTEM

We need a combination of:

1. A source rock
2. A reservoir rock (clastic or carbonate)
3. A seal
4. A trap (structural or stratigraphic)
5. Maturation, migration and timing

If all these are present, a subsurface hydrocarbon

accumulation will be formed and can be found

These are sometimes informally called the “5 steps to heaven”

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 15
 Reservoir rocks

Permian reservoir rocks in Scotland – main reservoir for UK gas

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 16

POROSITY – STORAGE CAPACITY
The interconnected pore volume or void space
in a rock that contributes to fluid flow or
permeability in a reservoir.

Sand grains - They can be anything from 2mm

in size to about 1/16th of a millimetre

Pore space can be anything from ~5% porosity

up to ~35% (or beyond)

Brown = Sand grains

Porosity is given the symbol ϕ (Phi)
Blue = Pore Space

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 17

POROSITY

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 18

Porosity

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 19

 Permeability – hydraulic
conductivity
• A rock's ability to transmit fluids, typically
measured in darcies or millidarcies.
• Term defined by Henry Darcy
• Formations that transmit fluids readily
(sandstones), are described as permeable
and tend to have many large, well-
connected pores.
• Impermeable formations, (shales and
siltstones), tend to be finer grained or of a
mixed grain size, with smaller, fewer, or less
interconnected pores.

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 20

Permeability

Permeability reduced due

to cement (light blue)
filling the pore throats
between the pore spaces.

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 21

RESERVOIR ROCKS

• Porous rocks (5-35%)

• Can be clastic (e.g. sandstone) or carbonate (e.g. limestone)

• Porosity expressed as % (storage capacity)

• Porosity must be connected to allow fluids to flow

• Permeability, in Darcys or millidarcys (flow capacity)

• Increased burial tends to lead to poroperm loss (compaction)

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 22

WHAT IS GEOLOGY?
LEARNING OUTCOME 4 – DEFINE THE ROCK PROPERTIES NEEDED FOR AN
EFFECTIVE SEAL

PAGE 23
GEOLOGIC ELEMENTS NEEDED FOR A WORKING PETROLEUM SYSTEM

We need a combination of:

1. A source rock
2. A reservoir rock (clastic or carbonate)
3. A seal
4. A trap (structural or stratigraphic)
5. Maturation, migration and timing

If all these are present, a subsurface hydrocarbon

accumulation will be formed and can be found

These are sometimes informally called the “5 steps to heaven”

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. 6. Conclusion 24
SEAL ROCKS

• Impermeable rocks that can prevent migration of fluids

• Can be clastic (e.g. mudstone) or evaporite (e.g. salt)
• Typically very low porosity and extremely low
permeability
• Best seal (or cap) rocks are more ductile so deform
in a plastic manner
• Increased burial can change the properties of a seal
rock
• The permeability of a seal capable of retaining fluids
through geologic time is ~ 10-6 to 10-8 darcies.

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. 6. Conclusion 25

 Seal Rocks

The empirical porosity and permeability relationship of suitable cap rock and
reservoir rock. (Excerpt from CO2CRC website, 2010) - Chiao, 2013 Moeck, 2014

https://www.quora.com/What-is-a-good-source-rock-for-a-
hydrocarbon-reservoir-in-terms-of-permeability-and-porosity

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. 6. Conclusion 26

 Seal - evaporites

(c) Randy Marrett, U Texas

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. 6. Conclusion 27

 Evaporites

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. 6. Conclusion 28

Evaporites

“Each site has several man-made salt caverns up

to a kilometre (3,300ft) underground where the
oil is stored. This is far cheaper than keeping it in
tanks above ground, and safer - the chemical
composition of the salt and the geological
pressure prevents any oil from leaking out.”
– BBC News, Sept 2019

https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-49720026

“…because the salt caverns are 2,000-4,000 feet below the surface, geologic
pressures will seal any crack that develops in the salt formation, assuring that no
crude oil leaks from the cavern.” -
https://www.energy.gov/fe/services/petroleum-reserves/strategic-petroleum-reserve/spr-quick-facts-and-faqs#Q18

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. 6. Conclusion 29

WHAT IS GEOLOGY?
LEARNING OUTCOME 5 – UNDERSTAND THE IMPORTANCE OF TIMING OF
GENERATION RELATIVE TO TRAP FORMATION

PAGE 30
GEOLOGIC ELEMENTS NEEDED FOR A WORKING PETROLEUM SYSTEM

We need a combination of:

1. A source rock
2. A reservoir rock (clastic or carbonate)
3. A seal
4. A trap (structural or stratigraphic)
5. Maturation, migration and timing

If all these are present, a subsurface hydrocarbon

accumulation will be formed and can be found

These are sometimes informally called the “5 steps to heaven”

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Conclusion 31
TRAPS

• Can be structural or stratigraphic

• The bigger the better!

• Need to be in combination with a seal

• Can be seen at the surface in some cases

• Deeply buried traps cannot be seen

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Conclusion 32

 Traps – the diving bell analogy

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Conclusion 33

 A seal and a trap
together
SW Zagros Mountains salt dome
(Kuh-e-Namak or “mountain of
salt” in Farsi).
1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Conclusion 34
 Trap types

Anticlinal Fault trap

trap

Salt-dome Stratigraphic
trap trap

Marshak, 2012

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Conclusion 35

 Maturation and yield

© Kansas Geological Survey © Steyl & Tonder 2013

Relationship between temperature and depth is important

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Conclusion 36
 Geothermal gradient

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Conclusion 37

 Putting it together

Trap formation
before generation
and migration is key.

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Conclusion 38

 A 60 year-old lesson

© Steyl & Tonder 2013

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Conclusion 39

GEOLOGIC ELEMENTS NEEDED FOR A WORKING PETROLEUM SYSTEM

We need a combination of:

1. A source rock
2. A reservoir rock (clastic or carbonate)
3. A seal
4. A trap (structural or stratigraphic)
5. Maturation, migration and timing

If all these are present, a subsurface hydrocarbon

accumulation will be formed and can be found

These are sometimes informally called the “5 steps to heaven”

1. 5 Steps 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Conclusion 40
WHAT IS GEOLOGY?
LEARNING OUTCOME 6 – EXPLAIN THE PROCESS OF EXPLORATION

PAGE 41
 So how do we explore for hydrocarbons?

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Exploration Conclusion 42

 Stages in a project

Exploration Appraisal Development Production Abandonment

http://www.oil-gasportal.com/upstream/basic-concept/
Country screening – newspaper (USD1)
Geological screening (1 week of work)
Cheap thinking (1-3 month’s work)
Acquire medium cost data (<USD5M)
The oil and gas operating cycle and activities –
Go for expensive drilling (USD20M+++) (Treccani – Petroleum Encyclopedia)

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Exploration Conclusion 43

Country
screening

Source: Executive Opinion Survey 2015, World Economic Forum.

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Exploration Conclusion

Rajan, 2008 44
 Geological screening

Libraries are a cheap source of

150 years + of data

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Exploration Conclusion 45

 Cheap thinking

Marine gravity data is free

Doust, 2010 AAPG Search and Discovery Article #40486

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Exploration Conclusion 46

 Cheap thinking
= Middle Jurassic reservoirs of the North Sea

Analogues
1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Exploration Conclusion 47
 Medium-cost data – seismic reflection

Vibroseis trucks
1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Exploration Conclusion 48
 High Cost - A marine 3D survey

The region makes a huge difference –

• 1sq km of acquiring 3D data in the Arctic could reach $10-$16K, whereas in West Africa $2-$5K.
• Day rates for a fully equipped and manned vessel are between US$60k-$200k for 3D Vessels and $15k-
$45k for 2D Vessels.
https://www.scmdaleel.com/category/seismic-survey-and-data-acquisition/7

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Exploration Conclusion 49

 Our aim

To achieve the best 3D graphic

representation of the Earth, to
aid in the exploration and
development of hydrocarbon drilling.

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Exploration Conclusion 50

 Expensive drilling ...

... can be VERY expensive

But if you don’t

drill, you don’t find
hydrocarbons!

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Exploration Conclusion 51

 Scaled Steps in Exploration Work-Flow

SOURCE Sedimentary Basin

SEAL
RESERVOIR >>10,000 sq km

SOURCE
SEAL Working Petroleum System
RESERVOIR
>>1,000 sq km

SOURCE
SEAL Play Fairway (trend) >> 100 sq km
RESERVOIR

Leads & Prospects <1 to >10 sq km

SOURCE
SEAL
RESERVOIR Choose prospect for exploration X
MIGRATION/TIMING
TRAP
Drill to discover

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Exploration Conclusion 52

Exploration Workflow

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Exploration Conclusion 53

BASIN

BASIN
A depression in the
crust of the Earth,
caused by plate
tectonic activity and
subsidence, in which
sediments
accumulate.

Doust, 2010 AAPG Search and Discovery Article #40486

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Exploration Conclusion 54

PLAY

PLAY
An area in which
hydrocarbon
accumulations
of a given type occur.

Fraser, 2011.Geol Soc London

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Exploration Conclusion 55

PROSPECT

An area of exploration in which hydrocarbons have been

predicted to exist in economic quantity.

A prospect is commonly an anomaly, such as a geologic

structure that is recommended by exploration geoscientists for
drilling a well.

The structure map of Sand X shows a prospective drilling

location at the crest of the faulted anticline. The cross section A-
A' demonstrates essential elements of the prospect, including
the reservoir, cap rock or seal, source rock and trap.

https://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Exploration Conclusion 56

Leads & Prospects

• Lead - an identified opportunity that has not been fully evaluated i.e
we know there’s something there that could act as a trap for this
hydrocarbon system but we haven’t evaluated it fully.

• Prospect - an identified opportunity that has been fully evaluated i.e

we know there’s this type of trap there it contains x mboe and it is x
nautical miles from the nearest usable infrastructure.

• In an exploration context a lead or prospect is identified within a Play.

Modified from: http://www.ggspatial.co.uk/plays-leads-and-prospects-its-about-scale/

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Exploration Conclusion 57

DISCOVERY
A petroleum deposit, or several petroleum
deposits combined, discovered in the same
well, and which testing, sampling or logging
have shown probably contain mobile
petroleum.

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Exploration Conclusion 58

FIELD

FIELD

One discovery, or a
number of concentrated
discoveries, which the
licensees have decided
to develop and for
which the authorities
have approved, or
granted exemption for a
development plan.
https://www.ntbinfo.no/data/images/00415/0f77
929a-284f-4b0b-b86b-251adb0061ea.jpg

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Exploration Conclusion 59

EXPLORATION WORKFLOW

Play v. prospect-specific risk within the play-based exploration

approach
Lottaroli et
FSD = field size distribution
al. 2017 CRS = common risk segment.

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Exploration Conclusion 60

 Reading for this lecture

Recommended General Reading for this Lecture:

The Imperial College Lectures in Petroleum Engineering – An introduction to Petroleum Geoscience

Ala, Michael. 2017
For this lecture: Chapter 4
Available in the library 5th floor or at
https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/pdf/10.1142/9781786342072_0001

Petroleum Geoscience
Gluyas & Swarbrick
Chapter 4  Sections 4.1 up to and including section 4.7

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Exploration Conclusion 61

Lecture 5 – Learning Outcomes part 1

1. Explain the 2. Describe how 3. Recognise reservoir

geological elements hydrocarbons are formed forming rock types, their
needed for a working from source rocks textures and pore
petroleum system - Organic matter structures
- Kerogen - Sedimentary Rocks
- “5 steps to heaven” - Porosity
- The Kimmeridge Clay
- Permeability

PAGE 62
 Lecture 5 Summary
Here is what we learned
• Learning Outcome 1 - Explain the geological elements needed for a working petroleum system
A ‘petroleum system’ comprises a pod of mature source rock and all of the migration paths, reservoir
rocks, caprocks and traps that can be charged by that source rock to produce oil and gas
accumulations.
• Learning Outcome 2 - Describe how hydrocarbons are formed from source rocks
The petroleum charge system comprises thermally mature petroleum source rocks capable of expelling
petroleum fluids into porous and permeable carrier beds, which transport them towards sites of
accumulation (traps) in the gross reservoir unit.
• Learning Outcome 3 - Recognise reservoir forming rock types, their textures and pore structures
A reservoir is the subsurface body of rock having sufficient porosity and permeability to store and
transmit fluids. Sedimentary rocks are the most common reservoir rocks because they have more
porosity than most igneous and metamorphic rocks and form under temperature conditions at which
hydrocarbons can be preserved. The porosity of a rock is the percentage of pore volume or void space,
or that volume within rock that can contain fluids. The permeability is the ability, or measurement of a
rock's ability, to transmit fluids, typically measured in darcies or millidarcies.

1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Exploration Conclusion 63

Lecture 5 – Learning Outcomes part 2

4. Define the rock 5. Understand the 6. Explain the process of

properties needed for an importance of timing of exploration
effective seal generation relative to trap - Plays and Play Fairways
- Permeability of seals formation - Prospects and Leads
- Evaporites - Trap definition - Discoveries and Fields
- Migration - Exploration workflow
- Timing

PAGE 64
 Lecture 5 Summary
Here is what we learned
• 4. Define the rock properties needed for an effective seal
A relatively impermeable rock, commonly shale, anhydrite or salt, that forms a barrier or cap above
and around reservoir rock such that fluids cannot migrate beyond the reservoir. A seal is a critical
component of a complete petroleum system. The permeability of a seal capable of retaining fluids
through geologic time is ~ 10-6 to 10-8 darcies.
• 5. Understand the importance of timing of generation relative to trap formation
A configuration of rocks suitable for containing hydrocarbons and sealed by a relatively impermeable
formation through which hydrocarbons will not migrate. Traps are described as structural traps (in
deformed strata such as folds and faults) or stratigraphic traps (in areas where rock types change, such
as unconformities, pinch-outs and reefs). A timely relationship between the elements of the petroleum
system (source, reservoir, trap, seal and migration) is required for a successful hydrocarbon
accumulation to form for example that traps are available at the time of petroleum charge.
• 6. Explain the process of exploration
Explorationists aim to define plays, a suitable part of the basin in which hydrocarbon accumulations or
prospects of a given type occur. The trend along which a particular geological feature is likely is a play
fairway. Prediction of conceptual fairways helps explorationists develop prospects. A prospect is an
area of exploration in which hydrocarbons have been predicted to exist in economic quantity. A
prospect is commonly an anomaly, such as a geologic structure or a seismic amplitude anomaly, that is
recommended by explorationists for drilling a well. If this well is successful the prospect becomes a
discovery and if economic this may be developed in to a field.
1. Play 2. Source 3. Reservoir 4. Seal 5. Trap/Timing 6. Exploration Conclusion 65