electronics

Article
A Review on Autonomous Vehicles: Progress, Methods
and Challenges
Darsh Parekh 1 , Nishi Poddar 1 , Aakash Rajpurkar 1 , Manisha Chahal 2 , Neeraj Kumar 2,3 ,
Gyanendra Prasad Joshi 4 and Woong Cho 5, *
1 Department of Computer Science and Engineering, NMIMS University, Mumbai 400056, India;
darsh.parekh77@nmims.edu.in (D.P.); nishi.poddar46@nmims.edu.in (N.P.);
aakash.rajpurkar47@nmims.edu.in (A.R.)
2 Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Thapar Institute of Engineering & Technology,
Patiala 147004, India; manisha.chahal2@gmail.com (M.C.); neeraj.kumar@thapar.edu (N.K.)
3 School of Computer Science, University of Petroleum and Energy Studies, Dehradun 248007, India
4 Department of Computer Science and Engineering, Sejong University, Seoul 05006, Korea; joshi@sejong.ac.kr
5 Department of Software Convergence, Daegu Catholic University, Gyeongsan 38430, Korea
* Correspondence: wcho@cu.ac.kr

Abstract: Vehicular technology has recently gained increasing popularity, and autonomous driving
is a hot topic. To achieve safe and reliable intelligent transportation systems, accurate positioning
technologies need to be built to factor in the different types of uncertainties such as pedestrian
behavior, random objects, and types of roads and their settings. In this work, we look into the
other domains and technologies required to build an autonomous vehicle and conduct a relevant
literature analysis. In this work, we look into the current state of research and development in
environment detection, pedestrian detection, path planning, motion control, and vehicle cybersecurity
for autonomous vehicles. We aim to study the different proposed technologies and compare their





 approaches. For a car to become fully autonomous, these technologies need to be accurate enough to
Citation: Parekh, D.; Poddar, N.; gain public trust and show immense accuracy in their approach to solving these problems. Public
Rajpurkar, A.; Chahal, M.; Kumar, N.; trust and perception of auto vehicles are also explored in this paper. By discussing the opportunities
Joshi, G.P.; Cho, W. A Review on as well as the obstacles of autonomous driving technology, we aim to shed light on future possibilities.
Autonomous Vehicles: Progress,
Methods and Challenges. Electronics Keywords: autonomous vehicles; self driving cars; motion control; path planning; vehicle cybersecu-
2022, 11, 2162. https://doi.org/ rity; pedestrian detection
10.3390/electronics11142162

Academic Editors: Ivan Cvitic,

Dragan Perakovic, Anca Delia Jurcut
and Goran Marković 1. Introduction

Received: 10 June 2022

Like most daily use machines, vehicles were once under the domain of mechanical
Accepted: 7 July 2022
engineering. However, the extraordinary advancements in IoT and embedded systems
Published: 11 July 2022
have made most of them intelligent innovative devices that work with the help of the
internet. These technological advancements have transformed traditional automobiles
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral
into fully functional, intelligent machines from old-fashioned travel sources, which also
with regard to jurisdictional claims in
provide ease while traveling. The advancements in automation and opportunities offered
published maps and institutional affil-
by cutting-edge technology serve as the base for intelligent vehicles. These intelligent
iations.
vehicles are in high demand as we move forward with a focus on safety and making
daily life more convenient. These vehicles support features like sensing the environment,
connecting to the internet, obeying traffic guidelines, navigating by themselves, making
Copyright: © 2022 by the authors.
quick decisions, ensuring pedestrian and passenger safety, parking, etc. Such machines are
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. called autonomous vehicles. They are currently regarded as the topmost level in developing
This article is an open access article intelligent vehicles. The fundamental motivation behind the research and development
distributed under the terms and of autonomous vehicles are: the need for more driving safety, an increasing population
conditions of the Creative Commons that also leads to an increase in vehicles on the road, expanding infrastructure, the comfort
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// of depending on machines for tasks like driving, and the demand for optimization of
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ resources and time management. With the population growing, a very stressful impact has
4.0/). been created on our roads, infrastructure, open spaces, fuel stations, and resources.

Electronics 2022, 11, 2162. https://doi.org/10.3390/electronics11142162 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/electronics

Electronics 2022, 11, 2162 2 of 18

In the past few decades, the adoption of electric batteries has been considered a
promising alternative that might relieve the fuel stations and keep our carbon emissions in
check. LSBs are the next promising energy storage system with advantages such as high
energy density and high capacity at a low-cost rate. A study found the effect catalysts have
on LSBs and provides an insight on the design and future perspective of LSBs [1]. MOFs
are compounds that contain molecules held together by metal ions. These materials have
sparked an interest in their catalytic properties because of their size, shape, and crystallinity.
A recent study examines the use of MOFs as sulfur hosts for the preparation of cathodes
for Li-S batteries [2]. Another study claims that the different crystal planes also impact the
absorption abilities and performance [3]. This determines that the particle shape and size
should also be considered for an appropriate sulfur host. The durability is a significant
concern for MOFs as these materials hardly maintain their chemical and physical properties
after continuous exposure to an alkaline solution. A study from [4] presents a design of a
stable MOF that retains its original structure for 15 days. This material can have a lot of
prospects in flexible, lightweight, and portable electric batteries In the past few decades,
governments all over the globe have taken severe measures to ensure road safety, like
introducing dynamic surveillance technologies like CCTV cameras to capture law breakers,
road sensors to ensure speed limits, and more. Thus, unconventional technologies like
autonomous and connected cars are being researched to reduce life-endangering situations
caused by erroneous human behavior like driving under the influence, distractions, and
the inability to drive. The progression and arrival of autonomous cars are the results of
remarkable research progress in IoT and embedded systems, sensors and ad hoc networks,
data acquisition and analysis, wireless communication, and artificial intelligence. A list of
key acronyms used throughout the paper is given in Table 1.

Table 1. Key acronyms.

Abbreviation Meaning
2D 2 Dimensional
3D 3 Dimensional
ABS Anti-lock Braking System
ADS Automated Driving System
AI Artificial Intelligence
AV Autonomous Vehicles
CCTV Closed-Circuit Television
CNN Convoluted Neural Networks
DDT Dynamic Driving Task
DL Deep Learning
FDE Fault Detection Exclusion
GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System
GPS Global Positioning System
INS Inertial Navigation System
IoT Internet of Things
IoV Internet of Vehicles
ITS Intelligent Transportation System
LiDAR Light Detection and Ranging
LSB Lithium–Sulfur Batteries
LTE Long Term Evolution
ML Machine Learning
MOF Metal Organic Framework
ODD Operational Design Domain
OEDR Object and Event Detection and Response
PPLP Pedestrian Planar LiDAR Pose
PVA Position Velocity Acceleration
RADAR Radio Detection and Ranging
RGB Red-Green-Blue
Electronics 2022, 11, 2162 3 of 18

Table 1. Cont.

Abbreviation Meaning
RCNN Region based Convoluted Neural Networks
RPN Region Proposal Network
SLAM Simultaneous Localization and Mapping
TARA Threat Assessment and Remediation Analysis
VANET Vehicular ad hoc Network
YOLO You Only Look Once

1.1. Motivation
According to the World Health Organization (WHO), 1.3 million people die yearly in
road accidents. It is the leading cause of death among kids aged 5–29. The leading risk
factors in road accidents are: speeding, driving under the influence of alcohol, distracted
driving, unsafe vehicles, and unsafe infrastructure [5]. AV support driving tasks like sensing
the surrounding environment, shortest and safest path planning, speed control, navigating,
and parking without human input, thereby reducing accidents by human error. This has
piqued the interest of a lot of researchers and manufacturers worldwide. Even though AVs
are not imminently widespread, we can foresee their potential social and economic benefits.
They can be vital in reducing road accidents, fuel consumption, and road congestion. In
addition to saving time and space, they also facilitate the mobility of the elderly, and
disabled [6]. Economically backward households and those with disabilities that affect
movement and motor skills can benefit from AVs as they can reduce transportation costs
and improve accessibility. This can significantly enhance many people’s productivity and
quality of life. These potential benefits are a significant motivating factor for this study. We
wish to dig deeper, learn more about the ongoing developments, and understand if we can
genuinely see that it replaces a lot of sectors with autonomous machines.

1.2. Contribution
This study attempts to provide an organized and comprehensive outline of the ad-
vanced automated driving-related software practices. This paper aims to fill the literature
gap by providing a comprehensive overview of the existing literature. In addition, we
discuss the psychology of people regarding AVs and emerging trends. Review papers
covering specific functionalities and challenges are available on the subject. However,
a study that covers: a review of the current research on the topic, emerging and available
technologies, present challenges, and individual functions such as perception, planning,
vehicle control, and detection together does not exist. Finally, we outline future research
challenges and research directions.

1.3. Comparison
This paper aims to provide an overall picture of the recent advances in autonomous
driving and the problems this technology can solve. Therefore, we present an extensive
survey on various topics such as Vehicle Cybersecurity, Psychology, Pedestrian Detection,
Motion Control, Path Planning, and Environment Perception. It has been found through
a literature survey that several reviews have been conducted on AVs and their different
aspects. The comparison of related works concerning our paper is summarized in Table 2.
Electronics 2022, 11, 2162 4 of 18

Table 2. Comparison of existing review papers.

Related Works Topic Key Contributions Limitations

This paper highlighted the research
advances made in autonomous
The paper does not have separate
driving using six requirements as
sections for literature survey and
Autonomous Driving Cars in parameters for the successful
research methodology, which makes
Smart Cities: Recent deployment of autonomous cars and
[6] it difficult for the reader to
Advances, Requirements, and discussed the future research
understand whether the author
Challenges challenges. The core requirements are
collected the information from
fault tolerance, strict latency,
various sources.
architecture, resource management,
and security.
This paper presents an overview of
topics like social impact, system
The reviewed algorithms lacked
A Survey of Autonomous architecture, object and image
efficiency and accuracy. Academic
[7] Driving: Common Practices detection and are compared in a
collaboration is required for
and Emerging Technologies real-world setting using tools and
advancements in new technologies.
datasets available for
autonomous driving.
This paper identifies the evolution,
characteristics, and trends regarding
autonomous driving with a keyword The use of WoS is not mentioned as a
Autonomous vehicles:
analysis characterized by their source for data collection. The terms
[8] scientometric and bibliometric
respective burst strength. It identifies used in the keyword search can also
review
the broader aspects with 96 fields correspond to other vehicles.
getting identified using the
software CiteSpace.
This paper classifies the
implementations and design issues
into subcategories such as the cost,
Autonomous Cars: Research This paper only takes a look at the
software complexity, digital map
[9] Results, Issues, and Future social or non-technical issues related
construction, simulation, and
Challenges to autonomous driving.
validations. It also reviews the safety
aspects, resource computation,
decision-making, and privacy.
This paper includes a review of the
existing base to understand the Search keyword selections may omit
Understanding autonomous impact, policy issues, and planning the inclusion of some relevant
vehicles: A systematic reveals trajectories of possible gaps in literature. The approach is a
[10]
literature review on capability, the literature. It also concludes by manually handled literature review
impact, planning, and policy advocating the necessities of where analytical techniques could
preparing cities for have been used.
autonomous vehicles.

1.4. Organization
Section 2 of this paper presents the background of autonomous driving and the
progress in its technologies. Section 3 presents the research methodology used to make
this review paper and classify the papers used. Next, in Section 4, we present a review
on environment perception, pedestrian detection, path planning, vehicle cybersecurity,
and motion control. Section 5 summarizes the psychology of autonomous cars. Section 6
provides an overview of the paper, and Section 7 presents the conclusion and future scope
of self-driving cars and related technologies.

2. Methods and Materials

In this section, we showcase the research questions that we want to address in this
paper. We will also explain the research methodology of how we formed the database of
Electronics 2022, 11, 2162 5 of 18

papers we referred to while conducting the literature survey for this paper. We will also go
through our screening process and mapping process.

2.1. Research Questions

This study aims to provide an overview of autonomous driving technologies. So, we
have defined the research questions in Table 3.

Table 3. Research Questions

Research Questions Answers

How will the introduction of autonomous systems deal with Enforcement of strict traffic laws. Prompt detection and
connected and non-connected vehicles and the unpredictability punishment of malicious driving. Contextual and situational
of human driving? algorithms for decision-making and control. Social training.
Plan incrementally using finite state machines. Develop
How will cars be trained for the next move when the trajectory
intelligent mechanisms to facilitate cooperation among
is not constant?
components.
A survey examined the acceptance of self-driving cars and
How can we make Self-Driving Cars more desirable? found that people are much more open to technology that can
outperform human ability.
New business models and regulations or legislation can lay a set
How should self-driving cars deal with foreseeable crashes?
of rules and rethink the insurance business model.
Sharing the data collected from sensors across multiple nodes.
How will multiple sensors be used to process real-time data
A trade-off between the number of sensors and the efficiency of
more quicker?
data processing.

2.2. Conducting the Research

A keyword search-based research was conducted systematically from the topic section
of literature databases like IEEE, Science Direct, EBSCO, and Emerald. Specific terms such as
“Autonomous driving,” “Autonomous car,” “Autonomous vehicle,” “Self driving vehicle,”
and “Self driving car” were included in the title, abstract, or keywords of the papers. We
only included papers listed in the academic journals of the mentioned databases. As a result,
we did not seek to find all literature about autonomous driving. That would have resulted
in an overwhelming amount of information due to the extensive applications, testing, and
research in other fields and domains. Instead, we aimed to gain a comprehensive overview
and classification to identify scientific gaps in the literature body. We only considered the
literature publications that pertained to relevant topics such as roads, traffic, crossroads,
commuting, production, algorithms, detection, path planning, and cybersecurity. We
included a few relevant publications where the topic pertained to the automotive industry
or the application mentioned would be relevant for AVs. For the psychology aspect of the
study, we considered papers that did not necessarily have core topics regarding automation
in vehicles but topics that acknowledged AVs and raised questions as to how public
perception and daily tasks would change with the introduction of autonomous technology.
Our initial search resulted in 80 papers. After analyzing the title, we eliminated duplicate
papers. In this process, we found the occurrence of three papers in multiple databases.
One final filtering process eliminated publications that did not meet scientific standards
nor did a peer-review process. This resulted in the exclusion of three further publications,
delivering a final number of 74 papers.

2.3. Screening of Papers

After searching for papers in scientific databases, we compiled our papers database.
Not all of the papers we included in our final database were relevant to our research
questions. As a result, we had to screen through the titles and journals of the papers to
determine their actual relevance. Studies that were irrelevant to the research topic were
excluded. The title of the paper could not always determine its relevancy of the paper.
Electronics 2022, 11, 2162 6 of 18

In such cases, we sent the papers in the second phase of screening, where we read the
abstracts of the papers to determine their relevancy. Furthermore, we screened each paper
using specific criteria where we excluded the following types of papers:
(1) Papers that were just posters.
(2) Papers that did not have full text available.
(3) Papers where English was not the primary language.
(4) Papers where AVs were taken in a different context.
(5) Papers that were totally out of scope for our research questions.
If all 5 of these exclusion criteria were passed and the paper’s abstract was considered
relevant, we included the paper in our final database for a literature review.

2.4. Grouping Using Keywords

After screening the papers, the next step was to look at the keywords of the papers in
the abstract and then group them according to their different domains and specializations.
This helped us develop a better understanding of the papers. We categorized them into the
following categories:
(1) Review/survey papers on AV.
(2) Papers focusing on AI/ML algorithms in AV.
(3) Papers focusing on environment perception and pedestrian detection.
(4) Papers focusing on motion control.
(5) Papers focusing on path planning.
(6) Papers focusing on vehicle cybersecurity.
(7) Papers focusing on networking and communication.
(8) Papers focusing on psychology towards AV.
(9) General papers that do not have a specific focus.
Figure 1 is a visual representation of classification according to domains.

Figure 1. Classification of papers over different domains.

2.5. Mapping the Process

The Mapping process was based on two parameters:
(1) Year of Publication—we have analyzed the number of publications released yearly
among the papers in our final database. Three papers from this were from 2014, the
year we started collecting papers from 2015 and 2016 had three papers, and 2017 had
four. Most of our database has papers from 2018, 2019, 2020, and 2021—thirteen, fifteen,
nineteen, and fourteen, respectively. This analysis showed us that research on AVs has been
Electronics 2022, 11, 2162 7 of 18

happening for a long time and increasing each year. Figure 2 demonstrates the increase
in research over the years. (2) Topic of Research—after grouping the papers according to
different keywords, we learned the main focus areas in which research was the spearhead
for AV technologies. We decided to choose five of the nine topics to review the current
research and development in those topics. We chose Environment Perception, Pedestrian
Detection, Path Planning, Vehicle Cybersecurity, Motion Control, and Psychology towards
AV. Environment Perception and Pedestrian Detection are two separate topics because
there was a lot of research focusing on just pedestrians and how the algorithms required
in pedestrian detection are different from object detection. The other survey and review
papers were used as a reference while writing this paper, and a comparison between the
five review papers is also provided in the Introduction.

Figure 2. Publications over time.

3. Background of Autonomous Vehicles

In the past, vehicles were very straightforward; their main goal was just transportation.
Over time, as the world grew and technology advanced, a vehicle’s main goal was not
limited to transportation, but also included comfort, safety, and convenience. This led to
extensive research on improving vehicles and incorporating technological breakthroughs
and advancements. The idea of turning vehicles autonomous was soon conceived. Au-
tonomous Driving is arguably the next significant disruptive innovation. However, like
any other technology, research and development for AVs began with laying a base and
defining a few ground terms. These terms, listed in Section 3.1, would later serve as a
starting point when branching out into different aspects of AVs. As research in the sector of
AV grew, researchers started experimenting with autonomy. Different technologies were
being proposed and added to vehicles to make them autonomous. Section 3.2 discusses
the different levels of autonomy and what technologies are present in each level. Today,
Avs are furnished with various sensors like cameras, RADAR, LiDAR, and Ultrasonic
actuators to achieve security and automation. These provide information to the vehicle
about object detection, lane occupancy, traffic flow, and more. Camera sensors support
the surrounding view, whereas Radar and LIDAR sensors are used for object detection
and collision avoidance, respectively. Some of the popular sensors used for autonomous
vehicles are discussed as follows: We have detailed some standard sensors that are present
in modern vehicles in Section 3.3. The data gathered from all the different sensors are used
as input for multiple algorithms to gather useful information for the vehicle to interpret
and take action. These algorithms discussed in section 3.4 are AI, ML, and DL combined
with image processing and are used to help an AV perform autonomy-related tasks.
Electronics 2022, 11, 2162 8 of 18

3.1. Common Terms Related to Autonomous Vehicles

DDT: The tactical functions required to operate AVs in on-road traffic, including short
limitations and excluding tactical functions such as trip planning and selecting endpoints,
is DDT. Vehicle control–Lateral (Steering left and right), Longitudinal (Acceleration and
Deceleration); Environment Monitoring; and Maneuver planning; are all a part of DDT.
ADS: Software and hardware capable of continuously performing the DDT regardless of
whether the DDT is restricted to a specific ODD. This term is usually used to describe
levels 3, 4, and 5 of an ADS. ODD: ‘Driving automation systems or features function under
specific operating conditions determined by geographical, environmental, and time-of-day
conditions. They also depend on the presence or absence of traffic or road characteristics.
If a self-driving vehicle can drive on the highway and in an urban environment, then the
ODD of the vehicle could incorporate the accompanying data to characterize the abilities
and restrictions of the ADS based on road category, topographical region, and climate
conditions. OEDR: It is a sub-task of DDT. It includes environment monitoring like detect-
ing, recognizing, and classifying objects and providing appropriate responses to events.
OEDR works inside an ODD and allows the ADS of the vehicle to differentiate between
different vehicles, pedestrians, and objects and respond to any events that would influence
the driving or safety of the vehicle. Active Safety Systems: Active safety systems monitor
and sense the conditions both outside and inside AVs to identify the dangers, potential and
present; to the passengers, pedestrians, vehicles, etc. It intervenes automatically to lessen
the probability of possible collisions by alerting the driver, adjusting the vehicle system,
and controlling the subsystems like throttle, brakes, suspensions, etc. [11].

3.2. Levels of Autonomy

The Society of Automobile Engineers (SAE) defines six levels of automation [11]. Level
Zero Automation indicates no automation. At level zero, the driver performs the entire
DDT with the help of active safety systems. Level One Automation has the ADS perform
either longitudinal or lateral control of the vehicle, but not the complete OEDR. The DDT
fallback is the driver, so the driver must be present in the vehicle at all times and be able to
take control of the vehicle at any time. Systems like Electronic Stability Control, Anti-lock
Braking Systems, and Adaptive Cruise Control come under Level One Automation. In
Level Two Automation, the ADS can perform both longitudinal and lateral control of the
vehicle, but is similar to Level One and cannot perform the complete OEDR. The DDT
fallback again is the driver, so they must always be present in the vehicle and be able to
take control of the vehicle at any instance. In addition to the systems mentioned in Level
One, Automatic Emergency Braking and collision prevention systems come under Level
Two Automation. In Level Three Automation, the ADS performs the entire DDT. The
DDT fallback again is the driver, and the driver gets notified if the ODD’s limits will be
exceeded. The driver also gets notified if any performance-relevant system fails. Level
Four Automation does not require any human intervention. The ADS of a vehicle at Level
Four Automation will perform the entire DDT in restricted ODDs-places with proper maps
and road structures. The driver can intervene if they want to, but the ADS will achieve a
minimal risk on any DDT Fallback. Level Five Automation is the final level of automation.
There is complete automation, and the ADS can perform the entire ODD without any
limitations. DDT fallback is also taken care of by the ADS and the only time a driver takes
control of the vehicle is when they request it. Figure 3 is a representation of all of the
different Levels of Autonomy.
Electronics 2022, 11, 2162 9 of 18

Figure 3. Levels of Autonomy.

3.3. Sensors Used in Autonomous Vehicles

Cameras: Autonomous vehicles have visible light cameras to provide a 360-degree
view of the surroundings. They are great at object detection and recognition, and this data
is sent to the AI-based algorithms for further use. However, such cameras are inaccurate
in dark conditions and generate a large amount of data to process. Infrared cameras are
also used for better performance in conditions of low visibility. RADAR: It is a sensor that
uses radio waves to calculate factors like distance, velocity, and angle. With the help of
radar transmitters, AVs can emit radio waves and receive the reflected waves with the
help of radar receivers. Radar operates well in most weathers and over long distances,
but it may falsely identify objects [12]. LiDAR: A sensor that uses light as a medium to
measure distances is calculated by measuring the time it takes for the light to get reflected
in the receiver. Such systems emit laser beams that hit the environment and reflect to a
photo-detector. The collected beams are converged together like a point cloud. This creates
a 3D image of the environment. Although LiDAR is a powerful and efficient sensor, it is
expensive. GNSS: It describes the layout and configuration of satellites, providing vital
information such as navigation, positioning, and traffic. GNSS uses triangulation to detect
the position of receivers and calculates the distance between satellites in the geostationary
orbit and the vehicle. These signals, however, are weak and can be manipulated by
interference. Ultrasonic sensors: They are short-range parking sensors and are pretty cheap.
They have a limited range, but are ideal for low-speed situations. These sensors measure the
distance of a target object by using ultrasonic waves, and the reflected signals are converted
into electrical signals. GPS: It is a sensor that provides users with spatial information such
as navigation, positioning, and timing. The service is free for civilians and is a vital aspect
of path planning in autonomous vehicles. Figure 4 represents the positioning of different
sensors on a vehicle.
Electronics 2022, 11, 2162 10 of 18

Figure 4. Types of sensors in AVs.

3.4. Architectures and Algorithms

CNN: This type of neural network is used for image processing as they have high
accuracy in extracting distinctive features from images using the convolution function. It
takes a 2D input and uses multiple hidden layers to extract high-level features. After taking
the input, it identifies useful patterns within the images based on the spatial organization
of the input pixels. Since there is no pre-processing required, CNN can be deployed
easily. In AVs, they are used for path planning and pedestrian detection [12]. RCNN:
This type of neural network is used for object detection. It is preferred over conventional
CNN as using CNN to detect an object within an image takes up a lot of space since the
number of occurrences of the object does not remain constant. RCNN uses a selective
searching process to identify the boundaries and labels for each object in an image and
create a boundary box around them. The bounding box is finally subjected to a linear
regression model to find accurate coordinates for the box. In AVs, RCNN is used for
pedestrian, object, and traffic sign detection [12]. SLAM: SLAM is mainly used to estimate
the relative position of static objects in an environment based on measurements made by
LiDAR or RADAR sensors. RADAR-SLAM can provide velocity information by acting as
an odometer and even perform localization based on map data. LiDAR-SLAM or Visual
SLAM uses a monocular or stereo camera to track the features of consecutive images
while estimating the relative orientation and translation. SLAM is used in AVs for Motion
Control, Path Planning, and sometimes even pedestrian detection [13]. K-Means: It is an
unsupervised algorithm that groups unlabeled or unclassified datasets into predefined
clusters. It associates every cluster with a centroid and aims to minimize the total sum of
distances between cluster centroids and their data points iteratively [14]. YOLO: It is a
CNN-based algorithm written by Joseph Redmon in the Darknet framework, which works
efficiently for real-time object detection. Following that, there has been a succession of
object detectors in computer vision based on YOLO: YOLOv2, YOLOv3, and YOLOv4. It is
a single-stage detector that handles object identification and classification in one network
pass. YOLO-based models are efficient and easy to deploy [15].

4. Autonomous Driving: Key Technologies

AVs alleviate the human burden by performing many intelligent operations like
obstacle avoidance, traffic sign detection, computing the most efficient path to be taken,
and more [6]. However, to do so, these vehicles require contemporaneous solutions in
terms of perception, control, and planning. This section explores the functions above and
the research progress done in their technologies.

4.1. Environment Perception

Any autonomous vehicle must independently perceive its environment to gain neces-
sary information and make control decisions accordingly. Environmental perception can be
performed using visual navigation, laser navigation, or radar navigation. Laser and radar
sensors are deployed to gain extensive information to perceive the environment. Laser
Electronics 2022, 11, 2162 11 of 18

sensors are used as bridges between the real world and the data world, and radar sensors
are used to calculate the distance. Visual sensors are to detect the traffic signs [16]. AVs
need to classify all the different objects that are present in their surrounding areas. Object
detection is broadly classified into the following three categories [17]:
1. Region selection;
2. Feature extraction;
3. Classification.
Several constraints and added complexities arise in the image scenario as it approaches
real-world conditions, such as:
Partial, side, or angled view, multiple objects in a certain area, similar looking objects
at different distances—making them appear of different sizes, while in reality, they are of
the same size, occluded objects, variation in illumination due to the time of day, slippery
roads, unclear road markings, hazy weather conditions like rain, fog, snow, and changing
traffic lights. One of the most challenging tasks in environment perception of automated
driving is the simultaneous processing of noisy, unclassified, unstructured, substantial
point clouds obtained from 3D LiDAR [18]. DL solves this as it helps us segment, classify
and measure the distance of LiDAR point clouds in real-time to detect objects in a dynamic
environment. YOLOv3 is mostly used as an object detection technique based on deep
learning. K-means clustering is used to divide a picture into grid cells. Every grid cell
produces bounding boxes. The object center falls into one of these bounding boxes, and the
grid cell corresponding to that bounding box is responsible for detecting this object. The
bounding box describes the coordinates of the box center, the height of the box, the width
of the box, and if an object’s center has fallen into the bounding box or not [19]. Images
are captured using RGB, LiDAR, and RADAR cameras and sensors. DL is used on these
images for environment perception and object detection-mainly for: differentiating be-
tween individual objects, vehicle tracking, self-localization, pedestrian detection, predicting
trajectories for unknown paths by generalization, and understanding traffic patterns.

4.2. Pedestrian Detection

Pedestrian recognition is the use of sensors to detect pedestrians in or around the path
of an AV. It incorporates four components: Segmentation, Feature Extraction, Segment
categorization, and Track Categorization [20]. Blurry weather conditions limit the pre-
existing pedestrian detection methods. These reduce the perceptibility and cause hazy
outlines in the images taken by the cameras [21]. A predominant challenge faced by these
methods is detecting pedestrians in misty weather. The low visibility, color cast, and unclear
outline make it challenging to differentiate pedestrians from the background. Chen et al.
suggest in their paper a pedestrian detection method that is based on 3D LiDAR data. The
pipeline of their algorithm is as follows:
1. Transforming 3D LiDAR data to a 2D image. This ensures that the accuracy during
detection does not get affected by any variation in illumination;
2. Building a new dataset for accurately detecting pedestrians outside the field of view
of the camera. This helps in improving the safety factor;
3. Clustering and filtering the dataset to make the detection of pedestrians more promi-
nent and separate objects from the background;
4. A CNN based on PVANET is proposed for increasing the accuracy of pedestrian detection.
This has been tested to be faster than the original PVANET and RCNN models [21].
A cheaper algorithm is proposed by [22] based on 2D LiDAR and monocular images-PPLP
Net. It consists of three sub-networks: OrientNet, RPN, and PredictorNet. The OrientNet
supports powerful 2D pedestrian detection algorithms based on neural networks. Two-
dimensional LiDAR point clouds are transferred to occupancy grid maps by the RPN to
estimate non-oriented pedestrian bounding boxes. For a final regression, the outputs from
these two algorithms are passed through PredictorNet. The final output of the system
is the collection of 3D bounding boxes and orientations for all the pedestrians present.
Zhang et al. discuss in their paper that by combining the information we receive from
Electronics 2022, 11, 2162 12 of 18

process tracking with segment categorization, we can resolve the occlusion problem. This
method divides the point cloud into groups that are not dependent on each other. We
need to plan for three kinds of features to get complete cues. An algorithm for univariate
feature selection and feature linking is used to synthesize 18 active features. Then, trunk
categorization for subsequent frames is done based on the segment categorization for a
distinct frame. A filter for probability data linkage is taken by using a particle filter for the
categorization. For pedestrians obstructed from the camera’s view, track categorization
can be used to enhance their recognition [23]. Table 4 presents the summary of different
pedestrian detection algorithms.

Table 4. Summary of pedestrian detection algorithms.

Summary Advantages Limitations

It consists 3 sub-networks: It offers a more affordable Errors produced when a
PPLP Net Orientation detection network (Orient solution to the oriented pedestrian is heavily occluded
Network), RPN and a PredictorNet. pedestrian detection problem by others.
It applies a single CNN to the whole
The architecture makes it Cannot detect small and close
YOLO image, which further divides the
really fast. objects accurately.
image into grids.
It has less number of convolutional
It occupies less memory and
tiny-yolov3 layers than YOLO, and is a simplified Loses detection accuracy.
works significantly faster.
version of it

4.3. Path Planning

Path planning is a challenging task where an object has to find the optimal path to
drive between two points. Path planning is also known as Trajectory Planning. Avs use it to
provide an optimal path for the vehicle in real-time based on onboard sensors like LIDAR,
Camera, GPS, Millimeter Wave Radar, Inertial sensor, etc. A good self-driving car should
be able to make proper analysis and judgment using all the acquired information regarding
roads, traffic, and weather and accurately predict a path for the vehicle. In this paper, we
will look at some of the different path planning algorithms developed over time and the
different approaches used. In a paper titled “Perception, Planning and Control for Self-
Driving System Based on On-board Sensors,” a real-time lane detection system is proposed,
with vision system functions as the primary base [13]. They use a deep learning algorithm
based on CNN. Their system improves the traditional lane detection method by using
CNN to detect lane markings and lane edges for curved lanes. The advantages of using
CNN are that essential features are automatically detected without human supervision. It
can also run on any device as it is very computationally efficient. A discrete optimization
approach based on the frenet coordinate system is used for path calculation; in their
approach, a finite number of paths are calculated, and a cost for each path is calculated.
The path with the least cost is chosen as the final result. Their approach also includes a
cubic spline interpolation technique that generates a path based on GPS data. Compared to
the traditional method of the cubic polynomial fitting algorithm, the curve fit path by the
cubic spline interpolation technique is much smoother and more satisfied with the vehicle
motion pattern. They use LabVIEW to simulate their path planning and lane detection
models. They use images of curved and straight lanes where the proposed path based on
their method is highlighted in green. They compare the pure pursuit trajectory planning
method and frenet optimized trajectory planning method on the simulator to test results.
They also test out their approach on a small model. In another paper entitled “Navigation
Engine Design for Automated Driving Using INS/GNSS/3D LiDAR-SLAM and Integrity
Assessment,” a multisensor fusion system is proposed [24]. This multisensor fusion system,
along with an INS, a GNSS, and a LiDAR system, would be used to implement a 3D SLAM.
This multisensor fusion system is proposed as an improvement over the conventional INS
GNSS and odometer system as it compensates for drawbacks in the previous system. It
Electronics 2022, 11, 2162 13 of 18

helps to remove the INS-drift by using a highly integrated INS-aiding LiDAR-SLAM so

that the performance. It also increases robustness by adjusting to different environments
because it uses the INS’s initial values. The proposed FDE also contributes to the SLAM
by eliminating failure solutions like algorithm divergence and any local solutions. High
dynamic movement is dealt with using the SLAM model. A central fusion filter benefits
from integrity assessments to avoid failure measurements in the updating process based
on INS-aiding SLAM, consequently increasing reliability and accuracy. As a result of this
multisensor design, a variety of situations can be dealt with, including long-term GNSS
outages, deep urban areas, and highways. The results of this proposed system have an
accuracy of under 1 m in challenging scenarios. The paper proposes such a design because,
according to the authors, an automated driving system will soon require a multisensor
fusion system to meet the high accuracy requirements. Figure 5 demonstrates overtaking a
moving vehicle using an optimal path.

Figure 5. Overtaking a moving obstacle.

4.4. Vehicle Cyber Security

The automotive sector is going through a significant development trend regarding
autonomous driving. Sensors, communication systems, actuators, etc., are some of the
components becoming more and more common in vehicles due to this. This has led to more
complexity, which has increased the number of ways cyber-attacks can occur [25]. This leads
to attackers having access to the vehicles from outside. Several security-related projects have
been conducted as a result of these concerns. Bold initiatives are being taken by technology
giants, automobile manufacturers, and governments all over the world to build safer and
more affordable AVs and bring them to market quickly. Cooperation is essential for tackling
the issue of cybersecurity. Various publishers published a collection of cyber attacks [26].
Based on the different levels of details, these attacks were classified and presented by
Florian Sommer et al. [25]. By categorizing attacks according to varying levels of fact, we
can use the taxonomy for security testing and TARA to provide a uniform description for
testers and security developers. The classification has a collection of 162 published security
attacks, while another version has 413 multi-stage attacks on AVs. These are made available
online to collect knowledge for further research on these topics. Remote control of an AV is
another area where more research is required. When an autonomous vehicle is under attack,
all the vehicle controlling operations need to be assigned to the driver [27]. This approach
won’t be possible in a level 5 automation. The velocity and position are essential parameters
to control a vehicle remotely. For this, a possible solution could be deploying IoT sensors in
ITS [28,29]. If the data communications through wireless channels are under attack, the
attack signals need to be isolated from all the decision-making processes. Once the attack
signals are detected, the jammer could be set up to block attackers only, without interfering
with communication. Figure 6 demonstrates the potential attack surfaces vulnerable in a
cyber attack.
Electronics 2022, 11, 2162 14 of 18

Figure 6. Attack surfaces used in a potential cyber attack.

4.5. Motion Control

Algorithms of motion planning decide paths for given scenarios. It is crucial for such
algorithms to also learn the driving styles of surrounding vehicles [30]. It is implemented
by steering control and accelerating suitably to generate safe motions for the AV. Dang et al.
suggest three essential categories for developing motion control algorithms—Artificial
Potential Field, Sampling-based technique, and optimal control techniques [31]. The
Artificial Potential Field constructs possible fields of motion based on target pull and
obstruction repulsion. It then analyses the target’s shortest path along the potential field
gradient so that the computing cost becomes small. The downside is that this algorithm
does not account for future driving actions.
For safety reasons, a fair estimate of the intentions of neighboring vehicles needs to be
computed. For such traffic situations, Liu et al. suggest the Driving Intention Prediction
Method, which uses the Hidden Markov model [32]. Cuenca et al., in their paper, suggest
a Q-learning algorithm to navigate roundabouts correctly, as it is a complicated task in
driving situations. Knowledge of entry/exit lanes, priority rules and intentions of other
vehicles in the traffic is required [33].
Wu et al., in their paper, suggest a Gray Prediction Model estimate gaps and find the
correct instance of time for lane switching. Continuous path planning is safe and efficient
for lane switching [34]. Overtaking is an essential element in motion control because, if
not done correctly, it can lead to accidents. Model-Predictive-Control is a technique used
for such maneuvers. It determines the probability of this vehicle overtaking the vehicle in
front based on their comparative speeds [35].
For sideways motion control, Deep Reinforcement Learning methods can be used.
This includes techniques controlling steering-angle, braking, and acceleration [36].

5. Psychology
Customers’ lack of trust and acceptance is a major roadblock to autonomous driving
and vehicles. We require more government and automobile manufacturers’ involvement to
increase consumer trust. Transparency plays a key role in increasing trust regarding self-
driving cars. To build consumer trust, transparency must be modeled as a Non-functional
Requirement for producing self-driving cars. It would also expose the consumer to what
are the potentially significant risks of such technology, which is unproven, and what are
the potential large-scale consequences. Understanding what makes autonomous cars more
acceptable is key for making changes going forward. A study examined the key predictors
that will lead to acceptance of self-driving cars [37]. Four hundred participants were
surveyed to assess the factors leading to acceptance of self-driving cars, and “Posthuman
ability” was the strongest factor. It suggests that people are more receptive to technology
that can exceed human capabilities. This study also revealed several key factors regarding
the acceptance of AVs. This, in turn, helps vehicle manufacturers make changes so that
consumers widely accept the upcoming models. People often identify casual links making
Electronics 2022, 11, 2162 15 of 18

judgments of an event. In the case of AV, the same applies as AI and human drivers differ
regarding the blame level. A study was conducted to see how the level of blame varies
based on attribution theory between an AI and a human driver [38]. The experiment
used a story about a car driving in the dark and hitting a jaywalker. This is similar to
the self-driving car accident by Uber. Eight different scenarios were modified − 2 (victim
survived vs. victim died) × 2 (human vs. AI driver) × 2 (female vs. male driver) to fit the
experimental design. This story was based on an accident that occurred in Arizona with a
self-driving car (Wakabayashi, 2018). This study concluded that the participants blamed
AI drivers more than human drivers. An important parameter that the automakers and
government must consider is how the consumer’s attitude has changed over the years and
whether that change is positive or negative. The change in perception over the years shows
our progress and helps create a road map on how to keep changing public perspectives in
the coming years. Through text analysis, a study examined attitudes towards self-driving
vehicles and factors that motivated them [39]. This study also adds to a previous analysis
based on 2016 and 2017 data [39]. Associating the topics with the survey year revealed
the changes in people’s mentality toward AVs. A Bayes factor of 6.3 represents “positive”
evidence of an effect obtained for the survey year. The study found a change in perception
in response to the survey questions compared to the previous year’s result. A similar
study examined how individuals attribute responsibility to an AI agent or a human agent
under the Expectancy Violation Theory for a positive or negative event [40]. People who
participated in the study were given a fictitious news article to read as stimuli. The news
articles were of two types-one contained an AI agent, and the other held a human agent.
After reading the article, all participants were asked about their perceptions of the driver.
The study had similar findings where they concluded that if an adverse event occurred, an
AI agent would be deemed more responsible than a human. Still, it was also found that if
an AI agent results in a positive outcome, it receives more praise than a human agent.

6. Challenges
In this section, we discuss the issues prevalent in research on AI in AV. Research on
this topic highlights the numerous advantages AV brings to the table. We studied the
literary works on this topic and reviewed them in this paper. The common trend in the
challenges is the lack of implementation of proposed algorithms due to a scarcity of data
in this domain. In pedestrian detection, no real-world experimentation is done to test the
proposed methods’ ability to classify objects in real-time. As a result of heavy obstructions,
the orientation of a pedestrian may occasionally not match the image mask of another,
resulting in errors in orientation estimation. So no algorithm is completely accurate or fast.
There is a compromise between speed and accuracy while detecting pedestrians in the
dark. Prediction of pedestrians’ behavior is often overlooked. In trajectory planning, most
of the research papers that focused on trajectory detection did not have any real-world
demonstration and solely relied on either simulation to prove their approach for trajectory
detection or proposed problems to solutions using deep learning algorithms. The papers
which did have real-world approaches were now obsolete. In motion control, the Model
Predictive Control algorithm is the main algorithm used for lateral motion control. Still,
it has limited fault detection, and the uncertainties that do not match given conditions
are not eliminated [20]. In psychology research, there is no real-life implementation for
non-functional requirements regarding transparency in self-driving cars, and it’s not much
studied, so the literature search was limited. With dramatically transforming technology,
the availability bias makes it likely that they will be more influenced by the crashes that have
occurred with various types of automated vehicles than the new experiences self-driving
vehicles might afford.

7. Future Scope
Vehicles and other transportation systems are under research and development to
usher in an autonomous future. The future is heading towards a technologically advanced
driverless world. These developments in AVs will lead to further advancements in tech-
Electronics 2022, 11, 2162 16 of 18

nology. Various applications based on IoV and VANETs have already been proposed.
Advancements in IoV have made it possible to construct powerful next-generation in-
frastructures, acting as an interface to connect multiple objects such as vehicular sensors,
actuators, and entire vehicles to the Internet. Research into technologies such as BCG is
being carried out to distribute content through cloud support in developing smart cities
based on IoT [41]. VANETs is a technology based on IoV. Its primary role is to ensure
uninterrupted access to resources such as the Internet for connectivity [42]. The rapid
advancement of the Internet has increased the number of users, and VANETs can be used
to satisfy their needs by accessing resources and staying connected to the Internet while
on the move. It also had potential uses in other fields such as health and safety, intelligent
transportation systems, and military systems, to name a few. Using VANET, we can cluster
vehicles according to routing, mobility, and behaviors on the road, allowing us to keep
an adaptive approach in monitoring traffic and pollution density. This information will
also help the AVs make adaptive decisions for route selection. The advantages of using
VANET for tracking, navigating, routing, and communication will become more appar-
ent once vehicle-to-vehicle communication becomes approved by governments and all
cars on the road adapt to this technology [43]. The study at [44] suggests using Radio
Frequency Identification to be utilized by moving vehicles and roadside units for Vehicle-
to-Infrastructure communication as efficient cellular or LTE communication channels exist
between Roadside units and the cloud platform. This suggests a secure and safe channel to
get information to and from the vehicular cloud. According to the study, it can also be used
for Vehicle-to-Vehicle communication and will have countless benefits in the healthcare
sector. The study at [45] suggests a new routing algorithm based on collaborative learning
for delivering information to the destination, maximizing throughput, and minimizing
delay. This technology would help vehicular sensor networks (VSNs) in case of an increase
in the density of the vehicles on the road and route jamming in the network. Based on
the closeby access points, the learning automata learn from experience and make routing
decisions quickly.

8. Conclusions
In this survey, we have outlined, highlighted, and investigated the technological
advancements in autonomous driving. We also examined the recent advances and case
studies on autonomous driving. While conducting this review, we discovered and discussed
all the future research challenges for further studies in this domain that were mostly
related to implementing the proposed technologies in the real world. Certain aspects of
safety, path planning algorithms, security, and privacy have also been reviewed in this
paper. Non-technical challenges such as consumer trust, governance, and human behavior
towards autonomous driving play a major role in bringing AVs and related technologies to
widespread use. This review could contribute with necessary insights into the emerging
domains in autonomous driving. We can conclude that autonomous vehicles are the way of
the future, and vehicles with Level 3 Automation are ready for commercialization. Despite
the enormous advances in these past years with autonomous technology, we think it is
still early to speculate about the commercialization of AV above Level 3 Automation. With
efforts toward robustness at all levels of automation, we believe the automated vehicles
running on efficient and safe roads are just around the corner.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, D.P., N.P., A.R. and M.C.; data curation, D.P., N.P., A.R.;
formal analysis, D.P.; funding acquisition, W.C.; investigation, N.P., N.K. and G.P.J.; methodology,
N.P., A.R. and M.C.; project administration, W.C.; resources, M.C. and G.P.J.; supervision, M.C. and
W.C.; validation, M.C., N.K. and W.C.; visualization, A.R.; writing—original draft, D.P., N.P. and A.R.;
writing—review and editing, G.P.J. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding: This work is supported by the Korea Agency for Infrastructure Technology Advancement
(KAIA) grant funded by the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport (Grant 21AMDP-C161756-01).
Electronics 2022, 11, 2162 17 of 18

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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