CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION

1.1 BACKGROUND TO THE STUDY

Surveying has been of great importance since the beginning of civilization. It importance has
steadily increased with the growing demand for a variety of maps and other spatially related
types of information and the expanding need for accurate survey work. Hence for any
meaningful development to take place land surveying in particular topographic surveying is
the first points of reference. Surveying has been described as an essential element in every
human development activity since the beginning of recorded history. It has been discovered
to be an imperative requirement in the planning and execution of every forms of meaning
development (Bannister et al., 1986). Provision of infrastructure; planning of towns and
cities; management of hazardous natural events and human actions such as erosion, flooding,
earthquakes and subsidence; coastal management; exploration and exploitation of minerals;
sitting of industries; resources exploitation on the land and on the sea are dependent on land
surveying products (E.O. Oriola, and Asonibare S.O, 2011). Surveying has various
definitions by different authors, all attaching its significance to the determination of relative
position of points on the earth surface. Surveying which can now be interchangeable called
Geomatics has traditionally been defined as science, art and technology of determining the
relative position of points above, on or beneath the earth's surface (Ghilani and Wolf 2008).
These points are usually on or beneath the earth's surface, and they are often used to establish
maps and boundaries for ownership or governmental purposes. Geomatics also includes the
traditional surveying as its corner stone, but reflects the broadened scope of measurement
science and information technology(Kavanagh 2010).

According to Microsoft Encarta dictionary (2009), topography is the study and mapping of
the features on the surface of land including natural features such as mountains and rivers and
constructed features such as high ways and roads.

New technological development of hardware and software has given us the potential to add to
the functionality of the conventional mapping system.

The retrieval of information from map and their combination with other surveys about
specific properties of the earth's surface are neither easy nor cheap task, the systematic nature

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of conventional mapping programs can lead to delays in the development programs and in
responding to urgent needs for topographic information.

Topographic survey technique systematically and analytically, involve the acquisition of

topographical data of features on the earth surface both manmade and natural in three
dimensions. This employs the technique of plane surveying and other special techniques to
establish both horizontal and vertical controls.

The application of Geographic Information System (GIS) in Topographical survey may be

viewed as a combination of terrain and computer based resources with a set of organized
procedures that results in collection, storage, retrieval, manipulation/analysis, dissemination
and the use of spatial data for the purpose of efficient and effective management of resources
for decision making as in aid to sustainable development (Oyinloye 2002).

According to Sowton (1991), GIS is a system which allows the capture, updating and display
of a number of previously unconnected data sets, bringing them into a common reference
system for spatial analysis from which relationship can be identified and decision made. The
acquisition of topographic data and their integration in Geographic Information System is
useful in solving various geospatial problems. Topographic Information System (TIS) has
been embraced due to efficient and dynamic manner in which topographic data are held in the
database which can easily be queried for easy retrieval of relevant geo-information.

Topographic Information System (TIS) has proved useful in many areas such as engineering
project ranging from Dam construction, pipe laying land settlement etc. other field where TIS
is applicable involve geology, Archeology, military, defense, Architecture, Building, Mining,
geophysics etc. and at such it is very popular among engineers, architects or building
contractors who need to know detailed information regarding overall site condition related to
elevation. The implication of the above is that no meaningful development can be embarked
upon by individual, government and any other agencies without information about the
topography of the land showing configuration of the earth surface in the area where such
development is to take place.

In view of this, it is necessary to create topographic information system for the Polytechnic
High school Ibadan, Ibadan North Local Government Area, Oyo State to discard the use of
conventional analogue map and embrace Digital map which can easily be updated and offers
dynamic way of producing maps for efficient storage, manipulation and retrieval of geo-

2
information because the information generated from such system are useful in physical
planning, development and decision making in the location. The measurements of survey are
linear and angular and the principles of geometry and trigonometry are usually applied.
(Microsoft Encarta, 2009). The dimension of distance and elevation are measured in the unit
of length, while that of direction is usually in the unit of arc. Hence, it may be said that all
surveying operation are comprised in the measurement of distance (horizontal and vertical)
and of angle. Surveying or Land surveying is the technique, profession, and science of
determining the terrestrial or three-dimensional position of point and the distance and angles
between them. A land surveying professional is called Land Surveyor. These points are
usually on or beneath the surface of the Earth, and they are used to establish land maps,
boundary of ownership, locations like building corners or the surface location of subsurface
feature, or other purposes required by government or civil law, such as property sale.
Surveyors work with element of geometry, trigonometry, regression analysis, physics,
engineering, metrology, programming languages and the law. They use equipment like Total
station, GPS receivers, 3D scanner, radios, handheld tablets, digital level, subsurface locators,
drones, GIS and surveying software. Surveying has been an element in the development of
the human environment since the beginning of recorded history. The planning and execution
of most forms off construction require it. It is also used in transport, communication,
mapping and the definition of legal boundary for land ownership. It is an important tool for
research in many other scientific disciplines. The purpose of most surveying requires the
computation of area and volume and the representation of the field measurement on a flat
body paper or leather) inform of profile, and maps with a suitable scale. Infrastructural
changes are in the basic essential services or amenities put in place for development to occur.
The need for building more structure in a developing country keep increasing, this
automatically has caused increasing demand for geoinformation about the topographical
features on the landscape which is multiplying continuously, as the precise and on time
informative details about land dynamic changes is important to the update and management
of topographic features on map (Zhang and Li, 2018). Spacious planning of power supply,
road construction, planning of flood control and more. All these areas of use will always need
an up-to-date digital topographic database. Topography of an area describes the terrain
characteristics of relief features of such area as depicted by hills, valleys and plains. It can be
used to study and represent as a surface, any characteristic that has a continuously changing
value other than elevation, for instance, population, geo-magnetic data and geo-chemical data
(Odo et al., 2016). Topographical surveying involves the capturing of spatial and non-spatial

3
data of the terrain features on the topographic surface, both man-made and natural in three-
dimensional form (x y z). Ndukwe (2001), said topographic information system (TIS) is the
combination of topographic survey and geographic information system (GIS). It can be
defined as a GIS database of topographic features and other related data. According to
Uluocha (2007), the implementation of GIS into the planning aspect to enhance decision
making has continued at an impressive rate. This is because GIS manage large spatial and
attribute data with a distinct valuable application for policy makers in area of planning.

1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENT

The project site, Polytechnic high school, Ibadan North Local Government Area and Oyo
State has no updated map covering the area in detail. The available map is in analogue format
which makes information retrieval difficult. Therefore, there is need be upgraded into digital
map which is more useful when there is need for selecting suitable site for utilities and
structures. Also, Topographic Information System if created will aid easy retrieval, proper
planning and development of the School. Another problem encountered is unavailability of a
control station nearer to the site area. Probably due to the construction of drainage and
pipeline along Ijokodo/Apete road, at that process the control along the way was destroyed.

1.3 AIM AND OBJECTIVE

1.3.1 AIM OF THE PROJECT

The project is aimed at creating topographic information system for Polytechnic high school,
along Ijokodo Apete road.

1.3.2 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROJECT

In order to achieve the aim stated above, the following objectives were pursued.

1. Carrying out spatial analysis and queries generation

2.. Facilitate Effective Land Use Planning

3. Enhance Infrastructure Management and Planning

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1.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY

This study is highly significance due to the magnitude of the information that will produce
about the spatial entities. The topographic database of the natural, artificial, terrain
configuration are created, which can be accessed in real-time. The extent of the physical
growth of the school, the availability of unused land will be depicted with the aid of data
collected.

1.5 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

The scope of the project include the following

i. Reconnaissance: Involving the field and office reconnaissance

ii. Acquisition of both geometric and attribute data: Perimeter survey, detailing, spot
heightening, using GPS and social survey for attribute data.

iii. Data processing: Which include data downloading and editing, plotting with AutoCAD
and Surfer software.

iv. Creation of spatial database of spatial entities with ARCGIS

v. Performing spatial analysis using various analytical tools.

vi. Information presentation in hardware and software.

vii. Report writing.

1.6 PERSONNEL

The following personnel were involved in the execution of the project work:

NAMES MATRIC NO
AKINWUMI OLUWASEGUN AYODEJI 2018233070010
OLADEPO TAWAKALITU ADEOLA 2018703070050
ADETAYO ITUNUOLUWA DANIEL 2018703070012
ADEFABI SULAIMON ADEBAYO 2016233070009
BANKOLE SHOLA SUNDAY 2022213070080

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1.7 SITE LOCATION

The project site is located at polytechnic high school, Ijokodo Ibadan, Ibadan North Local
Government Area, Oyo state. The Polytechnic High School, Ibadan, was established in the
mid-1950s as part of the broader educational reforms and expansion initiatives in Nigeria,
aimed at increasing access to quality education and promoting technical and vocational
training. The school was founded in Ibadan, a prominent city in southwestern Nigeria, known
for its rich cultural heritage and educational institutions. The establishment of the school
aligned with the vision of enhancing technical education to support the burgeoning needs of
the nation’s development. The school is a Government based school and also a mixed one at
that (both male and female) and I was asked to carry out the topographical information
system of the area. The Total area covered was. It lies within latitude 07° 25' 11"N and 07°
25' 37"N and longitude 03° 47' 28"E and 03° 47' 10"N of the Greenwich meridian.

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Fig 1.7 Study Area

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

The word topography itself is derived from Greek word 'topo' meaning place, and 'graphia'
meaning to write, or to record. Some of the first known topographic surveys were conducted
by the British Military in the late eighteenth century. In the United States, the earliest detailed
surveys were made during the world war of 1812 by the Topographical Bureau of the Army.
Throughout the century, topographical mapping became more complex and precise in the
invention of instrument such as theodolites and automatic levels. Most recently developments
in digital world such as GIS (Geographic Information System) have allowed us to create
increasingly complex topographical map (www.ehow.com).

According to Columbia Encyclopedia (2007), topography is the description or representation

of the features and configuration of land surface. It is also the description of such surface
shapes and features on it (especially their depiction in maps). In a broader sense, topography
is concerned with local details in general, including not only relief but also vegetations and
human-made features and even local history and culture. Surveying is defined as science and
art of determining relatively, accurate measurements of the Earth’s surfaces. It includes the
determination of points, on, below or above the earth surface, the measurement of data, the
reduction and interpretation of the such data to usable form, and, however, the establishment
of relative position and size the data according to given measurement requirements.
Surveying, which has recently also been interchangeably called geomatics has traditionally
been defined as the science, art, and technology of determining the relative positions of points
above, on, or beneath the Earth’s surface, or of establishing such points. In a more general
sense, however, surveying (geomatics) can be regarded as that discipline, which encompasses
all methods for measuring and collecting information about the physical earth and our
environment, processing that information, and disseminating a variety of resulting products to
a wide range of clients. Surveying literally is a means of making relatively large-scale,
accurate measurements of the Earth’s surfaces. Surveying has been an essential element in
the development of the human environment for so many centuries that its importance is often
forgotten. It is an imperative requirement in the planning and execution of nearly every form
of construction. Surveying was essential at the dawn of history, and some of the most
significant scientific discoveries could never have been implemented were it not for the
contribution of surveying. Its principal modern uses are in the fields of transportation,

8
building, apportionment of land, and communications. Throughout the years its importance
has steadily increased with the growing demand for a variety of maps and other spatially
related types of information and the expanding need for establishing accurate line and grade
to guide construction operations (Ghilani and Wolf, 2012). Surveying has been essential since
the beginning of civilization. Its earliest applications were in measuring and establishing
boundaries of property ownership. Throughout the years its importance has steadily increased
with the growing demand for a variety of maps and other spatially related types of
information and the expanding need for establishing accurate line and grade to guide
construction operations (Ghilani and Paul, 2002). Surveying is the world’s oldest profession.
About 5,000 years ago, surveyor were hard at work in Babylon and the settlement of the
Tigris and Euphrates rivers, where a great deal of work into irrigation between two great
river.(As it happens, the conventions of degrees, minutes and seconds and 360 degrees in a
circle are Babylonian creations) In Egypt, surveying had reached a high standard with the
need for annual re-surveying of land after the annual Nile flood, as well as for the
construction of the pyramids and other major public works. Surveying in the Ancient Greek
world reached a high point, especially in Egypt, that was not equaled for many centuries also
surveys were conducted in river Nile of Egypt, India and China to re-established boundaries
washed away by annual floodwaters. Today, surveying is becoming increasingly more
adventurous. The earth is mapped from airplanes and satellites. The moon and the planet are
mapped from rockets and space-craft which take photographs which are relayed to the earth
by television (Hoffman, 1994).

Surveying, a practice essential to defining and understanding the landscape, boasts a rich and
varied history. This history closely intertwines with the evolution of topographical
information systems, reflecting broader technological advancements and societal needs. The
roots of surveying stretch back to ancient civilizations. The Egyptians, around 1400 BCE,
employed rudimentary geometry to re-establish land boundaries after the annual flooding of
the Nile River. This process was vital for agricultural planning and taxation purposes.
Similarly, the Greeks advanced the field with instruments such as the diopter, which allowed
for more precise measurements. The Roman Empire made significant contributions,
systematizing land surveying methods using tools like the Groma and the Chorobates. These
instruments and techniques facilitated the creation of extensive maps that supported military,
administrative, and infrastructural endeavors across the empire. During the Middle Ages,
surveying remained primarily a practical tool for agriculture and land management within the

9
feudal system. However, the Renaissance ushered in a renewed interest in scientific inquiry
and technological advancement. This period saw the invention of the theodolite, an
instrument that enabled more accurate angular measurements. Such advancements set the
stage for more systematic and precise land surveys. The Age of Exploration, spanning the
15th to 17th centuries, marked a pivotal period in the history of surveying. European powers,
driven by the desire to explore and colonize new territories, required accurate maps and
charts for navigation and territorial claims. This era saw the development of more refined
surveying instruments, including the vernier scale and the plane table. The Longitude
Problem—determining a ship's east-west position at sea—also spurred advancements in
timekeeping and navigation, fields closely linked to surveying.

The 18th and 19th centuries witnessed significant developments fueled by the Industrial
Revolution. The rapid expansion of railways, canals, and urban areas necessitated detailed
and accurate maps. Triangulation methods, which involved the measurement of a series of
interconnected triangles, became a cornerstone of large-scale surveys. Many countries
established national mapping agencies, such as Britain’s Ordnance Survey, to produce
detailed topographical maps critical for infrastructure development and military planning.

The 20th century heralded transformative technological advancements that revolutionized

surveying. Aerial photography, introduced during World War I, provided a new perspective
on the landscape. Photogrammetry, the science of making measurements from photographs,
emerged as a powerful tool in mapping and surveying. Electronic Distance Measurement
(EDM) devices, developed in the mid-20th century, greatly enhanced the accuracy and
efficiency of distance measurements. Surveying also contributed to, and benefited from, the
space program where new equipment and systems were needed to provide precise control for
missile alignment and for mapping and charting portions of the moon and nearby planets.
Developments in surveying and mapping equipment have now evolved to the point where the
traditional instruments that were used until about the 1960s or 1970s—the transit, theodolite,
dumpy level, and steel tape—have now been almost completely replaced by an array of new
“high-tech” instruments. These include electronic total station instruments, which can be used
to automatically measure and record horizontal and vertical distances, and horizontal and
vertical angles; and global navigation satellite systems (GNSS) such as the global positioning
system (GPS) that can provide precise location information for virtually any type of survey.

10
The introduction of the Global Positioning System (GPS) in the late 20th century marked a
watershed moment in the history of surveying. GPS technology allowed for precise location
data to be obtained anywhere on Earth, significantly improving the accuracy and convenience
of surveys. This period also saw the emergence of Geographic Information Systems (GIS),
which integrated spatial data with computer systems. GIS allowed for the storage, analysis,
and visualization of geographic information, revolutionizing the way topographical data was
managed and utilized .Remote sensing, involving the use of satellites and other sensors to
gather data about the Earth’s surface, further enhanced topographical information systems.
Techniques such as Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) enabled the creation of highly
detailed three-dimensional maps. LiDAR technology, which measures distances by
illuminating the target with laser light and analyzing the reflected light, has become a crucial
tool in modern surveying.

Today, the field of surveying and topographical information systems is characterized by the
integration and automation of various technologies. GPS, GIS, LiDAR, and unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAVs) are used in conjunction to produce comprehensive and accurate
topographical data. These advanced systems have found applications in urban planning,
environmental monitoring, disaster management, infrastructure development, and numerous
other fields. The history of surveying, therefore, is a testament to human ingenuity and the
relentless pursuit of precision and understanding of the natural world. From the rudimentary
techniques of ancient civilizations to the sophisticated technologies of today, surveying has
evolved into a critical science and art, integral to the development and functioning of modern
society. The continuous interplay between technological innovation and practical application
has driven this evolution, making modern surveying and topographical information systems
indispensable tools in many industries.

The evolution of surveying, a discipline fundamental to land measurement and mapping, is

deeply interwoven with the development of topographical information systems. This journey
from ancient rudimentary techniques to sophisticated modern technologies highlights the
integral role of surveying in understanding and managing our environment. Surveying dates
back to ancient civilizations, where it was essential for defining land boundaries, constructing
monumental structures, and managing resources. In Egypt around 1400 BCE, surveyors used
basic geometry to re-establish land boundaries disrupted by the annual Nile floods. This
practice was crucial for agricultural planning and taxation. They employed simple tools like

11
ropes and plumb bobs, which, despite their simplicity, laid the groundwork for more
sophisticated methods. In Mesopotamia, early surveyors used similar tools and techniques,
including the use of a basic plumb bob for vertical alignment. The need for accurate land
measurement in these regions drove the initial innovations in surveying, setting the stage for
future advancements.

The Greeks further advanced surveying with the invention of instruments like the diopter,
used initially for astronomical measurements and later adapted for land surveying. Greek
mathematicians, including Hipparchus, developed early concepts of grid systems, which
became foundational for later mapping efforts. The Roman Empire significantly enhanced
surveying techniques, driven by their need for precise maps to support military and
administrative functions. Roman surveyors, known as agrimensores, used the Groma to
establish straight lines and right angles, essential for building roads, aqueducts, and cities.
The Chorobates, another Roman invention, was used for leveling. These tools and the
Romans' systematic approach to surveying were crucial for their extensive infrastructure
projects.

During the Middle Ages, surveying was primarily used for agricultural land division and
management within the feudal system. Surveyors, known as **perambulators**, used simple
tools like measuring rods and chains to demarcate property lines. While the techniques
remained basic, they were vital for managing estates and collecting taxes. The Renaissance
brought a renewed interest in science and technology, leading to significant advancements in
surveying. The invention of the theodolite in the late 16th century was a major breakthrough.
This instrument allowed for the precise measurement of horizontal and vertical angles,
revolutionizing the accuracy of land surveys. The development of detailed maps and charts
during this period, driven by exploration and trade, laid the groundwork for modern
topographical mapping. The Age of Exploration, spanning the 15th to 17th centuries, saw
European powers exploring and colonizing new territories. Accurate maps and charts became
indispensable tools for navigation and territorial claims. This period saw the refinement of
existing surveying instruments and the invention of new ones, such as the vernier scale and
the plane table. These tools allowed for more precise and detailed mapping, essential for
navigation and colonial administration.

One of the most significant challenges during this era was determining longitude at sea.
While latitude could be measured relatively easily using the position of the sun or stars,

12
longitude required accurate timekeeping. The development of marine chronometers by John
Harrison in the 18th century solved this problem, enabling navigators to determine their east-
west position with greater precision. This breakthrough had a profound impact on navigation
and surveying. Solving the Longitude Problem was one of the era's significant challenges.
Determining a ship's east-west position at sea required accurate timekeeping, which was
achieved with the development of marine chronometers by John Harrison in the 18th century.
This breakthrough in navigation had a profound impact on surveying, as it enabled more
precise mapping of newly explored lands.

The Industrial Revolution brought rapid urbanization and infrastructure development,

increasing the demand for detailed and accurate maps. Triangulation, a method involving the
measurement of a network of interconnected triangles, became the standard for large-scale
surveys. This technique allowed for the precise determination of distances and angles over
large areas, significantly enhancing the accuracy of maps. During this period, many countries
established national mapping agencies to produce detailed topographical maps. The Ordnance
Survey in Britain, founded in 1791, is a notable example. The Ordnance Survey undertook
extensive triangulation surveys to create accurate maps for military and administrative
purposes. These national surveys provided a comprehensive understanding of the landscape,
supporting infrastructure development and governance.

The 20th century heralded transformative technological advancements that revolutionized

surveying and laid the foundation for modern topographical information systems. The
introduction of aerial photography during World War I marked a significant shift in
surveying. Aerial photographs provided a bird’s-eye view of the terrain, allowing for the
creation of more accurate maps. Photogrammetry, the science of making measurements from
photographs, emerged as a powerful tool. By analyzing overlapping photographs, surveyors
could create detailed topographical maps and models. This method significantly improved the
accuracy and efficiency of mapping large areas.

The mid-20th century saw the invention of Electronic Distance Measurement (EDM) devices.
These instruments used electromagnetic waves to measure distances with high accuracy.
EDM significantly improved the efficiency and precision of surveying, reducing the time
required for field measurements and increasing the reliability of the data collected.

13
The introduction of the Global Positioning System (GPS) in the late 20th century marked a
major milestone in surveying. GPS technology, developed by the U.S. Department of
Defense, allowed for precise location data to be obtained anywhere on Earth. Surveyors could
now determine positions with unprecedented accuracy and convenience, revolutionizing the
field. GPS enabled the continuous collection of geospatial data, which was crucial for the
development of modern topographical information systems. The 1960s and 1970s saw the
emergence of Geographic Information Systems (GIS), which integrated spatial data with
computer systems. GIS allowed for the storage, analysis, and visualization of geographic
information, transforming how topographical data was managed and utilized. Early GIS
systems were used for urban planning, environmental monitoring, and resource management.
The ability to overlay different types of spatial data and perform complex analyses made GIS
an indispensable tool in modern surveying and mapping.

The development of remote sensing technologies provided new sources of topographical data.
Satellites equipped with sensors could gather information about the Earth’s surface, including
elevation, vegetation, and land use. This data, combined with GIS, allowed for more
comprehensive and accurate mapping. Remote sensing technology enabled the continuous
monitoring of environmental changes and the creation of up-to-date maps.

Light Detection and Ranging (LiDAR) technology emerged as a crucial tool in modern
surveying. LiDAR measures distances by illuminating a target with laser light and analyzing
the reflected light. This technology enables the creation of highly detailed three-dimensional
maps, capturing fine details of the landscape. LiDAR is widely used in applications such as
forestry, urban planning, and disaster management. The ability to generate precise 3D models
of the terrain has transformed how we visualize and analyze topographical information.

Today, the field of surveying and topographical information systems is characterized by the
integration and automation of various technologies. GPS, GIS, LiDAR, and unmanned aerial
vehicles (UAVs) are used in conjunction to produce comprehensive and accurate
topographical data. UAVs, commonly known as drones, have become valuable tools for
aerial surveys, capturing high-resolution images and LiDAR data. The integration of these
technologies allows for the efficient collection, analysis, and visualization of geospatial data.

Modern surveying and topographical information systems have found applications in

numerous fields. Urban planners use these systems to design and manage cities, while

14
environmental scientists monitor changes in the landscape. Engineers rely on accurate
topographical data for infrastructure development, and disaster management teams use it to
assess and mitigate risks. The integration of these technologies has made surveying more
efficient, accurate, and versatile, supporting a wide range of industries. In urban planning,
topographical information systems enable the creation of detailed maps and 3D models of
cities. These models help planners design infrastructure, manage resources, and analyze the
impact of proposed developments. Environmental scientists use topographical data to monitor
changes in the landscape, such as deforestation, erosion, and land use changes. This
information is critical for conservation efforts and environmental management. Engineers
rely on precise topographical data for infrastructure projects, such as road construction,
bridge building, and pipeline installation. Accurate maps and 3D models help engineers
design structures that are safe and efficient. In disaster management, topographical
information systems are used to assess risks, plan evacuation routes, and coordinate
emergency response efforts. The ability to quickly and accurately map affected areas is
crucial for effective disaster response.

The history of surveying, closely tied to the evolution of topographical information systems,
is a testament to human ingenuity and the relentless pursuit of precision in understanding the
natural world. From the rudimentary techniques of ancient civilizations to the sophisticated
technologies of today, surveying has evolved into a critical science and art. The continuous
interplay between technological innovation and practical application has driven this
evolution, making modern surveying and topographical information systems indispensable
tools in many industries. Surveying has come a long way from the simple measurements of
ancient Egypt to the high-tech solutions of the 21st century. The development of instruments
like the theodolite, the advancement of triangulation methods, the invention of GPS, and the
integration of GIS and LiDAR technologies have all contributed to the field's progress. As
technology continues to advance, surveying will undoubtedly continue to evolve, providing
even more accurate and comprehensive insights into our world.

The fusion of traditional surveying techniques with modern topographical information

systems has revolutionized the field. Today, surveyors and geospatial professionals use a
combination of GPS, GIS, remote sensing, and LiDAR to create detailed and accurate maps
and models.

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The origins of topographical information systems can be traced back to ancient cartography.
Early maps, such as those created by the Babylonians, Egyptians, and Greeks, provided
rudimentary representations of landforms and spatial relationships. Ancient Greeks like
Ptolemy made significant contributions with their efforts to create more systematic and
scientifically grounded maps.

A topographic map is said to be a map which shows the characteristics of the vegetation by
conventional signs as well as the horizontal distance between features and their elevation
above a given datum. For a topographic map to be produced which form the based map for
the planning and development of the area, the perimeter and leveling of the area of interest
must be carry out. The procedure is to first establish the boundary of the area of interest using
boundary beacon. The perimeter traversed will be gridded into grid points forming square
cells which cover the area of interest. The grid points are stake-out on the ground by setting
out operation. Then the spirit leveling or trigonometry heightens of the grid points are carried
out. Topography is generally refers to as the study of earth surface, and its feature and overall
characteristics in term of shape. It also gives the description of the features (such as surface,
shapes, vegetation cover & elevations), depicted in maps (Ojiako and Jimoh, 2017). These
characteristics are natural and artificial (or man-made). Man-made features are buildings,
highways, dams, wharfs, bridges and so forth. Topography is the study of the features and
shape of land surfaces. The topography of an area could refer to the surface shapes and
features themselves, or a description (especially their depiction in maps

The chapter reveals different definition of topographic survey. According to (B.C Punmia
2005) Topographic survey is the process of determining the position both in plane and
elevation, of the natural and artificial feature of a locality for the purpose of delineating them
by means of conventional signs upon a topographic map.

Uren and price (1994) defined topographic surveying as a survey that deals with the
establishment of the position and shape of natural and man-made features over a given area,
usually for the purpose of producing a map of an area or for establishing a geo-information
system. This definition shows that topographic surveying, in addition to producing
topographic map, also produces geo-information system. The results of a topographic survey
are shown on a topographic map. A topographic map is a two dimensional representation of a
three-dimensional land surface. Topographic maps are different from other maps in that they
show both horizontal and vertical positions of the terrain through a combination of contour

16
lines, colours, symbols labels and other graphical representation. Topographic maps portray
the shapes and locations of mountains, forests, rivers, roads, bridges, and other natural and
man-made features.

Punmia et al (2005) in the same vein explained that the basic purpose of a topographical map
is to indicate the three-dimensional relationship for the terrain of any given study area of land
being represented both horizontally and vertically. In pursuance of this concept of
topographical surveying, Punmia (2005) outlined it as the process of determining the
position, both in planimmetric and elevation of natural and manmade features of a location
for the purpose of delineating and representing them by means of conventional signs and
symbols upon a topographical plan. Hence by inference, the term "topographical" connotes
the shape or configuration of the earth surface.

Topography specifically is used to describe the detailed study of the earth surface, this
include changes in the surface such as mountain and valleys as well as features such as rivers
and road. It can also include the surface of other planets, the moon, asteroids and meteors.

According to Burrough (1986), GIS is a powerful tool for collecting, storing, retrieving at
will, transforming and displaying spatial data from real world for a particular set of purpose.
This is by allowing data to be organized and viewed effectively by integrating them with
other data, by analysis and by the creation of new data that can be operated on in turn to
create useful information that can help decision in making.

The uniqueness of GIS is in its ability to integrate data from a variety of sources. A GIS can
thus be described as a form of spatial Decision Support System.

Oriola and Asonibare (2011) are of the opinion that it is necessary to create Topographic
Information System for different locations because the information generated from such
system can be used for various purposes in physical planning and decision-making in such
locations and listed some of the usefulness and advantages of this digital database for such
system over the conventional maps which include:-

a) Possibility of fast amendment and dynamic updating of data

b) Fast capturing of data with Total Stations or GPS

c) Analysis of many important spatial problems

17
d) Versatility in integrating data collected from various sources

e) Flexibility output possibilities

Provides bases for additional information with relative ease for production of maps.

However, TIS takes into consideration the geo-location data and its attributes.

Kraus (2000) defined Topographic Information System (TIS) as a computer-based system for
collecting and maintaining, storing and re-organizing, modeling and analyzing topographic
data as well as for the multimedia representation and visualization of the data. These are
created by determining X, Y and Z coordinates of relevant features as well as points on the
ground surface.

The development of a viable Topographic Information System (TIS) is built around a GIS
which has an integrated database known as TIS database. This is emphasized by Aronoff
(1991), who claimed that TIS is a specialized type of geo-information system which enables
the capturing and management of data in a compact form, manipulation of data either in
graphic or non-graphic form.

Spatial information system can be grouped into three categories Kraus (1995);

1. Land Information System (LIS) which store the property cadastre digitally. The
infrastructure of public utilities is frequently subsumed into LIS. Land Information System
has also been described for sometime as multipurpose cadastre.

2. Topographic Information System (TIS) which store the natural and artificial landscape in
the form of digital model. These are not very closely detailed but, on the other hand, are not
significantly generalized. A Digital Elevation Model (DEM) is a component of TIS.

3. Geographic Information System, which store the natural and artificial landscape, highly
generalized and also many other thematic content. If a particular theme is predominant, the
information system is often named after the theme, e.g. Environmental Information System,
Hydrographic Information System, etc.

The basic of topographic map is to indicate the three dimensional relationship for the terrain
of any given area of land. Topography of an area describes the surface characteristics of relief
feature of such area as depicted by hill, valleys and plains. It can be used to study and

18
represent as a surface, any characteristics that has a continuously changing value other than
elevation, for instance: population, geo-magnetic data and geo-chemical data. Topographical
surveying involve the acquisition of topographic data of the features on the earth's surface
both man-made and natural in three dimensions (XYZ). This employs the technique of plane
surveying and other special techniques to establish horizontal and vertical controls. Brinker
and Minnick (1987) referred to topographic map as a graphic representation of a portion of
the earth's surface as it existed at a certain time. It is drawn from field survey data or aerial
photographs to contain information on all natural or artificial land features; including
boundary, cities, road electricity lines, building and the nature of the terrain.

The implication of the above is that no meaningful development can be embark upon by an
individual, government or any other agencies without information about the topography of
area where such development is to take place. (www.iosrjournal.org. department of surveying
and geo-informatics, Nnamdi Azikiwi University Awka).

A topographical survey will provide exact figures of the size, height and position of different
changes that have occurred over the course of time with respect to their presence or that of
any manmade structures. Specifically, it shows their location, size, height and any changes in
elevation with time. As at today, GIS has been developed from the need to combine attribute
information about land with its cartographic representation in order to perform spatial
analysis. (Genovese, 2005).

USE OF TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEYING:

 Produce topographic maps

 Construct topographic (cross-sectional) profiles

 Establish vertical and horizontal control for accurately defining locations

A graphic representation of the topography of this area is called a topographic map. A

topographic map is simply a drawing that shows the natural and artificial features of an area.
Topographic maps with larger scales as well as digital map products are necessary for better
planning (Charles and Paul, 2012).

Topographic survey usually consist of the following

19
  Establishment of horizontal and vertical control that will serve as the frame work of
the survey.
 Determination of enough horizontal location and elevation of ground points to
provide enough data for plotting when preparing the map.
 Locating natural and man-made features that may be required by the purpose of the
survey.
 Computing distance, angle and elevation.
 Drawing the topographic map, topographic surveys are commonly identified with
horizontal and vertical control of third and lower order accuracy.

Topographic maps is also very useful in directing military operation during a war;

According to Barrister and Raymond (1984), He also explain that topographic surveys are
survey where the physical features of the earth are measure, maps and plans are then prepared
to show the relative position both horizontally and vertically depending on the extent, under
survey these may consist of either geodetic type of survey or plane survey where no account
is taken of the earth curvature.

The United State Geological survey (USGS) define topographical map which consist contour
presentation of relief especially with exact representation of elevation to become topographic
map.

According to Wikipedia a U.S Navy surveyor (1990) also explain that topographic survey are
survey that measure the elevation of points on a particular piece of land and present them as
contour line on a plan.

The operation involve in topographic survey are

 Traversing
 Leveling
 Detailing
 Map scale

TIS make it possible to effectively and efficiently manage information stored in the database
and extraction of attributes of spatial entity can easily be achieved at any time. Hence, this

20
project is expected to give a detailed and updated ground relief and features information that
will help in planning and subsequent development of the area.

21
 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 METHODOLOGY

The design is the arrangement, framework or plan for database, while database is an
organized set of data or persistent data about an application being held in a computer system
so that it could be accessed through some logical paths. They are most of the time structured,
organized and contain no redundancy.

As the heart of GIS is a spatial database, spatial database design has its process tagged data
modeling which is the representation of view of reality (the real world entities and their
relationship) in a simplified manner or smaller magnitude. Then, database design can be
designed as the process by which real world entities, their attributes and interrelationship are
analyzed and modeled in such a way that maximum benefits are derived while utilizing a
minimum amount of data.

However, database design involves three levels; the view of reality, the design phase and
construction phase. Meanwhile, the design phase involves the following:-

i. Conceptual Design

ii. Logical Design

iii. Physical Design

NB: - The construction phase involves only the spatial database.

3.1 View of reality

As the name implies, this deals with general view of phenomena in reality as they actually
exist in the real world, the natural appearance including all aspects which may not be
perceived by man. That is, it is the mental abstraction of the reality for a particular
application (user requirement) or group of application (Kufoniyi, 1998). Features that bear
high relevance in this work include area features such as building, linear features such as
roads and points features such as electric poles and water tanks.

22
 REALITY

VIEW OF REALITY VIEW OF REALITY

VIEW OF REALITY

CONCEPTUAL

LOGICAL DESIGN

PHYSICAL DESIGN

DESIGN PHASE

SPATIAL

CONSTRUCTION

Fig 3.1 Design and Construction phase of spatial database

23
3.1.1 Conceptual Design

The design phase starts from conceptual design where GIS and its element is used to view
problems in a simplified form. At this level, a viable decision is made on how to represent the
view of reality. For conceptual data modeling, there are three forms that can be adopted. They
are; Tessellation or grid cell, object oriented and vector data model.

Tessellation includes the method of geometric shapes like rectangular information gathered
through field based approach and it's known and called tessellation or grid data model. Here
the geographic space is portioned into regular (e.g raster) or irregular (e.g Triangular
Irregular Network, TIN) cells and each is characterized by;

(a) The area it covers

(b) One or several values describing non- spatial properties of the cell.

Object Oriented is where every entity is treated as an object. The geometric attribute data
ofterrain features are treated as properties of an object. The geometry of the object can be
represented by vector or tessellation.

Vector Model is when the terrain features are represented by point (0-D), linear features (1-
D), area (2-D), body (3-D), or (4-D) objects depending on the features geometric structure.
The location data of each object is given as x, y, z coordinates. The terrain features of points,
lines and polygon were represented as nodes, arcs and parcel respectively.

At this level, one conceptualizes on which form of conceptual data modeling to use where
tessellation, object oriented or vector model approach depending on the purpose of the
project. Therefore, since the major relevant entities on the project site are buildings, roads,
footpaths, etc. the vector data model was adopted because it provides for the precise
positioning of features it represents. The entities of interest for topographic information
system were identified and analyzed to yield a conceptual data model. The relationship
among entities and the attributes of each entity were also identified. The primary entities
involved in this project are: Point entities (Trees, electricity poles, well etc.), line entities
(road etc) and polygon entities (buildings) and the point objects are the basic data sets.

24
3.1.2 Logical Design

Logical Design phase is the representation of database design to show the storage of data in
the computer system. It can also be referred to as the data structure, i.e the local arrangement
of data as used by a system fort data management.

3.2 Data Acquisition

This is the process of capturing or acquiring geometric data. The geometric data were
acquired through digital land survey method using a total station and a differential GPS.

3.2.1 Reconnaissance

Reconnaissance is the first stage and vital aspect of any survey work which is carried out at
the preliminary stage of this project. This involves collection or gathering of all necessary
information relating to the job at hand and visitation to the site to have general knowledge or
overview of the study area and also determine likely problems to be faced while executing
the project and gives opportunity to find solution to those likely problems. Reconnaissance
helps in subsequent decisions and logistics, and later transform to a successful project. This
stage involves two aspects, namely;

i. Office Reconnaissance (Planning)

ii. Field Reconnaissance

3.2.1.1 Office Reconnaissance

This involved the collection and verification of useful information for the smooth running of
the project and information about control to be used were obtained. It also involves planning
in the office to determine the best procedure on how to execute the project in phase in order
to reduce the possibility of duplications of effort and to ensure successful execution of the
project. The following are involves while carrying out Office Reconnaissance;

1.Understanding the purpose of the Survey

2. Decision on methods to be adopted

3. Obtaining the specification as regards the accuracy of measurement or observations

25
4. Scheduling of project tasks to be carried out in steps for the execution of the project.

5. Collection of Coordinates of control stations that were used from the

Department

6. Collection of the necessary instrument from the store unit.

3.2.1.2 Field Reconnaissance

This is the actual visit to the site to have brief information about the project and to determine
how best, to arrange the operations and to facilitate successful execution of the project. In the
process appropriate connection points were established, all features were also identified and
inter-visibility of the station was done. The following processes were involved;

i. Familiarization with the project area.

To determine favorable environmental conditions for proper observation

ii. Location of station

iv. To check the credibility and accuracy of the controls used for control check

V. Critical study on the nature of terrain of the project area

vi. Bush clearing for accessibility of passage along the line of sight.

vii. To identify likely problems that could occur during the execution of the project.

viii. Likely problems that could arise during the execution stage.

This stage was concluded by drawing an unscaled diagram called "recce diagram" of the
project area so as to guide the operation and have a general over- view of possible result. The
next stage shows the reconnaissance diagram of this project and was not drawn to scale.

26
Fig 3.2 Recce Diagram

3.3 Equipment Used

This involves "hardware and software component" that was used for the execution of this
project.

3.3.1 Hardware components

a. Total Station and its accessories.

b. Differential GPS and its accessories

c. Tripod Stand

d. Reflector (Prism and rod)

e. Computer system

27
f. Cutlass

g. Steel tape (100m)

h. Writing materials (Field book and pen)

j. Downloading cable

3.3.2 Software Components

a. AutoCAD

b. ArcGIS

c. Suffer 10

d. Windows 10 (Operating System)

e. Microsoft Office Excel

f. Microsoft word (2007)

3.4 CONTROL CHECK

It is compulsory for us to ascertain the suitability of the existing control before used.
So therefore the check is carried out to know the conformity of the computed angle and the
observed angle in other to determine the accuracy of the control beacon. Any existing
controls to be used for survey orientation must be checked to determine their suitability
before connecting any survey job to them. That is, both angular and linear measurements
must be carried out on them. This was achieved thus:
Back computation was made on the coordinates of the controls for bearing and
distance between the survey marks; this is illustrated in the table below

28
TABLE 3.4 starting control used

GIVEN CONTROL OBSERVED CONTROL DIFFERENCES

NORTHINGS EASTING NORTHINGS EASTINGS NORTHING EASTINGS

S
PBN 821853.373 597995.154 821853.380 597994.343 0.007 0.811
30324
PBN 821676.488 598092.540 821676.488 598092.500 0.000 0.040
30325
Source: The Department of Surveying and Geo-Informatics of the polytechnic, Ibadan, oyo
state.

3.5 Data Acquisition.

The geometric data i.e. (X, Y and Z) of this project area were acquired through the digital
land surveying technique using the total station instrument and its accessories and DGPS. The
instrument was used to coordinate boundary points, the entire project area spot-heightening)
and details simultaneously. Measurements were taken to points in order to determine their x,
y and z coordinates. All the measurements and observations made were first displayed on the
screen display unit before finally stored in the internal memory of the instrument.

3.5.1 PERIMETER TRAVERSING AND DETAILING

Its was carried out with DGPS (KOLIDA), the base was set on the project site
(POLYTECHNIC HIGH SCHOOL) and all temporary adjustment to be carried out were
done, the data logger was firstly connected with the base through Bluetooth then
disconnected it. After it was disconnected it was now later connected with the rover. The
rover was now taken to our given ground existing control PBN30324 in which xyz of point
was given. The correction was made on PBN30324 while the checking was done on control
point PBN30325 after it was checked and confirmed to be used, we proceed to our project
site. The perimeter was firstly done by taking the rover to the first point (poly pl1) of the
boundary, after picking the point we move the rover to the second point (poly pl 2),then the
procedure was repeated till we picked the last point of the boundary (poly pl15) one after the
other clockwise. After this task was performed we proceeded to the details within the Project
site; such as existing buildings, uncompleted buildings, well, toilet, water tank and security

29
post. There after the rover was taken outside the site to fix some detailing such as road, power
supply gen, drainage, electric poles, street light and the school gates.

3.5.2 SPOT HEIGHTENING

The DGPS was used to transfer six different points to be used in carrying out the
topographical survey. Each of those points was well coordinated, while Total Station was
used to carry out the topographic survey. It was taken at 10 meters interval grid throughout
3.6. DATA PROCESSING
Data processing involves the systematic collection, organization, and analysis of data to
derive meaningful insights and support decision-making. In this project, the following steps
were undertaken to ensure accurate and efficient data processing:

3.6.1 Data Downloading

This means Downloading of data and data processing. In other words, it is the process where
all data acquired on the field where transferred from the memory unit of the instrument with
the help of downloading software and by connecting a downloading cable with the computer
system and the instrument.
For downloading both perimeter and detailing data, the instrument used was DGPS which is
used with a data logger, so all data are stored on the data logger which makes its very easy to
convert to an excel document and then transferred to the PC with the use of Bluetooth.
For downloading the spot height data, the Total Station used was the advanced one which has
many features, so data acquired was stored as an Excel document and then transferred with
the Bluetooth to the computer system and further editing was done using the Microsoft Excel.
3.6.2 DATA MANIPULATION
This involves techniques and ways adopted in achieving the final aim. The process at which
data's are being manipulated is stipulated below;

 Contour Creation From Spot heights

 DEM creation from Contours
 Rendering of DEM in 3 Dimensional model

30
3.6.3 PERIMETER AND DETAILING CREATION

After our data has been acquired from the site using the DGPS we save and converted it to
excel format. Typically, we had columns designated for X , Y and Z coordinates. Once the
data is organized, we save the Excel file in a compatible format, such as .xlsx.

Next, we transferred this data into AutoCAD. Open AutoCAD and either create a new
drawing or open an existing one. With your drawing ready, the next step involves using the
command line. We then click on pline and make all necessary adjustment to start the
drawing.

With the command activated, we went back to Excel and copy the relevant data by selecting
it and pressing Ctrl + C. Return to AutoCAD and simply paste the data into the command
line. AutoCAD offers a Data Extraction tool. By using the DATAEXTRACTION command,
you can create a table that draws directly from your Excel data. This involves following a
wizard where you select your Excel file and map the fields accordingly, making it easier to
visualize the data in your drawing.

3.6.4 CONTOUR CREATION FROM SPOT HEIGHTS

After the process of acquiring the spot height data, we created a contour profile using
SURFER 10.0 software for this process as stated below:

3.6.4.1 Importing of the Numeric Data to the Surfer Worksheet Environment

From the file menu of the of the software interface select the new command and the
worksheet sub command this brings out a new worksheet pane in the interface, from this new
pane the import subcommand of the file command is used to import the worksheet that was
already in the Excel format (xls format). After this is done the worksheet is then saved in
excel-97(BIFF8) format. Gridding followed by clicking on "grid" and then "data". The data
columns, gridding method, output grid file and grid line geometry were set. Contours were
plotted by clicking map menu and then contour map new contour map; the gridded data file
was opened and the computer displayed the contours. The contour plan was selected by
double clicking on it and the properties general, levels, view, scale and background were
changed to produce the expected result with a contour interval of 0.2m and saved in an
exportable format of the extension "dxf". In the AutoCAD environment, open was clicked on

31
under file menu and the contour plotted using SURFER 10.0 and after which it was imported
and pasted to original coordinates of the boundary.
3.6.4.2 Gridding the converted data
After the worksheet has been saved a new plot area was opened by selecting the new plot
sheet command from the file menu, in the new plot sheet view the data sub command of the
Grid menu was used to grid the data from the saved worksheet, the Cringing interpolation
spread method was used for the gridding process.

3.6.4.3 Plotting Contour from the grid data

After the grid data had been created the contour profile was plotted using the new contour
map command of the data menu, surface profiles and wireframes were also created using
their corresponding commands under the data menu.

3.6.4.4 Exporting data to .dxf

After the contour profiles were drawn, the contour was exported using the contour data
export tool under the map menu, this is to enable integration into ArcGIS for further
processing.
3.6.5. DEM CREATION FROM CONTOUR
Following the creation of contour in DXF format using the SURFER software, the next step
was to convert the contour data into DEM MODEL using the ArcGIS desktop software, the
process of conversion can be explained as follows:

3.6.5.1 Input and conversion of contour model from DXF to Shapefile Format.

The contour profile designed in the SURFER software was imported into ArcGIS using the
add data command, this put the data in the ArcGIS workspace in an un-editable mode. The
contour was then exported into a Shapefile format which is editable, using the Export data
command in the layer dropdown menu.

3.6.5.2 Conversion of Shapefile feature to TIN (triangulation interpolation network).

After the creation of the Shapefile the next step was to create a TIN file from the contour, a
TIN file is a file format that the ArcGIS desktop software uses to house DEM 3 dimensional
data. This infers that the creation of a TIN file is equivalent to the creation of a DEM. The
main tool used in the process is the 3D Analyst tool, this tool is responsible for any 3
dimensional processes to be done in ArcGIS. After activating the 3D analyst tool using the

32
Extension command under the tools menu bar, the Shapefile was then converted o the 3D
analyst tab using the -Create/modify TIN from "Features" command on the 3D analyst task
pane.

3.6.5.3 SELECT BY LOCATION

a. Click selection on menu bar and select by location.

b. Click the drop-down arrow and click on a selection method i.e. Target layers.

c. Check the layers whose features you would like to select e.g building, road, tree,

electric pole etc.

d. Click the drop-down arrow and click the layer you want to use to search for the features

i.e. source layer.

e. Select the spatial selection method for the target layer e.g intersects the target layer

feature.

f. Click on Apply button or click OK if you want to execute the query and close the dialog

box. This will automatically select the features you query for in Are Map.

g. Then click close button when you have finished selecting features using query by location

method.

h. Select by location dialog box helps to select features based on their location relative to

other features.

3.6.6 RENDERING OF DEM IN 3 DIMENSIONAL MODEL

The ArcMap software interface was mainly tailored towards 2 dimensional representation
and analysis. Hence, the reason why the DEM had to be rendered in Arc Scene software
interface which is made especially for 3 dimensional representation and analysis. The
following steps explain the process of rendering in Arc Scene;

33
3.6.6.1 HOW TO CREATE TIN (Triangulation Interpolation Network)

a. Lunch "Arc tool box" on the menu bar of Arc Map window
b. Select 3D Analyst Tool
c. Go to Data Management Tool and select TIN
d. Click on create TIN
e. Select the output TIN folder
f Select the input feature class folder i.e. the spot height
g. Click OK

3.6.6.2 TIN Importation and Representation

The Add data command in Arc Scene software interface was used to import the 3D TIN
model created as explained above in section 3.4.3.1, after this was done the necessary
parameters for displaying the model was set using the layers properties settings in the drop
down bar menu of the layer. For the representation in 3D to be effectively viewed, an
exaggeration had to be introduced. This is to enable the extruding differences in the modeled
height to be visible in the Arc Scene data environment. The value used for the exaggeration
to the most reasonable and feasible view was 30 meters over the current coordinate system
used which is WGS84 ellipsoid.

3.6.6.3 Modeling Completion

After the extrusion had been achieved using the exaggeration of the height, other relevant
editing were done to the TIN model to improve the quality and speed of the rendering in 3D
view. These settings include the 3D characteristics when viewing in animated mode and the
refresh rate of the models in view mode. These settings are essential for the smooth running
of the model in Arc Scene.

3.6.6.4 Modeling and Data Maintenance

This is to ensure that the data created meets the desired and current needs. The geometric and
attribute data of the database are to be updated on regular basis due to changing factors and
development. Database maintenance entails continuous monitoring of human activities,
developmental changes and other objects of interest in order to keep he database current. The
database administrator provides necessary technical support for database updating and

34
maintenance. Storage devices such as. CDROM, Flash Drives and Computer hard disk were
used to store data and information.

35
 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 ANALYSIS AND INFORMATION PRESENTATION

The principal objectives of spatial analysis in GIS are to transform and combine data from
diverse sources into useful information to improve one's understanding or to satisfy the
requirement or objective of decision makers. All these analysis can be carried using ArcGis
10.2 version software. Meanwhile, Arc GIS software can also be used for such analysis.
Queries and product generation can also be carried out.
4.1 SPATIAL ANALYSIS
The advantage of GIS is the analytical capabilities of the system. The spatial analysis
function is the major factor that distinguishes the GIS from other information systems. The
analysis functions use the geospatial and non-spatial attributes in the database to answer
questions about the real world. Geographic analysis facilitates the study of the real world
processes by developing and applying models. Such models illuminate the underlying trends
in geographic analysis can be communicated with the help of maps, charts among others.

The organization of database into map layers is to\ provide rapid access to data elements
required for geographic analyses. An important use of the analyses is the possibility of
predicting events in another location or at another time. Spatial analyses in GIS includes
overlay operation, topographic operations, neighborhood analysis, connectivity function as
well as spatial search and query, ArcGIS software is used for such analyses.

4.1.1 OVERLAY OPERATION

This is one of the important operations in GIS technique. Overlay operation is the process
where the database two different thematic layers together to generate a new layer and plan to
show the relationship that exist between the spatial entities. By the means we can find unions,
intersections, compliments and differences between spatial areas. As far as this project is
concerned, the contour map is overlaid on the composite map of the study area. After the
overlay operation, the topographical map of the area shows relationship that exists between
the various spatial features. Typical examples are;

• 3D Surface Plan + Water Flow

• 3D Surface Plan + Contour Plan

36
4.1.2 TOPOGRAPHIC OPERATION

This is nothing but relief of the study area. The topographic analyses carried out in this
project were itemized below:

1. Topographical map of the study area

2. Topographical survey (contour plan) of the study area

3. Slope map of the study area

4. Aspect map of the study area

5. TIN map of the study area

6. DEM of the study area

4.2 RESULT ANALYSIS

The ArcGis 10.2 version is vector software which can be used for analysis. Meanwhile, other
vector software like Arc GIS can also be used to perform this task. ArcGis 10.2 version
software was used for the generation of graphic display and presentation of results of
different queries. Most of the maps presented were arranged in a logical manner together with
all the queries.

37
Fig 4.1 Aspect Map Of Polytechnic High School

38
 4.2.1 ANALYSIS OF THE ASPECT MAP

The aspect map of Polytechnic High School, located along Ijokodo to Apete Road in Ibadan
North Local Government Area, Oyo State, serves as a vital tool for understanding the layout
and features of the school’s surroundings. This detailed representation not only outlines the
physical boundaries of the school but also provides essential information for planning and
development.
One of the map’s noteworthy aspects is its division of the area into directional zones. Each
zone is defined by specific angular ranges, such as North (0-22.5 degrees), Northeast (22.5-
67.5 degrees), East (67.5-112.5 degrees), and so on. This segmentation not only provides
insights into the orientation of the land but also helps in understanding how different areas
might be affected by environmental factors like sunlight and wind.

The map divides the area into zones based on compass directions:

 North (0-22.5 degrees): Indicates the northernmost part of the property.

 Northeast (22.5-67.5 degrees): Represents the northeast quadrant.

 East (67.5-112.5 degrees): Covers the eastern section.

 Southeast (112.5-157.5 degrees): Shows the southeastern area.

 South (157.5-202.5 degrees): Represents the southern section.

 Southwest (202.5-247.5 degrees): Covers the southwestern area.

 West (247.5-292.5 degrees): Indicates the western section.

 Northwest (292.5-337.5 degrees): Represents the northwest quadrant.

 North (337.5-360 degrees): Completes the directional layout.

39
Fig 4.2 Slope Map Of Polytechnic High School

40
 4.2.3 SLOPE MAP ANALYSIS

The slope of the land is depicted using a gradient color scheme, with varying shades
representing different elevation levels. The colors range from greens to reds, indicating lower
to higher elevations:

 Low Elevation (Green): Areas with minimal slope, indicating flat or gently sloping terrain.

 Moderate Elevation (Yellow to Orange): These areas suggest a gradual increase in slope,
which may require careful planning for construction and landscaping.

 High Elevation (Red): Indicates steep slopes, which could pose challenges for development,
drainage, and accessibility.

The slope map of Polytechnic High School is an essential document for understanding the
topography and layout of the school area. By clearly presenting elevation changes and land
features, it serves as a valuable resource for planning and development, environmental
management, and ensuring accessibility

41
Fig 4.3 TIN Map Of Polytechnic High School

42
 4.2.4 TIN MAP ANALYSIS

The Triangle Irregular Network (TIN) map of Polytechnic High School, located along
Ijokodo to Apete Road in Ibadan North Local Government Area, Oyo State, provides a three-
dimensional representation of the terrain.

The TIN map uses a color gradient to represent different elevation levels across the terrain.
The elevation values range from approximately 176.797 meters to 185.987 meters, indicating
the topographical variation within the school grounds:

 Low Elevation (Greens to Light Browns): Areas with lower elevation, suggesting flatter
terrain suitable for construction and recreational activities.

 Moderate Elevation (Browns): Indicating gradual slopes, which may require consideration
for drainage and landscaping.

 High Elevation (Dark Browns to Reds): Representing steeper areas that may pose
challenges for development and accessibility.

43
Fig 4.4 DEM of Polytechnic High School

44
Fig 4.5 Hillshade Map of Polytechnic High School

45
Fig 4.6 3d Surface And Contour Map Of Polytechnic High School

Fig 4.7 water flow map of Polytechnic High School

46
Fig 4.8 Wireframe work of the Polytechnic High School

4.3 APPLICATION OF PRODUCTS

The products generated include:

• Composite map of the study area
• Contour plan of the study area
• Aspect plan of the study area
• Slope plan of the study area
• Triangular Irregular Network (TIN) of the study area

The various product generated are used for a particular and specific purpose The digital
topographical database can be used to solve various spatial problems in the study area such
as:
i. It facilitates the use of GIS for effective land management and physical planning.
ii. The topographic map generated will give the user overview of the area and how features
actually exist in the area.

47
iii. The contour map shows area of equal heights, the aspect map shows the direction of slope
and the slope gives idea of highest region in the area and the steepness or gradient of the
study area, which help in selection of suitable area for a reservoir and aspects could help in
determining easy flow of water from main source to the neighborhood.

Linear Accuracy
The linear accuracy was computed using the formula.
=1
√ (ΔE) 2+(ΔN)2
TOTAL DISTANCE
Where
ΔN = Misclosure in northing
ΔE = Misclosure in easting
TD = Total Distance
ΔN = 0.014
ΔE = 0.011
Total distance = 721.64
1
= √ (0.011)2+ (0.014)2
721.64
1
= 0.01780449381
721.64
1
= 0.01780449381
721.64
= 1:40,535
= 1:40,000

48
 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 SUMMARY

The project is topographical information system of The Polytechnic high school, located
along Ijokodo/Apete road. The topographical information system as it was carried out in this
project shows how it can help in good arrangement of the schools. The main aim of this
project is to provide maps such as composite, contour, spot heighten, digital in model triangle
irregular network (TIN), vector, slope and aspect map that give that give details about the
present state of the school and possible decision in the nearest future. Reconnaissance was
done for guide during the project execution, both geometric and attribute data was acquired
by using total station and DGPS. Data downloading and editing was also done for plotting
after which we design database in arc view environment for spatial analysis.
All information was presented in both soft and hardcopy and the procedure used from work
to report writing of the project was present.

5.2 PROBLEMS ENCOUNTERED

In every human activity, problems are bound to be encountered; hence, the following
problems were encountered:
i. The erratic power supply really delayed the project, since all the equipment used was
automated and its required electric power.
ii. Besides the project being delayed, there was much additional cost of fueling the generator
used.
iii. The site being located in a virgin land made the survey to involve much of clearing lines.

5.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

There is no existing map or plan that covers the project area in order to update, integrate and
retrieve the available data of the project site to ensure effective socio- economic development
of the area, thereby displaying the shortcoming of the analogue map in database. Natural
phenomenon such as rain fall and climatic change also disturbed the quick-execution of the
project whereby postponement is been repeatedly done and increase in duration of days of
executing the projects was highly influenced.

49
5.4 RECOMMENDATION

With the knowledge achieved in the various stages in this project, I hereby recommend the
following:
i. This project would be carried out with great ease and improved accuracy if the needed
equipment is made available to the students concerned in future.
ii. This project should be documented properly as it may aid the school at a later time in
useful decision making.
iii. On the need for implementation in Nigeria and embark on public enlightenment or
seminars on the importance of topographic information system.
iv. The school should create a central unit where the Topographic Information System would
be properly kept, maintained and managed for future use.

5.5 CONCLUSION

The desired result attained in this project is due to the use of precise instruments, proper
planning, correct methods as well as thorough supervision. Plans produced gave room for
designing, planning and meaningful development of the scheme. The project also added to
my professional exposure.
With successful implementation of the project using GIS to obtain the TIS database and
spatial analysis of the school, GIS should be employed in other areas of the school for easy
administration and management.

50
REFERENCE
Adisa, A. (2008). Topographic Information System as related to land surveying.

Ayeni, A. (2001). Relevance of geospatial information to sustained economic development.

Paper presented at the NIS conference, Makurdi, Nigeria, 10-11.

Barry, P. (2006). Surveying principles and applications (7th ed.). Donellary Press.

Dania, A. (2002). Design and creation of topographic database for the College of
Engineering project, Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna.

Didigwe, C., & Augustus, A. (2015). Maps are indispensable in the development and
operation of modern land information systems and geographical information systems.

Ejioboh, E. (2008). Land administration and national wastes in Nigeria: The need to
revitalize land administration organizations. Paper presented at the Nigerian Institution of
Surveyors, 43rd Annual General Meeting and Conference.

Iyiola, O. (2002). Site selection for solid waste disposal. Unpublished PGD GIS project
report, Federal School of Surveying (FSS), Oyo.

Kufoniyi, O., & Baulocous, A. (1994). Flexible integration of terrain objects and DTM in
vector GIS. In Professional International Colloquium on Integration, Automation and
Intelligence in Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and GIS (pp. 111-122). Wuhon.

Microsoft Encarta. (2009). Urban and regional planning. Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic
Publishers.

Ndidi, U., & Asikhia, O. (2014). Mapping and geovisualizing topographic data using
geographic information system (GIS).

Ndukwe, C. (2001). Digital technology in surveying and mapping: Principles, application,

and legislative issues. RhyceKerex Publishers.

Okebukola, P. (2004). Topographic information system of Oyo State College of Education

Phase 2 Oyo. Unpublished PD project, Federal School of Surveying, Oyo.

51
Olayiwola, A. (2008). Topographical information system of Federal School of Surveying,
Oyo. Unpublished professional diploma project, Federal School of Surveying, Oyo.

Oyinloye, O. (2002). Topographical database management system for national development.

Paper presented at the Nigerian Institution of Surveyors, 37th Annual General Meeting and
Conference, Imo, Nigeria.

Orisakwe, E., & Bakari, S. (2013). Paper presented at FIG Working Week 2013 on
environment for sustainability.

Sonti, A. (2015). Application of GIS in forest management.

Toitu, T. (2015). Paper presented on the topographic strategy for New Zealand.

U.S. Army. (2015). Annual report on geographic information system.

Uluocha, N. (2007). Elements of geographic information systems. Sam Iroanusi Publications.

52
APPENDIX
APPENDIX I

PERIMETER AND DETAILING DATA

Pt name Northings Easting Height
CTL 1 597995.154 821853.373 204.346
POLY PL1 597205.429 821884.967 183.217
POLY PL2 597244.537 821889.841 183.889
POLY PL3 597261.058 821892.154 184.424
POLY PL4 597267.729 821893.085 184.743
POLY PL5 597375.207 821909.23 186.677
POLY PL6 597402.333 821913.523 185.925
POLY PL7 597407.604 821818.248 183.03
POLY PL8 597406.604 821784.543 181.274
POLY PL9 597406.551 821783.706 181.297
POLY PL10 597404.728 821739.648 178.929
POLY PL11 597290.955 821720.15 177.041
POLY PL12 597193.278 821757.349 176.98
POLY PL13 597198.339 821875.025 182.22
POLY PL14 597198.828 821875.411 182.232
POLY PL15 597199.441 821875.897 182.301
TOILT PT1 597211.175 821879.214 182.811
TOILT PT2 597208.283 821878.93 183.083
TOILT PT3 597207.874 821882.468 183.152
TOILT PT4 597210.757 821882.768 183.158
CLAS RM PT1 597215.118 821846.144 180.652
CLAS RM PT2 597225.185 821849.019 180.891
CLAS RM PT3 597242.865 821793.601 179.452
CLAS RM PT4 597232.728 821790.386 178.636
CLAS RM PT1 597298.097 821783.908 180.535
CLAS RM PT2 597240.078 821777.317 179.285
CLAS RM PT3 597238.938 821787.809 178.952
CLAS RM PT4 597296.997 821794.414 180.719
CLAS 3RM PT1 597302.929 821784.441 180.706
CLAS 3RM PT2 597301.718 821794.988 180.811
CLAS 3RM PT3 597360.433 821801.427 182.088
CLAS 3RM PT4 597361.867 821790.943 181.519
CLAS 4RM PT1 597339.582 821769.181 180.075
CLAS 4RM PT2 597338.459 821779.491 180.544
CLAS 4RM PT3 597397.211 821786.471 181.376
CLAS 4RM PT4 597398.466 821776.012 180.684
CLAS 5RM PT1 597339.866 821766.301 180.113
CLAS 5RM PT2 597349.784 821767.341 180.248

53
CLAS 5RM PT3 597353.303 821735.246 178.709
CLAS 5RM PT4 597343.289 821734.135 178.71
TOIL 2 PT 1 597369.57 821737.398 179.049
TOIL 2 PT 2 597369.206 821741.335 178.973
TOIL 2 PT 3 597385.478 821742.888 179.109
WELL 1 597374.748 821743.916 180.077
MOUSQ PT1 597379.211 821793.764 181.858
MOUSQ PT2 597371.69 821792.804 181.731
MOUSQ PT3 597369.093 821813.406 182.714
MOUSQ PT4 597375.696 821814.341 182.835
CLASS 6 PT1 597381.476 821824.533 183.425
CLASS 6 PT2 597353.097 821819.245 182.943
CLASS 6 PT3 597351.41 821828.435 182.939
CLASS 6 PT4 597379.958 821833.642 183.587
UNC PT1 597386.949 821838.285 183.729
UNC PT2 597385.514 821869.951 185.029
UNC PT3 597393.946 821870.813 184.884
UNC PT4 597400.835 821809.049 182.677
UNC 2 PT1 597363.13 821902.621 186.388
UNC 2 PT2 597364.824 821891.461 185.933
UNC 2 PT3 597318.561 821883.493 185.544
EXIST BLD PT 1 597319.81 821877.101 185.326
EXIST BLD PT 2 597330.202 821878.797 185.587
EXIST BLD PT 3 597335.761 821847.866 184.642
CLASS 7PT 1 597281.167 821866.364 183.715
CLASS 7PT 2 597291.13 821867.643 183.856
CLASS 7PT 3 597303.15 821800.369 181.005
CLASS 7PT 4 597292.702 821798.222 180.674
WT PT 1 597305.987 821816.88 183.523
WT PT 2 597304.21 821816.479 183.225
WT PT 3 597303.827 821818.236 183.209
WT PT 4 597305.612 821818.699 183.341
WELL 2 597305.685 821823.537 183.395
RD 1 597190.355 821782.41 178.532
RD 2 597189.128 821767.169 178.268
RD 3 597187.46 821755.368 178.476
RD 4 597181.926 821728.862 178.875
RD 5 597173.264 821731.049 178.423
RD 6 597178.374 821757.94 177.984
RD 7 597180.991 821785.537 178.111
RD 8 597180.8 821899.827 183.291
RD 9 597180.255 821936.862 185.107
RD 10 597189.203 821937.668 185.202

54
DRAIN PT1 597189.581 821896.38 183.15
DRAIN PT2 597190.847 821896.347 183.066
GATE 1 PT1 597198.853 821908.738 183.968
GATE 1 PT2 597198.844 821903.188 183.935
WF 1 597203.921 821896.672 183.472
GAT2 PT 1 597205.437 821896.417 183.581
GAT2 PT 2 597206.703 821889.06 183.287
GAT2 PT 3 597206.859 821887.633 183.292
GEN PT1 597202.355 821887.569 183.166
GEN PT2 597192.415 821888.462 183.003
GEN PT3 597192.293 821884.284 182.841
GEN PT4 597201.842 821883.517 182.973
CTRL 1A 597219.28 821883.443 183.284
CTRL 1B 597367.492 821878.654 185.596
CTRL 1C 597339.783 821824.31 183.719
CTRL 1D 597402.12 821787.623 181.634
CTRL 1E 597400.613 821773.328 180.759
DRAIN PT 1 597179.578 821792.378 177.835
DRAIN PT 2 597180.581 821792.154 177.562
DRAIN PT 3 597179.591 821784.06 177.227
DRAIN PT 4 597176.493 821767.138 176.654
DRAIN PT 5 597168.888 821744.319 176.18
DRAIN PT 6 597168.167 821744.71 176.143
DRAIN PT 7 597175.388 821765.975 176.615
DRAIN PT 8 597178.784 821783.99 177.145
DRAIN PT 9 597995.155 821853.367 204.141

55
APPENDIX II

SPOT HEIGHTING DATA

Pt name Northings Easting Height

TOPO PT 1 821878.912 597204.88 182.763
TOPO PT 2 821860.419 597203.076 181.246
TOPO PT 3 821841.628 597203.646 180.043
TOPO PT 4 821822.018 597206.705 179.435
TOPO PT 5 821804.558 597209.562 178.84
TOPO PT 6 821786.724 597212.267 178.357
TOPO PT 7 821767.82 597209.142 177.389
TOPO PT 8 821753.892 597206.669 176.797
TOPO PT 9 821746.955 597222.436 176.878
TOPO PT 10 821764.586 597224.492 177.762
TOPO PT 11 821771.602 597237.735 178.64
TOPO PT 12 821788.662 597231.659 178.432
TOPO PT 13 821807.752 597225.169 179.176
TOPO PT 14 821825.829 597219.807 179.873
TOPO PT 15 821844.822 597214.788 180.389
TOPO PT 16 82862.505 597213.86 181.675
TOPO PT 17 821879.894 597213.491 182.802
TOPO PT 18 821882.102 597233.752 183.073
TOPO PT 19 821862.45 597237.136 182.124
TOPO PT 20 821842.351 597240.685 181.008
TOPO PT 21 821822.591 597244.251 180.105
TOPO PT 22 821803.57 597247.776 179.687
TOPO PT 23 821789.541 597250.644 179.304
TOPO PT 24 821792.051 597269.548 179.627
TOPO PT 25 821810.995 597266.764 180.816
TOPO PT 26 821829.588 597264.065 181.376
TOPO PT 27 821848.45 597261.277 182.032
TOPO PT 28 821867.588 597258.039 182.895
TOPO PT 29 821882.293 597255.049 183.517
TOPO PT 30 821890.401 597273.682 184.448
TOPO PT 31 821890.108 597273.65 184.436
TOPO PT 32 821870.666 597275.188 183.811
TOPO PT 33 821851.302 597277.289 182.764
TOPO PT 34 821832.387 597279.38 182.109
TOPO PT 35 821812.941 597281.667 181.333
TOPO PT 36 821793.649 597284.019 180.483
TOPO PT 37 821796.582 597304.861 180.918
TOPO PT 38 821814.603 597303.069 181.99
TOPO PT 39 821833.913 597300.39 182.73

56
TOPO PT 40 821853.802 597297.996 183.317
TOPO PT 41 821873.535 597295.284 184.261
TOPO PT 42 821891.887 597293.03 184.9
TOPO PT 43 821893.839 597310.425 185.713
TOPO PT 44 821881.327 597310.43 185.038
TOPO PT 45 821867.913 597313.338 184.491
TOPO PT 46 821851.231 597317.527 183.894
TOPO PT 47 821836.371 597318.793 183.331
TOPO PT 48 821818.197 597320.835 182.707
TOPO PT 49 821804.039 597324.403 182.041
TOPO PT 50 821798.275 597323.752 180.959
TOPO PT 51 821800.786 597343.372 181.607
TOPO PT 52 821819.869 597342.325 182.83
TOPO PT 53 821836.767 597340.808 183.606
TOPO PT 54 821853.856 597339.044 184.382
TOPO PT 55 821870.071 597334.494 184.992
TOPO PT 56 821881.589 597330.113 185.326
TOPO PT 57 821883.183 597349.686 185.496
TOPO PT 58 821867.344 597353.614 184.885
TOPO PT 59 821849.745 597357.186 184.147
TOPO PT 60 821831.625 597361.508 182.955
TOPO PT 61 821817.299 597358.798 182.659
TOPO PT 62 821799.725 597362.207 181.702
TOPO PT 63 821783.364 597363.75 180.947
TOPO PT 64 821785.575 587382.185 181.16
TOPO PT 65 821804.17 597579.383 182.461
TOPO PT 66 821822.342 597376.312 183.109
TOPO PT 67 821834.457 597376.322 183.332
TOPO PT 68 821853.91 59737.53 184.475
TOPO PT 69 821864.54 597370.524 184.696
TOPO PT 70 821880.281 597371.196 185.343
TOPO PT 71 821888.141 597371.089 185.613
TOPO PT 72 821897.87 597368.806 185.908
TOPO PT 73 821903.571 597387.428 185.987
TOPO PT 74 821884.016 597389.004 185.423
TOPO PT 75 821871.487 597392.032 184.882
TOPO PT 76 821852.603 597396.104 184.405
TOPO PT 77 821833.163 597398.822 183.486
TOPO PT 78 821814.941 597400.345 182.855
TOPO PT 79 821795.92 597401.57 181.791
TOPO PT 80 821776.209 597400.752 180.689
TOPO PT 81 821776.571 597406.202 180.698
TOPO PT 82 821796.218 597406.878 181.788
TOPO PT 83 821814.967 597407.602 182.651

57
TOPO PT 84 821833.339 597406.968 183.374
TOPO PT 85 821854.05 597405.857 184.273
TOPO PT 86 821875.441 597404.93 184.897
TOPO PT 87 821895.83 597403.83 185.785
TOPO PT 88 821908.196 597402.865 185.959
TOPO PT 89 821769.123 597406.053 180.202
TOPO PT 90 821751.865 587405.457 179.57
TOPO PT 91 821741.565 597404.812 178.792
TOPO PT 92 821741.13 597387.199 178.971
TOPO PT 93 821756.402 597389.858 179.656
TOPO PT 94 821767.048 597388.57 180.325
TOPO PT 95 821773.146 597388.372 180.537
TOPO PT 96 821770.328 597368.081 180.418
TOPO PT 97 821750.959 597367.659 179.305
TOPO PT 98 821732.453 597369.25 178.343
TOPO PT 99 821732.529 597353.51 178.473
TOPO PT 100 821752.011 597353.301 179.359
TOPO PT 101 821769.508 597351.482 179.971
TOPO PT 102 821786.589 597330.945 180.922
TOPO PT 103 821766.135 597333.925 179.677
TOPO PT 104 821745.265 597334.1 178.64
TOPO PT 105 821726.286 597332.952 177.475
TOPO PT 106 821726.982 597315.55 177.558
TOPO PT 107 821744.813 597315.356 178.586
TOPO PT 108 821767.508 597314.989 179.856
TOPO PT 109 821784.429 597311.818 180.664
TOPO PT 110 821782.255 597291.858 180.046
TOPO PT 111 821763.797 597288.939 179.342
TOPO PT 112 821747.725 597288.868 178.168
TOPO PT 113 821726.847 597289.43 177.135
TOPO PT 114 821732.567 597270.312 177.258
TOPO PT 115 821752.271 597269.539 178.408
TOPO PT 116 821778.79 597266.135 179.355

58
APPENDIX III

59
60