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Beach Sand Quality and Its Associated Health Effects of Port Dickson Beaches
(Malaysia): An Analysis of Beach Management Framework

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DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-58304-4_41

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Chapter 41
Beach Sand Quality and Its Associated Health
Effects of Port Dickson Beaches (Malaysia):
An Analysis of Beach Management
Framework

Sarva Mangala Praveena, Siti Shafiqa Shamira, and Ahmad Zaharin Aris

Abstract  This present study investigates Escherichia coli (E.coli) contamination

to indicate beach sand quality along Port Dickson coastal area and perceived health
risk symptoms among beachgoers. Strength, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats
(SWOT) analyses was used to understand the beach management framework in Port
Dickson coastline. E. coli colonies in beach sand ranged from 60  cfu/100  g to
4113 cfu/100 g, the highest was found at Tanjung Gemuk and the lowest at Tanjung
Tuan. This variation was due to location of the former at the sewage outlet of nearby
hotels and dilution factor. Strength, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT)
analysis output has highlighted the best match between environmental trends
(opportunities and threats) and internal capabilities (strengths and weakness) which
can be applied to beach management in Port Dickson coastline. Thus, identification
and prioritization of future multidisciplinary studies is vital to fill in the knowledge
gap and address sustainable performance towards beach management in Port
Dickson coastline.

Keywords Beach sand • Escherichia coli • Health risks • SWOT • Beach

management

S.M. Praveena (*) • S.S. Shamira

Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, Faculty of Medicine and Health
Sciences, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia
e-mail: smpraveena@gmail.com
A.Z. Aris
Department of Environmental Sciences, Faculty of Environmental Studies,
Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400 UPM Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia

© Springer International Publishing AG 2018 821

C.M. Botero et al. (eds.), Beach Management Tools - Concepts,
Methodologies and Case Studies, Coastal Research Library 24,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-58304-4_41
822 S.M. Praveena et al.

41.1  Introduction

Fecal contamination is characterized by fecal indicator organisms in coastline water

and perceived health risks caused by microbial pathogen exposure (Bonilla et al.
2007). Crowther et al. (2001) and Praveena et al. (2013) explained that fecal indica-
tor organisms are derived from animals (runoff from livestock farming), humans
(untreated or treated sewage effluent discharged directly to the sea) and fecal inputs
from birds, especially in the intertidal zone. Tropical beach sand is regularly over-
looked as reservoir for fecal indicator organisms. Factors such as tidal surges, wave
actions and recreational activities contributes to the increased of fecal indicator
organisms in beach sand. This is because beach sand acts as a natural filter and trap
fecal materials. Moreover, beach sand surface area and cracks provides a potentially
suitable environment for the growth and multiplication of microbes (Bonilla et al.
2007; Shibata et al. 2004).
Port Dickson beach is the one of the attractive beaches in Peninsular Malaysia,
located just about 90 km from Kuala Lumpur. It is a tourist attraction and visitors to
come on weekends, school holidays and also on public holidays. Port Dickson
beach always packed with public who came to enjoy recreational activities such as
swimming, surfing, boat ride, and others. Port Dickson beach received pollution to
the growth in tourism, shipping, small industries and urbanization (Praveena and
Aris 2009). The sewage discharge of domestic effluents and strongly sources from
hotels and many of accommodation there also led to increase in the microbiological
pathogenic contamination such as Escherichia coli (E.coli). There are several sew-
age discharges pipes that drain directly into this beach (Hamzah et al. 2011; Dada
et al. 2012).
Beaches are linked with land and sea which plays crucial factors in attracting
tourist potential. Strength, Weakness, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) is a plan-
ning and decision tool and has been widely applied to environmental management
(Ariza 2011). In SWOT analysis, the best match between environmental trends
(opportunities and threats) and internal capabilities (strengths and weakness) can be
analyzed (Praveena and Aris 2009). In environmental management, weakness and
threats will be minimized and avoided. Similarly, weakness will be converted to
strengths while threats will be converted into opportunities (Diamantopoulou and
Voudouris 2008). Output from SWOT is used to strategize the strategies to manage
beaches systematically (Sihasale et al. 2013).
Most studies have focused on fecal indicator organisms in tropical beach water
and their health risks (Ahmad et  al. 2014; Crowther et  al. 2001; Praveena et  al.
2015; 2013; Shibata et al. 2004). However, the presence of fecal indicator organ-
isms in tropical beach sand and their perceived health risks among beachgoers
remain unexplored, especially in the tropical beaches of Southeast Asia, including
Malaysia. An epidemiological study can be performed to identify perceived health
risks caused by exposure to contaminated beach sand among beachgoers. This type
of study can be conducted for efficient and rapid evaluation of the perceived health
risks of beachgoers as a result of beach sand exposure, regardless of the sources
(Colford et al. 2007).
41  Beach Sand Quality and Its Associated Health Effects of Port Dickson Beaches… 823

Thus, this study was focused on beach sand quality (E.coli contamination) along
Port Dickson coastal area and perceived health risk symptoms among beachgoers.
SWOT analysis was performed to understand the beach management framework in
Port Dickson coastline. Present study was undertaken to emphasize the importance
of beach management in coastal areas of Port Dickson and the necessity to manage
them in an integrated and inclusive way.

41.2  Methods and Materials

This study took place along Port Dickson coastline, Strait of Malacca (Malaysia) on
the western coast of Peninsular Malaysia. Coastal area of Port Dickson extends up
to 18 km facing the Strait of Malacca which joins the Indian Ocean to the South
China Sea and the Pacific Ocean. Beaches in Port Dickson have been recognized as
one of the best and most beautiful beaches in the country (Schwartz 2005). Port
Dickson coastal area has tropical climate area an average annual rainfall of 2381 mm.
The humidity varies between 80% and 90% with annual temperature ranges from
21 °C to 32 °C (Praveena et al. 2016, 2013).
Tropical beach sand sampling was conducted in ten public beaches located along
Port Dickson coastline (Fig. 41.1). Beach sand samples at a depth of 10 cm were col-
lected from swash zones, representing beach sand contact with the outer fringes of
beach water at low and high tides in February 2016. The beach samples were col-
lected using a stainless steel soil auger and kept in sterile Whir-Pak sampling bags.
The beach samples were stored in the dark at 4  °C during the transportation and
analyzed immediately. A total of 100  g of beach sand was transferred to 100  mL
deionized water and was shaken for 1 min to suspend the bacteria. After settling it for
30 s, 100 mL supernatant extracts was analyzed for E.coli determination. The super-
natant extracts was filtered through 0.45 μm Whatman filter paper by vacuum filtra-
tion (American Public Health Association 1999). Then, the filter paper was placed on
Lauryl Sulfate broth and incubated at 44 °C overnight. E. coli colonies were counted
based on yellow colonies on the filter paper. For quality control, all the glasswares
and apparatus were sterilized before the analysis. The beach sand samples were ana-
lyzed in triplicates to assess the precision and accuracy of the analysis process.
Questionnaire survey was used to obtain perceived health risks among beachgo-
ers. Health risks via responses of 151 respondents were assessed using a formula
proposed by Daniel (1999), with a prevalence value of 0.063 reported by Heaney
et al. (2014) with an increase in 25% considering non-response rate (Särndal and
Lundström 2005). The questionnaire was adapted and modified from a public sur-
vey on marine water quality by Ministry of Marine Resources, Cook Islands (2014)
to obtain the perceived health symptoms by beach sand exposure. The questionnaire
survey was pretested with Cronbach alpha value of 0.71, which represents the
­consistency of the questionnaire. The respondents playing beach sand were con-
tacted by telephone after 7–12 days from the initial beach interview to determine
health symptoms that they have experienced.
824 S.M. Praveena et al.

Fig. 41.1  Beach sand sampling locations along Port Dickson coastline

Statistical analysis was performed using IBM SPSS (Statistical Package for
Social Science) software Version 21. Descriptive statistics were used to detect
­spatial variation of E. coli in beach sand. Using present study observation, SWOT
analysis was performed on the Port Dickson beach management framework.
41  Beach Sand Quality and Its Associated Health Effects of Port Dickson Beaches… 825

41.3  Results and Discussion

Table 41.1 shows the number of E. coli colonies in beach sand along Port Dickson
coastline. The highest at E.coli colonies in beach sand was found at Tanjung Gemuk
(4113 ± 30 cfu/100 g) while the lowest was at Tanjung Tuan (60 ± 15 cfu/100 g).
The highest E.coli colonies were found in Tanjung Gemuk as it is located at sewage
outlet of nearby hotels. Varnam and Evans (2000) has explained that E.coli colonies
will increase in the vicinity of sewage outlets, probably due to higher host density.
However, E.coli colonies were in a decreasing trend which related with dilution fac-
tor as the sewage outfall distance increases (Praveena et al. 2016). The lowest E.coli
colonies were at Tanjung Tuan probably due to pristine coastal rainforest reserve
environment. Currently there are no microbiological criteria for beach sand. Thus,
the capability of these pathogens in beach sand to effect the health of beach users
remains unclear.
There are several factors influence E.coli colonies in beach sand. Beach slope is
a vital mechanism to bring mobilize and transport bacteria in beach sand. Moreover
according to Haack et al. (2013), an increase gradient of beach slope keeps frequent
wetting of beach sands. In short, shallow beach slope allows continual wetting of
each beach sand has higher E. coli with waves and tidal as a mechanism transport
(Reis and Gama 2010). Sand mineralogy also considered as another vital factor
which influences E. coli in beach sand. Finer size of beach sand with specific min-
eralogy has higher surface area to provide larger surface area for bacteria survival
(Mills 2001; Velonakis et al. 2014). According to Al Dufour et al. (2012), besides
human and animal manure as sources of fecal contamination, birds feces also are
discharged to the environment every year. According to AlDerisio and DeLuca
(1999), bird feces can contain viable fecal coliforms which can contributed to E.coli
in beach water.
Figure 41.2 shows the results of perceived health symptoms among the respon-
dents who had contact with beach sand. More than half of the respondents reported
having no symptoms at all. However, the incidence of skin symptoms (rashes, skin
infections, and irritation) was high among swimmers who had contact with con-
taminated beach sand after swimming activities (Solo-Gabriele et  al. 2015).
According to Turbow et al. (2004), long exposure duration to a beach with fecal
contamination will increase health symptoms among beachgoers. Yau et al. (2009)
concluded the possible dose–response relationship, linking the microbial quality of
beach sand with skin symptoms.
SWOT analysis output showed that strength of Port Dickson beach management
is existence of recent beach studies (Table 41.2). Existence of recent beach studies
will enable to understand the current quality of beach water and sand to ensure it is
safe for recreational activities. Moreover, limited industrial activities and pristine
environment have also help to protect Port Dickson coastline since tourism activi-
ties were the focus in this area (Valencia and Jaafar 1985). Another strength of Port
Dickson beach management is the involvement of NGO/public aid. NGOs which
have been involved as beach cleaning program in Port Dickson as a part of corporate
826 S.M. Praveena et al.

Table 41.1  E. coli colonies E. coli colony

in beach sand along Port Beach (cfu/100 g)
Dickson coastline
Tanjung 4113 ± 213
Gemuk
Teluk Pelanduk 3624 ± 165
Bagan Pinang 2717 ± 104
Pantai Saujana 2566 ± 99
Pantai Cahaya 100 ± 23
Teluk Kemang 1143 ± 78
Pantai Purnama 2817 ± 72
Blue lagoon 3017 ± 111
Tanjung Tuan 60 ± 13
Pantai Cermin 3342 ± 313

Yes No

120
97.4 98 98 98 95 100
100 88.7
Percentage (%)

80
60
40
20 11.3
2.6 2 2 2 5 0
0

Fig. 41.2  Perceived health symptoms among the respondents who had contact with beach sand

Table 41.2  SWOT analysis performed on beach management framework in Port Dickson coastal
area
Strength Weakness
Existence of recent beach studies limited Limited multidisciplinary approaches beach
industrial activities, pristine environment NGO/ management without an organized
public aid planning and management information flow difficulties to integrated
implemented by government promoting government bodies no tool applied to
conservation of natural resources estimate maximum carrying capacity
Opportunities Threats
Adoption of integrated coastal zone management Lack of proper participative approach and
plan information from different studies can be information climate  change
integrated for suitable approach involve all human  pressures pollution
important parties in beach management
41  Beach Sand Quality and Its Associated Health Effects of Port Dickson Beaches… 827

social responsibility. Moreover, in order to promote beaches in along Port Dickson

coastline, Malaysia has implemented Coastal Zone Management (CZM) under the
Ninth Malaysian Plan (2006–2010). Ecotourism has been included in CZM plan in
order to reduce beach pollution, coastal erosion including promoting conservation
of natural resources (Nasuchon 2009). In terms of weakness, although there are
many environmental beach studies have been conducted along Port Dickson
­coastline (Dada et  al. 2012; Praveena et  al. 2016; 2013) yet multidisciplinary
approach studies were still lacking. Complete economic and social studies dealing
with beach management are still lacking thus multiplicative effects is largely
unclear. Moreover, segregation of competencies between different governmental
bodies will cause difficulties to implement integrated management. This has resulted
limited proactive management that allow coordination between different authorities
(Kamaruddin 1998). Opportunities in beach management showed that implementa-
tion of CZM has ensured sustainability of coastal resources including beach tourism
development. Coastal Zone Management also plays a crucial role as tools to inte-
grate findings from various type of studies and involvement of all the parties in
beach and coastal management along Port Dickson coastline (Kamaruddin 1998;
Mokhtar and Ghani Aziz 2003). From threats perspective, human pressures and pol-
lution have been problems in Port Dickson coastline. Sewage effluent from hotels
and houses to the sea lead to degradation of the marine water quality (Dada et al.
2012). Moreover, review done by Praveena et al. (2011) has highlighted that Port
Dickson coastal water also received heavy metal pollution from Straits of Malacca.
Daily crude and refined oil handlings as well as heavy maritime tankers undeniably
have impacted Port Dickson coastal water quality.

41.4  Conclusion

The highest at E.coli colonies in beach sand was found at Tanjung Gemuk
(4113 ± 30 cfu/100 g) while the lowest was at Tanjung Tuan (60 ± 15 cfu/100 g).
The perceived health risks indicated that more than half of the respondents reported
having no symptoms at all. Yet, skin symptoms (rashes, skin infections, and irrita-
tion) were fund high among swimmers who had contact with contaminated beach
sand after swimming activities. SWOT analysis was applied to facilitate the beach
water management along Port Dickson coastline. The strengths were existence of
recent beach studies, limited industrial activities, pristine environment,
NGO/public aid, planning and management implemented by government as well as
promoting conservation of natural resources. For weakness, limited multidisci-
plinary approaches and difficulties to integrated government bodies were found to
be addressed. Opportunities were indicated as adoption of Integrated Coastal Zone
management plan, information from different studies can be integrated for suitable
approach and to involve all important parties in beach management. Threats of Port
Dickson coastline are human pressures and pollution.
828 S.M. Praveena et al.

Acknowledgement  The authors would like to thanks Microbiology Laboratory staffs, Faculty of
Medicine and Health Sciences (Universiti Putra Malaysia) for their autoclave service.

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