COURSE: DIPLOMA IN BROADCAST JOURNALISM

UNIT: MEDIA CONVERGENCE AND JOURNALISM

LECTURER: .

SESSION 1

UNIT OUTLINE

1. INTRODUCTION TO MEDIA CONVERGENCE

• Meaning of media convergence

• History of media convergence

• The role of media technology in Kenya

• The impact of media convergence on media operation

2. TECHNOLOGIES OF MEDIA CONVERGENCE

• Media technologies

• Convergence of media technologies

1. DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY AND JOURNALISM

• Use of internet in journalism

• Effects of internet in journalism

• Use of mobile technology in journalism

• Effects of mobile technology in the practice of journalism

3. MEDIA CONVERGENCE AND GLOBALIZATION

• Meaning of globalization

• Use of converged media for global effect

• Effects of globalization on media convergence

• Effects of media convergence on globalization

4. REGULATION OF CONVERGED MEDIA

• Sources of media law and regulation

• Concept in media regulation

• Ethical considerations in media convergence

• Importance of regulation of converged media

• Media regulation on a converged environment

• Challenges of regulating converged media

5. CONVERGENCE ON MEDIA OPERATIONS

• Effects of media convergences on content production

• Effects of media convergence on content dissemination

• Effect of media convergence on content consumption

• Effects of media convergence on media business

• Effects of media convergence on the practice of journalism

6. EMERGING ISSUES AND TRENDS

• Emerging issues and trends

• Challenges posed by emerging issues and trends

• Coping with emerging issues and trends.

 
 

WHAT IS MEDIA CONVERGENCE

According the dictionary converging means to meet or focus on a common

and similar goal, which applies as well to phones as to Asian fusion recipes.
In the media and technology context, however convergence may be defined
in a narrower fashion but with still different interpretations. Henry Jenkins in
his article in the (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) MIT Technology
Review in 2001 (Jenkins, 2001) defines:

• Technological Convergence: The cross-platform digital information flow

created by the Internet and how content and our relationship to it are
always expanding.

• Economic Convergence: The horizontal integration of the [entertainment]

industry and the definition of new value chains.

• Social or Organic Convergence: The multi-screen multitasking environment

created by device ecosystems or the connectivity between different groups
of users

• Cultural Convergence: Novel formats and platforms for creativity using

various media technologies across different industries and consumer groups.

• Global Convergence: The experience of being a citizen of the global village

Media convergence is the interlinking of computing and other information

technologies, media content, media companies and communication networks
that have arisen as the result of the evolution and popularization of the
Internet as well as the activities, products and services that have emerged in
the digital media

Media convergence is the merging of mass communication outlets – print,

television, radio, the Internet along with portable and interactive
technologies through various digital media platforms.
This move toward media integration is now commonly known as “media
convergence” which has been defined in several ways. John Carrey of
Fordham University, explains that, simply put, this refers to the notion that
once separated media are now together. Also viewing it from another
standpoint Denis McQuail has an interesting definition of convergence. He
expresses that convergence is often related to technological advances and in
some case has became an excuse for deregulation of the media. This is
because there is not a complete definition of what regulations can be applied
from the old media to the new one.

Another perspective of looking at convergence is from the point of view of

those responsible for building the new structure. As Thomas F. Baldwin et.
al. says: “The process of creating broadband systems closely allies elements
of all these industries, hence the term convergence.”

The convergence phenomenon is most obvious in the newspaper industry.

According to Cortada, “The major activities of the newspaper can be
summarized quickly. In the physical production of the newspaper, reporters
gather and write up information, reporting on the events of the day or on
more general topics. The editorial staff picks what stories to run, clean up
the writing style, and decide how much emphasis to give a story by deciding
where it is placed in the newspaper, the paper is composed, and the
production unit sets up pages and prints the newspaper”

In recent years, however, newspapers have launched their online versions,

creating new questions regarding the format those newspapers should take.
“With the availability of dial-up services in the 1980s and then the Internet
in the 1990s, the newspaper industry now faces new kinds of issues book
publishers encountered regarding the online editions of their publications.
Their questions were the same: How could they make money on the
internet? How could they protect copyright? What format works best for
what types of audiences? Should stories appearing in the print edition be the
same in length and style as those published on the Internet?”

In the modern day, newspapers also publish their content via the internet in
different formats including video, photos, text and graphics.

REVISION QUESTION

Explain the meaning of media convergence.

Looking at the local media organisations, identify any form of convergence.

Discuss the impact of media convergence on media organisations.

LINK TO FURTHER STUDY

https://study.com/academy/lesson/what-is-media-convergence-definition-
explanation.html

COURE: DIPLOMA IN BROADCAST JOURNALISM

UNIT: MEDIA CONVERGENCE AND JOURNALISM

TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO MEDIA CONVERGENCE

OBJECTIVE

By the end of the session, the trainee should be able to discuss the history
of media convergence.

History of Media convergence

Early Days

The evolution of converged media has been slow and subtle. Publications
such as Time were experimenting with television in the late ’70s. Major
newspapers like the Ft. Worth Star Telegram began experimenting with
computer applications in the early ’80s. These attempts and most other early
convergence ventures were unsuccessful. Despite the huge startup costs the
companies incurred, and the lack of success they achieved, efforts to
converge media continued. With technological advancements that made
computers more affordable, a new wave of convergence efforts began in the
early ’90s. Newspapers such as the Atlanta Journal had graphical and
navigational capabilities far beyond prior efforts. Of course, all of this was
made possible by the growth of and increased access to the Internet. Now
media companies had a standard format to build their convergence efforts.

Growth

In the mid ’90s, the computer world, especially the Internet, experienced a
period of extreme growth that rivals any other in history. As more
households became linked to the Internet, consumer online services such as
Prodigy, America Online and Compuserve became increasingly popular.
Recognizing the trend, many news organizations signed on with the
consumer online services, which set up sites for the newspapers on their
program. While the sites gave many newspapers national exposure, few of
them gained enough from the efforts to justify their disadvantageous
revenue splits with the online service providers. It was during this time that
USA Today became the first newspaper to successfully bring its signature
look to the Internet. Television also joined in the convergence effort, with
networks like Bloomberg Informational Television, which combined aspects
of the Internet with traditional broadcast news. In the late ’90s, most major
newspapers established their own websites without the consumer online
services. This combination of print and Internet paved the way for the next
stage of media convergence.

Recent Development

In the last four to five years, media companies have been fine-tuning the
concept of convergence. Local newspapers, radio stations, television
broadcasters and websites have combined to form fully converged websites.
National newspapers, the New York Times and Washington Post, reached
cooperative agreements with the networks ABC and NBC in 2000. While
these local and national efforts have brought convergence to a new level,
many major and local news organizations have yet to incorporate all the
elements of media. Many so-called converged organizations merely republish
or repurpose material from one medium to another. The standard
newspaper-Internet combination that developed in the ’90s is still
convergence’s most common form.

 
TYPES OF MEDIA CONVERGENCE

●1 Ownership convergence. This relates to arrangements within one large

media company that encourage cross-promotion and content sharing among
print, online, and television platforms owned by the same company. The
biggest example in the United States is the Tribune Company. President Jack
Fuller said that owning television, radio, and newspapers in a single market
provided a way to lower costs, increase efficiencies, and “provide higher
quality news in times of economic duress”

●2 Tactical convergence. This describes the content-sharing arrangements

and partnerships that have arisen among media companies with separate
ownership. The most common model is a partnership between a television
station or cable channel and a newspaper where each company keeps its
own revenues. Gordon noted: “In most markets, the primary motivation for
—and initial results of—these partnerships seemed to be promotional”
(2003, p. 65). The relationship between Florida Today, based in Melbourne
on Florida’s east coast, and WKMG-TV, headquartered in Orlando, about 70
miles away to the west, provides an example. This form of convergence has
become most common in the United States. The American Press Institute
publishes a convergence tracker on its Web site and it represents a useful
source for details across the country. Between June and September 2004,
Ball State University professors Larry Dailey, Lori Demo, and Mary Spillman
surveyed editorial managers at all 1,452 daily English-language newspapers
in the United States. They received 372 replies, a response rate of 25.6
percent. They reported that almost 30 percent of daily newspapers had
partnerships with television stations, at various circulation levels (Saba,
2004).

●3 Structural convergence. This form of convergence is associated with

changes in newsgathering and distribution, Gordon wrote, but it is also a
management process in the sense of introducing changes in work practices.
An example was the Orlando Sentinel’s decision to employ a team of
multimedia producers and editors to repackage print material for television.
The team rewrites print content in a form suitable for television; meanwhile,
a separate Web site produces original material and also repackages content
from the newspaper and television partner. They also produce focused
content, such as television programs about the movies and high school
sports, and arrangealkbacks between print reporters and the television
partner. Talkbacks consist of a conversation between the television anchor
and a specialist reporter in the field. Dailey and his colleagues reported that
29.6 percent of respondents said a reporter—usually a beat expert—
appeared on a partner’s broadcast to explain a story at least once a month
(Saba, 2004).
●4 Information-gathering convergence. This takes place at the reporting
level and is Gordon’s term for situations where media companies require
reporters to have multiple skills (2003, p. 69). In some parts of the world,
this represents the most controversial form of convergence as people debate
whether one person can successfully produce quality content in all forms of
media. Several terms have arisen to describe this phenomenon, including
platypus or Inspector Gadget or backpack journalism. The single multimedia
reporter may be an appropriate and workable option at small news events or
at small market media organizations. But at a major news event where
groups of mono-media reporters outnumber a single multimedia reporter,
this form of reporting is not likely to produce quality. Digital technology
makes the multi-skilled journalist possible, but we won’t see too many
Inspector Gadgets until journalists are sufficiently trained and equipped. The
type of cross-platform training needed to produce these journalists has
always been a problematic issue in the United States.

 ●5 Storytelling or presentation convergence. Gordon said this type of

convergence operates at the level of the working journalist, though it needs
management support in terms of purchasing the most appropriate
equipment. He predicted that new forms of storytelling would emerge from
the combination of computers, portable newsgathering devices, and the
interactive potential of the Web and television, as journalists learned to
appreciate each medium’s unique capabilities (2003, p. 70). Many journalists
are pondering how to do this form of convergence. Doug Feaver, executive
editor of washingtonpost.com, said his journalists were “inventing a new
medium” as they worked. This form of convergence remains in the
experimental or evolutionary phase in many newsrooms but we may see it
emerge as more and more people graduate with advanced digital skills.

Discussion question.

 discuss the history of media convergence.

 discuss the factors that contributed to the growth of media
convergence.
 was media conevrgence a gain or a lose to the media industry?

QUESTION FROM A PAST PAPER

NOVEMBER 2019 SERIES

Explain five positive effects of media convergence to the practice of

journalism.

Describe five sources of media law.

COURSE: DIPLOMA IN BROADCAST JOURNALISM

UNIT: MEDIA CONVERGENCE AND JOURNALISM

LECTURER: .

SESSION 3

TOPIC: INTRODUCTION TO MEDIA CONVERGENCE

OBJECTIVE:

By the end of the session, the trainee should be able to discuss the effect of
technology on media operations.

 Technological disruption has had a major impact on many business

sectors, including the mass-media industry, which is forcing most
mass-media organizations to make adjustments to cope with the
changing landscape and cater for paperless consumers.
 First, the boundary between content producers and content consumers
has been eliminated. In a world where a person can be both on the
supply and demand side of the market, traditional economic logic is
 not applicable anymore. There are no easy answers to simple
questions like how to price or how much content to produce or who to
market it to.
 Digital media is rapidly replacing print, as evidenced by the gradual
disappearance of print media, including the print edition of this
newspaper earlier this year. With the cost of digital media dropping
and digital devices like mobile phones improving access to news and
information, digital media has rendered print media obsolete. In fact,
in order to compete successfully, media agencies will need to tailor
their offerings according to each online distribution channel. For
example, how they communicate with the mass market on Facebook is
different to how they might engage executives on LinkedIn.

 Size, resources or even regulatory protection from the government are

no longer effective barriers. With smartphones connected to the
internet, anybody can become part of the media industry. This is why
media powerhouses have found themselves on the same playing field
with small content creators competing for the same audience. While
small operators are agile, media giants have to fight on two fronts – a
head-on battle with big media as well as fighting guerrilla warfare with
tiny competitors. To complicate things further, these small competitors
are also often consumers.
 Another effect is shifting the market power to the hands of customers.
Traditional media prides itself for being able to mass-produce content
for a large group of consumers. Digital technology, meanwhile, enables
consumers to tailor the selection of content to meet their appetite.
Hence, mass media is no longer the mantra for success in this new
landscape.
 Another effect of digital technology on media industry is that it has
spawned the development of digital media entrepreneurs, who have
created a proliferation of media content. With low barriers to entry and
readily available conduits to distribute their material, it is only a
matter of time before they start eating into the market share of
traditional media players that have relied on in-house creativity and
production. Existing media agencies will need to decide how to
compete with this influx of agile competitors, or better yet, how to
leverage their capabilities as outsourcing partners.

 The digital industry has been a boon for video content and technology.
Consumers nowadays have an attention span that lasts a few seconds
 compared to a few minutes in the past, so media agencies should learn
to capture their attention quickly, or they can lose them. This has
forced many media agencies to re-think the way they share their
clients’ products and services with consumers. Perhaps the answer is a
combination of capturing the audience’s attention with snippets of
enticing digital media, while continuing to search and innovate other
non-media sources of communication.

NEWS ON INTERNET

For years, publishers of newspapers, magazine and other print products

have been fascinated with the idea of delivering information electronically. In
contrast to conventional printing on paper, delivery by computer and other
means seemed to offer several benefits both the producer and consumer.

Second, information be disseminated to readers much more quickly than it

could in printed publication. The bulk of information in a daily newspaper is
at least 12 hour old; articles in a monthly magazine are often written three
or for months before they are published.

During the next decade, publications turned to several other means of

delivering information electronically. Some hooked up with online services
such as CompuServe and America. Online. Other experimented with fax
editions and computer bulletin boards. A range of media companies tried
their hands at producing CD-ROMs, delivering information by satellite and e-
mail, N11 services ( using three-digit phone number like 911) and a number
of

other methods.

 
WEB-OFFSET

Photo setting was made possible by the computer but it owed its utilization
to the web-offset printing process. The continuance of hot metal typesetting
and page make – uphad been unchallenged because it suited the plate
making process used in letterpress printing. The plates could be cast
conveniently in metal from the moulds taken from the made up pages .the
plate makers shared the same hot metal and foundry facilities as the line
casters which were located usually on the same floor moreover metal plates
I heavy relief had always been regarded on the only way type could be
transferred successfully to newsprint by means of the high speed rotary
presses used to print modern newspapers.

Thus newspapers that the new plates were considerably lighter than the 18
kg conventional stereotype metal plate.

A disadvantage was that, while the durability and cheap running of the
rotary presses had been married to the

cost-saving of cold type technology, plate-making time had been

considerably increased and edition schedules

upset by the extra procedures needed to convert pasted-up pages into metal
printing plates. This was alleviated

when the development of tougher polymer in the early 1980s, enabled

traditional rotary presses to be used for

direct printing from polymer plates derived from pasted-up pages.

DE-CETRALIZED PRINTING

Page facsimile transmission is a technique whereby made-up pages can be

photographed and transmitted from the main production centre to satellite
printing plants within the circulation area so that the printing operation can
be carried out simultaneously at several centers.
 

The page photographs digitized by means of scanners so that the data is

compatible for sending by microwave, for short distances, or by broadband
telephone lines or earth satellite for longer distances. The signal is encoded
by a special receiver at the other plant and is made into a page
transparency. This is fed into a plate-maker which produces a polymer
printing plate identical to the one being used in the main centre. The
average transmissiontime is about three and a half minutes.

This makes it an attractive proposition in countries, especially in the Third

Word, in which the use of satellite printing centers can be the answer to
communication and distribution problems.

In Britain, to help in efficient distribution, a number of provincial and

national newspapers, including The

Guardian, Daily Mirror, Daily Star, the Sun and News of the World, are using
page facsimile transmission for all or part of their production outside London,
while The Financial Times and the Wall Street Journal circulate
internationally on the same day by this means. Even Pravda uses the
technique to reach for confines of the USSR.

The used of computerized systems has meant the down of the electronic
newsroom, with news editors checking reporters ‗ files on the screen,
sending back stories where coverage is not sufficient or has failed in some
way, and routing stories to the copy-taster and the subeditors as they
become ready.

TASTING METHODS

The effect on news copy-tasting of electronic copy inputs is more apparent

then real. Whether on screen or on hard copy the basic routine of the job is
the same. Important stories are drawn to the attention of the night editor or
chief subeditor; the clearly dead ones are spiked, the doubtful but possible
once put into a separate pile to be turned over in moments of need, the
likely topes of pages put aside for use as page planning proceeds.

Some national papers refine the tasting process by filtering copy through a
rough and a fine copy-taster, or through separate home and foreign tasters.
The aim is not only a fail-safe reading operation but a continuously creative
assessment of the copy flow to pin-point things that might otherwise be
missed.

ELECTRONIC COPY-TASTING

Electronic copy-tasting, in which the taster reads from the screen, is

necessary one direct input of copy is adopted when reporters and
correspondents type their stories directly on to a VDU instead of a
typewriter, or when their telephoned copy is likewise entered into the
computer by the telephone copy-takers. Once such copy has been cleared by
the newsroom it can be recalled from its ‗queue‘ in the computer for tasting
and, after that, for page planning and editing. Electronic copy-tasting is
made easier not only by the taster being able to call up stories at a stroke,
but by being able to call up the complete ‗directory‘ of stories held in a
given queue (i.e. newsroom, agency, sport, etc.) which gives the source,
name and catch-line and the first few lines of each story, and also its length.
The different stages which computerized technology has reached in the
various production centers has resulted in news agencies – the principal
suppliers of news copy in any country – having to maintain a variety of
services to satisfy all their subscribers.

ELECTRONIC EDITING

With direct input of copy into the computer the subeditor the advantage of
electronic aids in editing. As with copy tasting, the ease of operation is
greatest where everything comes through the computer, rather than with
come subbing still having to be done on hard copy.
International Journal of Business and Social Science

Subeditors who have become familiar with screen editing do not usually like
to go back to subbing hard copy.

Stories can be checked for length by relating the word count and number of
line given in the screen ‗header‘to the space allocated on the page layout.
Fact and word pruning are then carried out as with hard copy subediting.
The difference is that the use of the cursor, or electronic pen, on screen
enables deletions and alterations to be make faster than by ball pen, while
at the same time resulting in instantly clean copy without the scribbles,
scorings and connecting lines that characterize hard copy subbing. After
each change or alteration the text automatically rearranges itself on the
screen.

Split screen, on which two stories are displayed side by side, can be used
when working on copy from another source. Deleted material may be also
left in the computer in ‗note‘ form from which it can be reactivated and
brought back into the text, if needed, by a simple command stroke. With
electronic editing, copy is capable of almost endless reworking and revising
as it is with any word processor-while at the same time finishing up clean
and ready for typesetting. Moreover, after a story has been checked and cut
to fit it can be scrolled back for re-reading on the screen and any late
alterations made with greater ease than would be the case with already
heavily subbed hard copy.

Modern systems have facility for delivering print-out proofs after the H & J
stage showing the story as it will look when typeset. These are useful if the
story needs to be taken away-for telephone checking, stay. In fact, many
newspaper offices make little use of the facility once direct input has
transferred the whole editing operation into the computer. Nor is the print-
out proof needed to increase the distribution of a story within the editorial
department since it is now possible to generate ‗carbon‘ copies of a story
within the system. This means that it cannot only be read by one person
versions for use in different papers fed from the system.

Increased User Generated Content (UGC).

With media convergence, the users can now generate content through the
various platforms that give them the opportunity to give instant feedback.

QUIZ

Discuss why the Internet is synonymous with World Wide Web (20mrks

QUESTION FROM A PAST PAPER.

NOVEMBER 2019 SERIES.

Q2

a) Explain five ways in which mobile technology has enhanced journalistic

work.

b) Highlight five effects of globalization on journalism.

COURSE: DIPLOMA IN BROADCAST JOURNALISM

UNIT: MEDIA CONVERGENCE AND JOURNALISM.

LECTURER: .

SESSION 4
TOPIC: TECHNOLOGIES OF MEDIA CONVERGENCE

OBJECTIVE:

By the end of the session, the trainee should be able to discuss the
technologies of media convergence and explain the convergence of
media technologies.

TECHNOLOGIES OF MEDIA CONVERGENCE

  Technology convergence is when different forms of technologies cohabitate

in a single device, sharing resources and interacting, creating new
technology and convenience. 

It is the cross-platform digital information flow created by the Internet and

how content and our relationship to it are always expanding.

The technologies of media convergence include: Mobile phones, internet and

computers.

It brings together the “three C’s”—computing, communication, and content—

and is a direct consequence of the digitization of media content and the
popularization of the Internet. 

Media convergence transforms established industries, services, and work

practices and enables entirely new forms of content to emerge. It erodes
long-established media industry and content “silos” and increasingly
uncouples content from particular devices, which in turn presents major
challenges for public policy and regulation.

The five major elements of media convergence

the technological, the industrial, the social, the textual, and the political—are
discussed below.

There are 5 elements of Technological Convergence which are:

[1] Technology. It is a common for technologies that are viewed as very

different to develop similar features with time that blur differences. In 1995,
a television and a mobile phone were completely different devices. In recent
years, they may have similar features such as the ability to connect to wifi,
play rich internet-based media and run apps. People may use either their
television or phone to play a game or communicate with relatives, using the
same software.
[2] Media & Content, a television and internet services were once viewed as
separate but have begun to converge. It is likely that music, movies, video
games and informational content will eventually converge to the point that
they are no longer distinct formats. For example, future music may always
come with an interactive music video that resembles a game.

[3] Services application, in the late 1990s, there was a large difference
between business and consumer software and services. With time, this line
has blurred. Technology tends to move from a large number of highly
specific tools towards a small set of flexible tools with broad applications.

[4] Robots & Machines, it is increasingly common for machines such as

vehicles or appliances to have semi-autonomous features that technically
make them robots.

 [5] Virtual Reality, can be viewed as the convergence of real life with digital
entities such as games and information environments.

CONVERGENCE OF MEDIA: The old media – newspapers, magazines,

radio, television were fairly distinct and separate. Now we are seeing
convergence of media due to technology -e.g., a newspaper must have an
online presence and probably a few blogs. On the other hand, most of the
old media producers have "converged" into a few large corporations. All the
more reason to enjoy the entrepreneurial, democratic, and inclusive nature
of the new media.

CONVERGENCE OF MEDIA TECHNOLOGIES.

The technological dimension of convergence is the most readily understood.

With the World Wide Web, smartphones, tablet computers,
smart televisions, and other digital devices, billions of people are now able to
access media content that was once tied to specific communications media
(print and broadcast) or platforms (newspapers, magazines, radio,
television, and cinema).

We are moving from a physical world based on atoms to a digital world

based on bits - that is, binary digits or the Os and ls of computer language.

A bit has no colour, size or weight, and it travels at the speed of light. A bit
can be a telephone call, an e-mail message, a radio channel, a television
picture, or virtually any form of information or communication.
 As far as the computer or the communications network is concerned, once
something is in digital form the precise nature or content of the message is
irrelevant. Bits are bits.

Digital signals can reproduce information perfectly which is why compact

discs sound so good; digital messages can be broken up and reconfigured
easily which is why the Internet is so effective; and digital data can be
compressed, enabling television pictures, for instance, to be sent down
telephone lines.

Bits can be mixed very easily. This means that we can mix audio, video and
data to create new multimedia products and services.

The implications of all this are truly global. Bits are borderless, stored and
manipulated with absolutely no respect to geopolitical boundaries. When
information can travel round the globe in a matter of seconds, distance has
little meaning and it is literally a whole new world.

We are living in an age where Information pervades all aspects of our daily
life...Earlier, we were getting information through printed media and using it
for enhancing our knowledge. Today new techniques of Information
packaging and delivery ensure its availability at

the point of demand instantly. This is achieved by exploiting the technologies

provided by telecommunications, computer networking

and broadcasting media.

1.         INFORMATION SOCIETY

The term "information society" has entered common usage in recent years.
We talk about wired societies, many of us work in network environments and
we communicate electronically with our colleagues and partners inside and
outside workplaces; in fact these same workplaces now extend to all parts of
the world. The whole notion of a workplace is changing from one rather finite
entity to a potentially very extensive network. A generation ago cellular
telephones, email and hand-held computers belonged, if not to the realm of
science fiction, at least to something very sophisticated and very distant.
Today they are everyday tools for those who work in the information
economy.

2.         COMMUNICATIONS AND COMPUTERS

Today we can communicate in different modes:

  Orally- communicate symbolic experiences
 Written- record symbolic experiences
 on paper- portability
 in print-mass distribution
 by telegraph- remote narrow communication
 by telephone- remote analogue/digital communication
 radio-analogue  broadcasting of sound
 television- analogue  A/V broadcasting
 internet- email, online-chat, internet-telephony

The concept of the “Computer Centre” as a large room with a large computer
to which users brought their work for processing has become obsolete.
Owing to the merging of computers and digital communications, this old
model has been replaced by one in which a

large number of separate but interconnected computers do the job. These

systems are called computer networks. A computer network interconnects a
collection of autonomous computers. This helps in resource sharing and the
goal is to make all programs, equipment and especially data available to
anyone on the network without regard to physical location of resource and
the user......an end to the tyranny of geography.

The connection of two or more computer networks recursively is called

internetworking......

3.         INTERNET

The use of internet has developed from basic concepts such as e-mail, file
transfer, remote procedure calls and accessing web-sites to a variety of
purposes like Internet Telephony, Video on Demand, Video Conferencing,
Online Learning, Multimedia, E-Commerce etc.

Each computer connected to the Internet has a unique Internet Protocol (IP)
address. In Ipv4, this is a four part number; for example

192.50.45.91. Because these addresses communicate no information about

the site content and are inconvenient to remember, the

Internet uses Domain names – example,

www.ibsindia.org

 - as an easier way to identify and remember computer addresses. These

two

addresses are in one-to-one correspondence with each other and a “Web

Browser” along with the “Name Server”, translates domain

names into their specific IP address and transports a view to that site while
browsing.

Computer and Data Communications technologies are continuing to develop

at a rapid rate, providing higher performance while

reducing both the cost and size of system components. As prices decline,
users will increasingly employ powerful computer

workstations, which will be equipped with high-resolution displays and high-

capacity magnetic and optical storage units. Information in

many media formats will be stored in digital form, and improved, cost-
effective methods of converting older materials in non-digital

formats will be developed. As the necessary network infrastructure is put in

place and the problems associated with interconnecting

heterogeneous computer networks are solved, workstations will become

linked to a growing number of institutional and external

networks. Computer messaging and conferencing systems will be

increasingly important sources of information in the networked

environment.

4.         MULTIMEDIA (CONTENT)

What do we mean by the popular term Multimedia (Content)? We mean the

mixing of different media on the same screen in a form with which the user
can interact. The different media includes text, sound, graphics, pictures and
even film. The screen is probably a personal computer or a television set or
games console or a mobile display screen but in future could be some sort of
multipurpose terminal.
Interactivity enables the user to manipulate the contents of whatever is on
the screen.

A multimedia computer system is a computer system that can create,

import, integrate, store, retrieve, edit, and delete two or more types

of media materials in digital form, such as audio, image, full-motion video,

and text information.

 Networked multimedia computer systems can transmit and receive digital

multimedia materials over a single computer network or over any number of
interconnected computer networks. As multimedia computer systems evolve,
they may become intelligent systems by utilizing expert system technology
to assist users in selecting, retrieving, and manipulating multimedia
information.

Multimedia software and its applications provide a direct interactive

environment for users. End users can enjoy multimedia using a computer
equipped with multimedia facilities, such as a sound input/output interface,
speakers, a camera, a CD-ROM or a DVD.

Many multimedia services such as video on demand (VoD), distance learning

and digital libraries need to have high volume of storage facilities that are
updated frequently. Whenever a computer requires multimedia information
from remote computers or servers, this information must travel through
computer networks. Since the amount of information is substantial, it must
be compressed before it can be sent through the network in order to reduce
the inherent communication delay. The retrieved information must be
decompressed before it can be composed for replay and interactivity. MPEG-
2 is the standard for compressing and packetizing high quality video.

MPEG-4 is appropriate for mobile access because it is robust to channel

errors.

Mobile communications and Internet based computer communications are

the two fastest growing areas of communications indicating an enormous 
potential in the intersection of these two domains. The current trend of
network evolution implies that the Internet will serve as a core for future
service provision, whereas traditional telecommunication networks offer
access paths to those services.

Internet telephony reflects the beginning of a new communication era, which

is characterized by running real-time applications over
Internet/Intranet based computer communication infrastructure.

5.         A REVOLUTION IS TAKING PLACE IN THE TELECOM INDUSTRY –

MOBILE INTERNET

There is more and more demand for getting data and even video on the
cellular mobile telephone. This convergence is made possible by what is
called the Third Generation 3G wireless system. The General Packet Radio
Service (GPRS) is the first move towards implementing 3G networks. It is a
service that allows information to be sent and received across a mobile
telephone network. GPRS is the current enhancement in the Global System
for Mobile  Communication (GSM) cellular infrastructure, capable of handling
Internet

Protocol (IP) traffic for cellular mobile computing and communication.

Mobile networks -

Bluetooth is a new dimension in wireless communication. A world where all

electronic devices talk spontaneously. Where connectivity between
computers, mobile phones and portable devices is as simple as switching on
the lights. Bluetooth™

wireless technology revolutionizes the personal connectivity market by

providing freedom from wired connections - enabling links

between mobile computers, mobile phones, portable handheld devices, and

connectivity to the Internet.

6.         CONVERGENCE OF TELECOMMUNICATIONS, COMPUTER NETWORK

TECHNOLOGIES AND BROADCASTING

HAS BROUGHT ABOUT SOME MAJOR VALUE-ADDED SERVICES

E-mail is the most widely used application of Internet for communication

betweenindividuals.

Cable TV and Internet Access  is likely to be an important issue considering

large penetration into semi urban and rural areas..... They will require high
bandwidth connectivity and a Fibre Optic Back Bone

Education via Internet:

For developing countries like India, distance education is a high priority
application. The Networking of

Universities and R&D establishments ..... establishment of primary & high

school education to remote locations is now soon becoming

possible.

E-business:

describes a market place where businesses are using internet technologies

and network computing to transform their

internal business processes ( intranets) and the buying and selling of goods,
services and information. Internet access, E-mail and Web

browsing are all the initial small steps which lead the way to e-business.

Telebanking

– Banking sectors have already computerized their internal operations,

Automatic Teller Machines, Net-banking services

are now being made available at a lot of banks.

Radio and Television Broadcast on the Internet –

With multimedia computer terminals being available, and program editing

possible

on digitized studios, the only constraint on Internet broadcasting is

transmission media. With the introduction of video compression

standards like MPEG II and high bandwidth cable media being used....the
distinction between television and personal computer will

slowly disappear.

7.         SECURITY AND CRYPTOGRAPHY ASPECTS

When Internet is used as a vehicle of commerce, issues of protecting

information naturally arises. Methods of protecting the information

......security overlay with different grades for different transactions become

an important issue. Cryptography facilities, distributed
security administration, access-control, firewalls, secure web servers .....etc
are some relevant technologies. Cyber Laws....Digital

signatures have to be enacted to legalise electronic transactions.

Emerging Trends .....

Today’s converging communication networks , both wired and wireless

reveals an intricate infrastructure that has evolved from circuit

switched technology handling mostly, POTS, or “plain old telephone service”,

to a complex circuit and packet switched

information-transport environment carrying both voice and data.

Another increasingly important component of this mix is video. To efficiently

handle this three dimensional mix of traffic, a number of

copper based broadband network solutions (DSL) continues to evolve and

are being implemented worldwide. Technological innovations

are helping to bring broad-band network access over digital subscriber lines
(DSL’s) to consumers and small businesses.

Third Generation or 3G mobile systems are the further direction for mobile
communications all over the world.

The Third Generation (3G) wireless communication paved a way for Fourth
Generation (4G) wireless mobile

communication.

This will enable applications not possible with current and previous wireless
mobile systems such as :

Virtual Navigation

 – A remote database contains the graphical representation of streets,

buildings and physical characteristics of a large metropolis. Blocks of this
database are transmitted in rapid sequence to a vehicle, where a rendering
program permits the occupants to visualize the environment ahead.

Tele medicine –
The para medics assisting the victims of a traffic accident in a remote
location must access medical records ( e,g. X-rays) and may need video
conference assistance from a surgeon for an emergency intervention. The
paramedic may also need to relay back to the hospital the victim’s x-rays
taken locally.

Tele-geoprocessing Applications –

The combination of geographical information systems (GIS) , global

positioning systems (GPS) and high capacity wireless mobile systems will
enable this new type of application.

Crisis management Applications –

As a result of natural disasters ( like the Gujarat Earthquake in Jan 2001 )

where the entire communication infrastructure is in disarray, restoring the
communication quickly is important. With 4G, limited and even total
communication capability, including internet and video services , could be
setup in hours , instead of days/weeks/months required for restoration of
wireline communication.

Virtual Laboratory - 

A laboratory created in virtual space by sharing an actual laboratory

infrastructure among users in different locations. An example would be
sharing an electronic microscope studies on internet.

The Impact of Media Convergence on Media

Traditional news organizations are suffering a “fundament loss of audience”

-Newspapers are grappling with a massive loss of revenue because

advertising has been “decoupled from news.”

-Thousands of journalists are now working for “digital native news”

operations, many of which have started within the last five years.

-Media convergence and the growth of digital technology allow for “targeted
niche news.”

Citizens benefit from convergence technology but are faced with added
responsibilities as both consumers and purveyors of news.
Media convergence brings technologies such as a computing, and
communication, together, which is very important in businesses today. This
reach, makes the everyday lives of individuals easier since they now have
much easier access to information on the things or products that they want
and need. The combining of these different technologies, allows a longer
more intuitive reach of businesses among its markets. 

  quiz

1. Discuss the impacts of using media technologies in our  own

media houses today (20marks)

COURSE: DIPLOMA IN JOURNALISM

UNIT: MEDIA CONVERGENCE AND JOURNALISM

LECTURER: .

SESSION 5

TOPIC: DIGITAL TECHNOLOGY AND JOURNALISM

OBJECTIVES:

By the end of the session, the trainee should be able to:

• Explain the use of mobile technology in journalism.

• Discuss the use of internet in journalism.

USE OF MOBILE TECHNOLOGY IN JOURNALISM

Mobile journalism is an emerging form of new media storytelling where

reporters use portable electronic devices with network connectivity to
gather, edit and distribute news from his or her community

These are some five ways journalists can use smartphone apps or mobile
technology for reporting.

1. Record and file audio clips

Mobile reporting is largely dominated by broadcast journalists, including

those who work in radio and use it for audio.

Neal Augenstein, a reporter at WTOP radio in Washington, D.C., reports

exclusively with his iPhone and says he has never paid more than $9 for an
app.

“That’s what I like most about iPhone reporting,” said Augenstein in a

telephone interview. “These are consumer solutions that are helping me do
my job.”

Since Augenstein’s needs for audio were specific, he focused on finding one
app he liked the most (VeriCorder Audio Pro) and stuck with it. It records
good quality audio, allows him to edit and move segments, including taking
a sound byte and inserting it between his voiceovers, and then send the
audio from his device to his newsroom.

2. Shoot videos when action strikes

When McCarthy started mobile reporting for Newsday, his first challenge was
not just what to use to shoot video, but how to shoot it. His first attempt
involved mounting his phone on a vehicle for a standup.

The resulting video was too stiff, so he switched to holding the phone in
front of him for a more gritty, in-action style that was perfect for breaking
news assignments.

Practicing shooting video with his phone this way also gave him the
confidence to keep focus in a dramatic event. After his car almost got hit by
a tree in the road during Hurricane Sandy, he stopped to document it.
Another tree fell while he was shooting video. He was able to continue
reporting, largely because he had practiced enough to know how to keep
shooting.

Marc Blank-Settle, who has trained about 500 BBC journalists on

smartphone reporting for the BBC College of Journalism, recommends
getting a fixing or grip that can attach a smartphone to a tripod. This will
help keep your video more stable and watchable. An external microphone,
he says, can also make a big difference in quality.

3. Capture photos discretely

Though the quality of photographs from cell phones — even smartphones —

is still far behind what can be captured with a DSLR, there are some obvious
advantages.

Along with the speed at which mobile photos can be transmitted and the
compact, always-at-hand nature of cell phone cameras, discretion is a major
advantage. With practice, it’s possible to take a photograph with a
smartphone practically unnoticed, which can be the difference between
getting an image — or nothing.

During the November 2012 fighting between Hamas in Gaza and Israel, an
editor asked me to photograph scenes in Jerusalem. Just as a the second
bombing attack on the city was underway, I was in the middle of a crowded
outdoor shopping plaza and ended up in the bomb shelter with about 20
other people. I took two photographs of the group standing in half-darkness
waiting for the sirens to stop.

The discreetness of using my phone rather than my Canon allowed me to

document the moment that slipped by quickly.

4. Live remote reporting

One of the more useful features of smart phones is their ability to create a
direct link from newsroom to reporter as news is happening.

Blank-Settle says that for cross-platform transmission of live audio or video,

Skype is increasingly popular.

“We are getting more and more guests on air using Skype,” Blank-Settle
said by telephone. Smartphones free a reporter to focus on getting access to
a newsworthy scene, because they can capture and send back information
from anywhere.

He says that the quality of content transmitted from smart phones is

becoming more accepted because it’s preferable to have something rather
than nothing.

Depending on the story and the posting format (often social media),
McCarthy tended to use his iPhone’s installed video camera. For some
stories, though, he used a live streaming app called Ustream.

5. Filing copy on deadline

Though slower and more cumbersome than sitting in front of a computer

keyboard, the installed apps on smart phones for word processing can come
in handy.

During a recent train outage at New York City’s Penn Station, McCarthy used
his phone’s notes app to take notes and Google Docs to write the story. By
the time he had gotten three interviews, the train was running again and he
wrote the story on the way home. He filed the piece before reaching his
stop.

But, he adds, the ability to function so efficiently was a result of practice.

“Had I not had the high number of hours working mobily like that, I’m not
sure that would have worked,” he says.

The good news is, the smartphone’s ever-present role as both a personal
and professional device offers ample opportunity to practice.

Effects of Mobile technology in the practice of Journalism

Your cellphone is more than just a channel by which to reach sources, your
editor and sustenance It's an essential tool for both local news-gathering
and dissemination.

An Army of Citizen Journalists

If the recent spat of natural disasters and uprisings have proven anything,
it’s that when it comes to local news coverage, audience engagement is truly
an asset. Although the advent of the mojo (mobile journalist) is truly upon
us — journalists are increasingly using mobile phones to collect video and
photos and even to file stories — we also have a veritable army of citizen
journalists out there armed with their own increasingly more advanced
reporting tools: mobile phones. And, as we have seen, they're more than
eager to help a journo out.

According to News Director Colin Benedict, the rapid influx of content was
due, in part, to the strong relationship the station already had with its
viewers. “We use Twitter and Facebook every single day in our newscast,”
he says. “Because when those big events happen, you have to have that
relationship built already. We need to be in these spaces because that’s
where our viewers are.”

Although the station doesn’t yet have a smartphone app -– it’s working on it
–- it does have a distinct advantage when snagging this citizen footage:
familiarity.

Parker Polidor — the president of Cell Journalist, a platform that allows folks
to easily submit video from cellphones and other devices to local news
stations –- would agree. Cell Journalist has 85 clients countrywide, and was
instrumental in furnishing user footage during the flooding in Nashville,
Tennessee, at the beginning of May.

By submitting footage like this to local stations, viewers and consumers feel
like they're a part of the story. “Any time a user sees their content on air,
that gives them motivation to submit more content,” Polidor says. So, it
would behoove the local reporter, station or paper to use social media to
connect with these walking camera men and women, who make for excellent
sources of information when disaster strikes.

Using Geo-location to Crowdsourcing

There is a distinct untapped market here when it comes to mobile

crowdsourcing: geolocation (i.e. tools like Foursquare, Gowalla, etc). Your
first thought here might be: “Why do I care who’s checking in at Chipotle at
any given moment?” And we would agree — for the most part. But think
about how tools like these could be used creatively. For example, Tracy
Swartz, a journalist for Chicago’s RedEye paper, has found a novel use for
Foursquare: She’s a transit reporter, so she scours checkins at various
subway stations for news about delays, fare jumpers and track conditions.
This is only one way in which a journalist has figured out how to use the
location-based tool. Now think how helpful Foursquare could be for a food
reviewer (I’ve seen people mention things like vermin in checkins at various
restaurants and bars), a crime reporter (I can easily see someone reporting
gang activity or shots fired via a Foursquare checkin) or even an
entertainment reporter (tons of people usually equates to something cool –-
find out which concerts and music venues are racking up the checkins and
proceed accordingly).

As more and more people get hip to Foursquare in your community –- 40

million checkins ain’t bad –- we would suggest becoming early adopters.
Download this tool and start digging -– at the very least, you’ll score a
mayorship and some serious street cred among the tech cool kids.

Putting Mobile First

I have a vivid memory of my grad school dean holding up his cellphone

during various assemblies, imploring us to start thinking about how we’re
going to get the news on “this,” rather than “this” –- the latter “this” being a
newspaper. Back then, my immediate reaction was: “Ha, what? Who wants
to read a story on a tiny screen?” Well, two years later, and I'm eating that
thought bubble.

Although smartphone use is not as widespread among the majority of

average consumers as it is within, say, the tech community — of the top five
mobile phone manufacturers, only Motorola and RIM have made significant
inroads in the smartphone space in the U.S. –- it is growing. And with more
and more handsets and form factors on the market, the mobile space is
indeed important when it comes to news dissemination (hell, the iPad sold
one million unitsin the first month — that's a huge market for mobile
offerings right there). Still, at present, the space is a true work in progress.

Reporters and publications have to start thinking of the news in terms of

“mobile first” –- i.e. Thinking about how to distribute content via mobile
devices first, said Stephen Buttry, director of community engagement for
TBD.com (a soon-to-be-launched digital local news operation covering the
Washington area for Allbritton Communications).

“News organizations need to move quickly, and looking back on our history
with the web, we know their tendency is not to move quickly,” he says. “It
was easily 10 years or more into the history of news on the web that we
even started hearing ‘web-first.’ … If we don’t make mobile our first priority,
we’re going to screw it up like we did with the web.”

Taking Advantage of Location-Aware Abilities

Again, however, having an app is only the beginning of the story. What we
have not yet fully realized is the location-aware nature of the mobile phone
and how vital that is when it comes to delivering local news.

According to Amy L. Webb, CEO and principal of Webbmedia Group, LLC, “If
you encode your content correctly –- to really be able to deliver people real-
time news that’s about where they are at that moment — that’s hyperlocal
news that makes sense. The problem is that most news organizations aren’t
thinking that way. They’re still thinking in terms of zip codes.” What she
means is that we have the ability to tie news to exact street corners, and we
should be taking advantage of that.

Recently, we’ve seen several brands and publications making partnerships

with Foursquare in an attempt to make ample use of geo-location. The Wall
Street Journal is probably the most notable example of late. Basically, the
paper's partnership with the location-based service allows readers to collect
badges for checking in at various New York locations, but –- more
interestingly –- it also seeks to integrate news consumption into the game.

For example, the publication has added tips to places like Yankee Stadium
that include facts about the location as well as links to stories. In fact, just
the other week, The Wall Street Journal broke the news about a suspicious
package found in Times Square via a Foursquare tip. Essentially, the
publication is bringing us the news in a whole new way –- instead of reading
stories for pleasure or leisure (via the printed page) or searching for
information (via the web), The WSJ is making news dissemination about
discovery.

USE OF INTERNET IN JOURNALISM

The Internet has turned the world of journalism utterly upside down. It has
drastically changed how journalism is now accessed and shared. Well written
stories are hard to come by these days and it’s largely down to the impact
the internet is having on this dying art. You can forget about reporters,
readers, features, tabloids and broadsheets because nowadays its all about
online ‘dumbed-down’ articles, news feeds, timelines, search engines and
page/site views.

There has been a seismic shift in journalistic methods during this new
period, BUT, the main idea of story telling has remained the same.
Journalism has always been and will still always be (hopefully) about
informing the reader with matters of interest the journalist has worked hard
to source and produce for the reader. The only problem is, just about
anyone can be a so called journalist these days.

This wouldn’t have been normal if we go back a couple of centuries. The

publishers were the only people who could distribute the news. They wrote,
edited, printed and sold their papers all by themselves.

This is similar to today’s independent bloggers. Unfortunately the publishers

could never scale and grow, as technology was not as advanced as we find
today.

Fortunately as the 20th century came, and along with it came a mass
market and a larger circulation of newspapers. The publishers put their
thinking caps on and began to attract advertisers. With this came money
that they made from advertisement revenues which led to much more jobs
in Journalism sector. This resulted in the Printing Press becoming a very
decorated job at the time.

Then unbeknown to Printing Press, the 21st century came thundering in and
the Internet joined the party. This of course changed everything once again.
It now meant anyone could become a journalist due to massively accessible
resources as well as the ability to connect with hundreds of millions of
people with the click of a mouse.
Right now absolutely anyone can publish information and share it with the
world. Absolutely anyone can build an army of subscribers, viewers and
readers at only a fraction of the time, and the cost, and the effort the
original publishers had to deal with.

As technology continues to advance, it continues to change the entire

journalism industry. It’s true that a journalists job is still to tell stories but
the modern journalist must carry out much more than that. It’s no longer
the case where a journalist just feeds the reader with information. These
days its all about the journalist and their involvement with their audience.
With everything online now it means that journalists must now engage with
their readers.

Twitter is where we find breaking news now, not from the newspapers or
even the news channels. Twitter has become a great source of stories for
journalists and it has massively changed the way the news is given to us.
It’s immediate and can also be used to share live videos of the events that
are occurring for example the videos from phones that were used by the
news channels when the Grenfell Fire happened were largely sourced from
twitter!

Journalists and News companies have had to think outside the box when
publishing their stories online. There are new, more exciting ways in which
the news can now be told now and if you’re not clued in you will fall far, far
behind. Journalists now look to platforms other than just the regular
newspaper site with a simple black and white layout.

A good example of this is the New York Times’ Medium page. They have
created a more interactive, user friendly form of news. As blogging continues
to become more and more popular it’s vital for these large media
organisations to have their own blog-style news sites and I believe the New
York Times are doing a great job in mixing the so called hard news that
we’re all used to, with a more creative and free flowing form of news which
we are becoming more accustomed to!

We all know there is a decline in newspaper sales and with that it has
become outrageously difficult for these publishers to generate a profit. It
seems the only way newspapers have tackled this problem is with higher
advertising rates and more advertising space. Newspapers have gone under
the knife and transitioned from a heavy text based document to one that’s
now not dissimilar to a magazine in terms of advertisements.
It’s not all doom and gloom for the news industry. Leaders in the field like
the New York Times and The Washington Post have seen what is known as
“The Trump Bump” in terms of their online subscriptions. It looks like Mr.
Trumps’ continuous attack on what he terms as “Fake News” has had an
invigorating effect for readers towards trusted online news sites.

Knowledgeable readers have realised that online news through their social
news feeds is untrustworthy and have decided to subscribe to broadsheet
brands to ensure that they are getting trusted news. Although this hasn’t yet
replaced the declining print revenues, it does have the capability to do so! It
also helps news and media companies businesses to mend their relationship
with their readership.

Journalists have become self promoters as they now must help spread their
news stories across the internet through their Facebook and Twitter
accounts. A substantial change to the new journalists job description is that
the printed word is now only a small part of what they must be proficient at.
Today, journalists have to create all kinds of content suitable for their
internet audience.

Old-School Print journalists are having to learn about broadcast, so they can
create their own videos or podcasts whereas the the newer breed of
journalists will have these skills already from learning it in college.

A notable difference in how journalists now write their stories online is the
creation of content specifically designed to attract readers through the use of
keywords that are easily found through Search Engine Optimisation, this
basically means journalists create stories that are easily found on google so
they then receive more readers and page views.

Even more fascinating is how journalists can now track their stories and
content. They can monitor page views and they can see the most
commented, most shared and most emailed content.

The last decade has brought the art of journalism to its knees.The Internet
has completely changed the way we source and view information. Journalists
have to adapt to this if they’re going to survive the next decade.
EFFECTS OF THE INTERNET ON JOURNALISM

1. When a story breaks it can be published immediately. This has fueled the
need for more content and ultimately led to more jobs for more journalists.
It has also opened the door for journalists to cover all kinds of topics from
many points of view, which only leads to a larger knowledge base and
information sharing. No topic is off limits because somewhere out there, a
publication, podcast, blog or web show is looking for something wacky,
something weird or something different.

2. Credible yet alternative news sources can exist and compete. Before the
World Wide Web, consumers could only get news from publications and
television networks with enough funding to stay in business. But corporate
money leads to biased reporting (ahem Fox News). Today, if a journalist has
an Internet connection and a credible, well-researched and sourced story to
tell, they can distribute it without a network or major newspaper. To the
skeptics who say this leads to an increase in amateur content, you are right.
But thoughtful, quality, unbiased, reporting will always stand out.

3. Yes, amateur or citizen journalism has undoubtedly changed the media

landscape, but this isn’t necessarily a bad thing. The digital age has put the
power of journalism in the hands of the people who need it the most. Digital
cameras, cryptography applications and mobile phones allow citizens in
oppressed nations to spread their causes and stories worldwide while
shielding themselves from oppressive regimes. Arab Spring and Occupy
Central are two good examples where citizen journalism accelerated change
and raised awareness.

4. Stories can be told with a simple revolutionizing hashtag. The

#IceBucketChallenge spread the story of ALS to people who had never heard
of the disease and raised more than $100 million for the cause as a result.
In addition, just this week during the Oscars, #AskHerMore became a
trending hashtag. It raised awareness about women’s rights, equality and
sexism. Entertainment journalists and reporters listened to the #AskHerMore
conversation taking place online and shifted their line of questioning to make
sure they didn’t ask actresses and female filmmakers anything that would
perpetuate sexist ideals. Instead of asking questions like, “Who are you
wearing?” and “What was your diet today?,” the conversation turned into,
“How did you prepare for such an empowering role?” The E! Network even
banished their ridiculous mani-cam in response to the campaign. After all,
they had never objectified a man by asking him to show off his nails.

5. Research is easier than ever. Remember Dewey Decimal-ing through

libraries while researching writing projects? Well, somewhere between high
school and college, the Internet moved away from dial-up and into
broadband, making it easily accessible. In fact, it became so accessible that
libraries and other businesses moved their operations online. Suddenly,
books and journals were available from the comfort of one’s own home.
Online research databases like LexisNexis and Google Scholar also showed
up. Because of that, peer-reviewed data is right at our fingertips.

6. Fact checking is also easier than ever. Sites like PolitiFact, FactCheck.Org,
OpenSecrets, and Snopes help journalists stay informed, weed through
satire, and make ethical decisions. This means there is no excuse for bad
reporting or spreading misinformation. Resources are everywhere. Use
them!

7. New software, like the Creatavist, allows journalists and storytellers to

create powerful, beautiful, and interactive projects across mediums. We can
breathe life into our work by putting videos, sound bites, photos and
clickable links on the page to give our readers a new type of sensory
experience.

8. Young journos can get published and build clip or video portfolios much
easier than before the Internet. YouTube was launched in 2005. Instead of
moving to Scranton, Pennsylvania to work as a lowly reporter, I got a job as
a producer and writer for an Internet broadcasting company. Many of my
peers didn’t understand the digital media thing. They looked down on it. But
the more they applied for jobs, and the more they were told they needed
more experience, the more they began to embrace new media. In the digital
age, we can just go out and create our own thing, make our own name.

9. Journalists can protect themselves better than ever before. Encryption

tools and anonymous communication networks like Tor, or operating
systems like Tails, allow journalists to keep sources safe, while at the same
time hiding themselves from the watchful eye of anyone wanting to prevent
them from publishing certain stories. Technology and investigative
journalism go hand in hand. Look at Edward Snowden and Laura Poitras.
They used these these technologies to protect themselves and because of
their savvy, together they broke one of the biggest news stories of our time.
10. And last but not least, the Internet has allowed journalists to have a
direct dialogue with readers through tweets, messages, retweets, and email.
This one plays directly into the ego of the lonely journalist. Seeing real time
reactions and getting real time acknowledgement makes work more fun.
Every retweet or share or comment validates our often underappreciated
art. If even one person acknowledges something I’ve produced or written, I
know the work wasn’t all for nothing. Next time you see a truly stellar piece
of work from an author, let them know. It will make their day.

11. Increases user generated content. With the internet, users can easily
contribute to the content that is published by the various media
organizations.

12. Instant feedback. The internet through social media platforms has
allowed the audience to give instant feedback on stories published.

REVISION QUESTIONS

a) Discuss five effects of the internet on journalism.

b) Outline five uses of mobile technology in journalism.

c) Discuss the effects of technology on journalism

RESEARCH LINKS

https://www.poynter.org/reporting-editing/2013/5-ways-journalists-can-
use-smartphone-apps-for-reporting/

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/
233703670_The_Impact_of_Technology_on_Journalism

QUESTION FROM A PAST PAPER

QUESTION 6. NOVEMBER 2019 SERIES.

Highlight five ways in which online journalist may use audio clips on news
items.

Explain five challenges faced by regulatory bodies in their effort to control

converged media.

COURSE: DIPLOMA IN JOURNALISM

UNIT: MEDIA CONVERGENCE

LECTURER: .

SESSION 6

TOPIC: MEDIA CONVERGENCE AND GLOBALISATION

OBJECTIVE:

By the end of the session, the trainee should be able to explain the meaning
of globalization.

MEANING OF GLOBALISATION

Globalization means the speedup of movements and exchanges (of human

beings, goods, and services, capital, technologies or cultural practices) all
over the planet. One of the effects of globalization is that it promotes and
increases interactions between different regions and populations around the
globe.
Globalization can also be defined as the increased interconnectedness and
interdependence of peoples and countries. It is generally understood to
include two inter-related elements: the opening of international borders to
increasingly fast flows of goods, services, finance, people and ideas; and the
changes in institutions and policies at national and international levels that
facilitate or promote such flows.

Globalization is `the compression of the world and the intensification of

consciousness of the world as a whole'

Globalization `refers to the rapidly developing process of complex

interconnections between societies, cultures, institutions and individuals
world-wide. It is a social process which involves a compression of time and
space, shrinking distances through a dramatic reduction in the time taken ±
either physically or representationally to cross them, so making the world
seem smaller and in a certain sense bringing them ``closer'' to one another

Media globalization is the worldwide integration of media through the cross-

cultural exchange of ideas, while technological globalization refers to the
cross-cultural development and exchange of technology.

It is the production, distribution, and consumption of media products on a

global scale, facilitating the exchange and diffusion of ideas cross-culturally.

Features of globalization

1. The growing level of connectedness between individuals, societies and

nation states at a global level.

2. The reduction in the distance between individuals, societies and nation

states in terms of both time and space facilitated by technological
developments such as the Internet and other media. These are usually
referred to as Information Communication Technologies (ICTs).

3. The development of ICTs has not only resulted in major changes in the
workings of the mass media but also allows the rapid transfer of information,
knowledge and capital.

4. Increased awareness of global phenomena in people's (local) lives.

5. The globalization of culture and economic activity as a direct result of the
activities of powerful transnational capitalist organizations.

6. It tends to assume a decrease in the significance of other kinds of

identities such as the ethnic, the local, the regional or the national in
people's everyday lives.

7. Globalization has increased the possibility of greater reflexivity amongst

social actors. It offers the potential to human beings to become more critical
of their immediate environment by allowing them to compare their
experiences with those living in other societies or under different political
arrangements. Media activities such as watching satellite television news or
surfing the Internet offer the potential for this kind of reflexivity in an
unprecedented way. The restrictions imposed by the Chinese authorities in
2001 and again in 2002 on Internet use is a concrete example of how
powerful interests in that country are fearful of reflexivity amongst its
citizens. China is not alone in the regard. There are many historical
precedents of governments attempting to censor media content such as
newspapers, radio or books.

8. Critics of globalization argue that it has resulted in even more exploitation

of the Third World. Those whom journalist John Pilger (2002) terms `the
new rulers of the world' exploit both the raw materials and the labour power
of the world's poorest people in order to feed consumer demand in the West.

DISCUSSION QUESTION

1. Discuss the impact of globalization on the media industry.

2. define the term media globalisaton.
3. outline the five features of media globalisation

LINKS TO FURTHER STUDY.

https://saylordotorg.github.io/text_understanding-media-and-culture-an-
introduction-to-mass-communication/s16-05-globalization-of-media.html

QUESTION FROM A PAST PAPER. NOVEMBER 2019 Q

a) Explain five consequences of media convergence on content consumption.

b) Outline five ethical considerations that a journalist should bear in mind

when filing new items in a converged media.

COURSE: DIPLOMA IN JOURNALISM

UNIT: MEDIA CONVERGENCE AND JOURNALISM

LECTURER: .

SESSION: 7

TOPIC: MEDIA CONVERGENCE AND GLOBALISATION

OBJECTIVE:

By the end of the session, the trainee should be able to

• Explain the difference types of convergence.

• Discuss the use of converged media for global effect.

TYPES OF CONVERGENCE

Ownership convergence.

This relates to arrangements within one large media company that

encourage cross-promotion and content sharing among print, online, and
television platforms owned by the same company. The biggest example in
the United States is the Tribune Company. President Jack Fuller said that
owning television, radio, and newspapers in a single market provided a way
to lower costs, increase efficiencies, and “provide higher quality news in
times of economic duress”

Tactical convergence.

This describes the content-sharing arrangements and partnerships that have

arisen among media companies with separate ownership. The most common
model is a partnership between a television station or cable channel and a
newspaper where each company keeps its own revenues.
 

Structural convergence.

This form of convergence is associated with changes in newsgathering and

distribution, Gordon wrote, but it is also a management process in the sense
of introducing changes in work practices. An example was the Orlando
Sentinel’s decision to employ a team of multimedia producers and editors to
repackage print material for television. The team rewrites print content in a
form suitable for television; meanwhile, a separate Web site produces
original material and also repackages content from the newspaper and
television partner. They also produce focused content, such as television
programs about the movies and high school sports, and arrange talkbacks
between print reporters and the television partner. Talkbacks consist of a
conversation between the television anchor and a specialist reporter in the
field. Dailey and his colleagues reported that 29.6 percent of respondents
said a reporter—usually a beat expert—appeared on a partner’s broadcast to
explain a story at least once a month.

Information-gathering convergence.

This takes place at the reporting level and is Gordon’s term for situations
where media companies require reporters to have multiple skills (2003, p.
69). In some parts of the world, this represents the most controversial form
of convergence as people debate whether one person can successfully
produce quality content in all forms of media.

Storytelling or presentation convergence.

This type of convergence operates at the level of the working journalist,

though it needs management support in terms of purchasing the most
appropriate equipment. He predicted that new forms of storytelling would
emerge from the combination of computers, portable newsgathering devices,
and the interactive potential of the Web and television, as journalists learned
to appreciate each medium’s unique capabilities (2003, p. 70). Many
journalists are pondering how to do this form of convergence. Doug Feaver,
executive editor of washingtonpost.com, said his journalists were “inventing
a new medium” as they worked. This form of convergence remains in the
experimental or evolutionary phase in many newsrooms but we may see it
emerge as more and more people graduate with advanced digital skills.

USES OF CONVERGED MEDIA FOR GLOBAL EFFECT

Economic Aspects

In economics, globalization engages in various aspects of cross border

transactions, free international capital flows, foreign direct investment,
portfolio investment, and rapid and widespread diffusion of technology.
Proponents of globalization argue that it enhances economic prosperity and
leads to more efficient allocation of resources, which, in turn will result in
higher output, more employment, lower prices and higher standard of living.
However, some critics worry about the resulting outsourcing and off-shoring,
which have destroyed the American manufacturing sector.

Economic aspects of globalising trends always have an impact on all other

subcategories–cultural and technological aspects.

Cultural Diversity

It is believed that commercialization and an oligopolies media structure are

definitely a threat to diversity and sovereignty of any nation. The porosity of
cultural boundaries engendered by media globalization has given rise to
concerns over cultural sovereignty and cultural rights. The media have
become the chief transmitters of culture. The traditional showcases of
culture – museums, theatres, art galleries or libraries – have handed over
part of their functions to the cinema screens, television or computers; media
where culture has greater distribution and scope, since the images reach
broader, more heterogeneous and widespread audiences. Cultural diversity
is recognized externally and internally, both by the prevailing institutions of
civil society and by the awareness of the group itself as different to the
whole in some expressions.

Technological Aspects

Technological change has always been the principal force shaping the
evolution of the media. Each of the past revolutions in communications
technology created distinct media forms that evolved into their own
industries. In the last few years, technological achievements in the context
of globalisation of media environments, gained in prominence.

Technological Innovations

Media convergence is not just a technological shift or a technological

process; it also includes shifts within the industrial, cultural, and social
paradigms that encourage the consumer to seek out new information.
Convergence, simply put, is how individual consumers interact with others
on a social level and use various media platforms to create new experiences,
new forms of media and content that connect us socially, and not just to
other consumers, but to the corporate producers of media in ways that have
not been as readily accessible in the past.

Raising New Technologies

Digital technology multiplies the possibilities for the transmission of

contents, offering new opportunities for the promotion of cultural diversity.
The analysis of the situation cannot be based on a technological determinism
dealing exclusively with technical and industrial considerations, and the way
in which the new technologies can influence culture in the countries must be
taken into account.

Bringing Freedom of Communication n Content creation

Although, regarding the freedom of speech, the Internet was for a long
period of time a very promising medium, this is not such a straightforwardly
acceptable view today. Yes, it is true that everyone is allowed to create his
own website or blog, but it is open to question whether anyone else will visit
it. The electronic media and communication sector, which ranges from
telecommunication networks and the Internet, through to radio, television
and film, is itself among the most active in the current drive for the
globalization of production, markets and trade. Although varying among the
subsectors, its rate of expansion has been phenomenal, the centralization of
ownership has been among the most marked, the transition from national
public ownership to global private ownership is almost total and international
trade (facilitated by the rebranding of telecommunication services as
“tradable goods”) has expanded apace. This has been accompanied by the
reorganization of hardware, software and content production, and the global
redistribution of activities.

Impacts of New Digital Media or Converged Media on Globalization

The concept of culture and competition rising from the new Digital Media is
relatively new in the scholarly debate, however the rate at which technology
has moved into the contemporary social lives is historically unprecedented.
Now computers, the Internet, mobile phones, television and other portable
DIGITAL Media are competing with one and other in the ever growing
electronic arena

Secondly, new Digital Media have also influence the social relations by
radically breaking the connection between physical place and social place,
making physical location much less significant for our social relationships
that apparently creates the virtual communities transcending geographical
boundaries and eliminating social restrictions.

The latest phenomenon in the virtual world is the growing popularity of

social networking culture based on Internet provided social networking
groups such as Facebook and MySpace. Started with e-mails and chat room,
online social networking is redefining social relations and comes up with a
new and extremely fast means of communication.

Advancement of new digital technologies forces critics, to argue that the

emergence of new digital technologies signals a potentially radical shift of
who is in control of information, experience and resources. People share
texts, videos, photos, voices, and everything - from food recipes to
developing computer operating system and planning terrorist attacks. The
era now we are encountering can be described as the evolution of a
universal inter connected network of audio, video, and electronic text
communications that blurs the distinction between interpersonal and mass
communication

Nations that are facing shortages of drinking water and food have been
helped by the Internet. For these countries, the Internet provided them with
vital and desperately needed information about health issues and farming to
the people. The best example of this is HealthNet. HealthNet is ―a
networked information service that supports health-care workers in more
than 30 countries, 22 of which are in

Africa‖ (Marston 96). HealthNet was primarily used by doctors in Central

Africa to share information during the 1995 deadly Ebola outbreak.

ASSIGMENT

1. Discuss the effects of media convergence on globalization.

2. discuss the impact of media conevrgence on globalisation
 3. outline five types of media convergence 

QUESTION FROM A PAST PAPER. NOVEMBER 2019 SERIES, Q 4

a) Explain five characteristics of new media

b) Media convergence has become a trending phenomenon in the media

industry. Explain five measures that a media house can take to ensure that
the media house is ready for media convergence.

LINK TO FURTHER STUDY

https://blog.internationalstudent.com/2014/12/08/digital-media-
convergence-and-its-effects-on-communications-strategies/
#:~:text=Whether%20the%20change%20is%20for,a%20much%20more
%20efficient%20way.

COURSE: DIPLOMA IN JOURNALISM

UNIT: MEDIA CONVERGENCE.

LECTURER: .

SESSION 8

TOPIC: REGULATION OF CONVERGED MEDIA

OBJECTIVES:

By the end of the session, the trainee should be able to discuss the sources
of law and the concepts in media regulation.
 

Sources of Media law and Regulations

The materials used for legal research are generally divided into two broad
categories: primary sources and secondary sources. Primary sources are
laws, orders, decisions, or regulations issued by a governmental entity or
official, such as a court, legislature, or executive agency; the President; or a
state governor. Secondary sources offer analysis, commentary, or a
restatement of primary law and are used to help locate and explain primary
sources of law. Secondary sources may influence a legal decision but do not
have the controlling or binding authority of primary sources.

Primary legal sources include:

• Case law (decisions from state and federal courts),

• Legislation (as passed by state legislatures and the U.S. Congress),

• Regulations (from both state and federal agencies).

• Constitutions (both state and federal)

• Treaties

Secondary Sources

Secondary Sources include books, magazines, journals and newspapers

which contain articles discussing various laws, regulations and various
related issues. Why use them? Secondary Sources often:

• Are the best place to start your research

• Provide terminology

• Are easier to find

• Give a feel or overview of the event or issue, and often supply dates,
names and other background information, such as the names and citations
of statutes and court cases

• May refer to related subjects or issues

• Are more readable than many primary sources

• Digest or synthesize the information found in primary sources

Primary Sources

Primary Sources: Primary sources provide first-hand, original information.

Primary sources may include, but are not limited to laws and legislation, Acts
of Congress, court cases, rules and regulations, government documents
(such as congressional hearings), etc.

1. Statutes: including Statutes at Large (laws passed by Congress) and

United States Code (Annotated)(denoted as USC or USCA. A codification of
the laws/statutes by subject, with an index). Online via the Westlaw
database. Also available on the U.S. House of Representatives website
atUnited States Code.

2. Regulations: including Federal Register (rules and regulations passed by

federal regulatory agencies – published daily) and Code of Federal
Regulations (denoted as CFR) (a codification of the rules and regulations
from the Federal Register)

3. Congressional Record (a daily record of what’s said and debated on the

floor of Congress – sort of, kind of, maybe. It can be revised by request of a
Congressperson). Found online via the Government Information page.

4. Court Cases (available in paper copy or online via WestLaw)

5. Catalog (for government documents, including congressional hearings)

6. Constitution

Concepts in Media regulation

NB

Media regulations are rules enforced by the jurisdiction of law. Guidelines for
media use differ across the world.This regulation, via law, rules or
procedures, can have various goals, for example intervention to protect a
stated "public interest", or encouraging competition and an effective media
market, or establishing common technical standards.[2]

The principal targets of media regulation are the press, radio and television,
but may also include film, recorded music, cable, satellite, storage and
distribution technology (discs, tapes etc.), the internet, mobile phones etc.

ü Balance between positive and negative defined liberties.

The negative defined liberties, legislating the role of media institutions in

society and securing their freedom of expression, publication, private
ownership, commerce, and enterprise, must be balanced by legislation
ensuring the positive freedom of citizens of their access to information.

Balance between state and market.

Media is at a position between the commerce and democracy.

These require the balance between rights and obligations. To maintain the
contractual balance, society expects the media to take their privilege
responsibly. Besides, market forces failed to guarantee the wide range of
public opinions and free expression. Intend to the expectation and
ensurance, regulation over the media formalized.

Equal Justice and the Rule of Law

The “rule of law” is an ancient concept and one of the most important and
hard-fought ideas in human history. The principle is that no one — not even
a king — is above the law. Many wars and revolutions have been fought to
preserve and extend the basic idea of equal justice, as we will see when we
consider the history of free speech.

From the Constitutional point of view, the “law” is not just a set of rules that
can easily be consulted. New circumstances require new interpretations all
the time. But there are ongoing debates about this concept. Conservative
scholars see a need to base Constitutional law on the “original intent” of the
framers of the Constitution in 1789. Liberal scholars see the Constitution as
a “living document” that can and should change with the times. Debates
between these two schools of thought have underpinned questions about the
rights of minority groups and free speech issues for many decades.

ü Due Process of the law

This is a concept of respect for individual rights while legal procedures take
place. Its origins are in the Magna Carta of 1215. Due process for ALL
American citizens is the main point of the 14th Amendment.

Constitutionality

This requires that a law is in harmony with the applicable Constitution. In

the area of human rights law, for example, this concept might involve the
protection of rights by the Bill of Rights (in the US) or the European
Convention on Human Rights (in Europe). Also, in countries without a
constitution, or without a constitutional guarantee of human rights, the
United Nations Declaration of Human Rights may be invoked.

Scrutiny

When courts review laws that curtail free speech, one of the first issues is
the level of scrutiny (examination) that will be applied to a constitutional
issue. If the law addresses specific content, then courts will use a strict
scrutiny standard. If the subject is a content-neutral law, then an
intermediate scrutiny standard is applied. If the subject involves routine
regulation, then a rational basis review may be used.

 
ASSIGNMENT

Discuss the challenges of imposing laws on converged media.

Discuss five sources of law.

Outline the importance of law in the media industry,

LINK TO FURTHER STUDY.

https://www.google.com/search?
q=sources+of+laws+pdf&oq=sources+of+laws+pdf&aqs=chrome..69i57.13
000j0j7&sourceid=chrome&ie=UTF-8

QUESTION FROM A PAST PAPER.

NOVEMBER 2019 SERIES.

Explain five challenges faced by regulatory bodies in their effort to control

converged media.

COURSE: DIPLOMA IN JOURNALISM

UNIT: MEDIA CONVERGENCE.

LECTURER: .

SESSION: 9

TOPIC: REGULATION OF CONVERGED MEDIA

OBJECTIVE:
By the end of the session, the trainee should be able to discuss the ethical
considerations in the converged media.

ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN CONVERGED MEDIA

The converged media like any other media industry and platform has ethical
values and principles that the stakeholders should adhere to.

Some of these principles cut across all the media platform and since media
convergence is the coming together of more than one media platform to
work as a unit, ethics in radio, print and online will apply.

Ethical Issues and Constraints

There are a number of ethical constraints and rules in the media industry
that are important to adhere to. These rules and constraints help to prevent
viewers and members of the public from taking offence to sensitive material,
this covers topics such as discrimination, offensive stereotypes, privacy and
other issues that are not enforced by the law.

Media industries must ensure that they do not generalize any particular
group, race or stereotype. This is due to the fact it can influence peoples
thoughts and feelings towards certain groups of people, which is not what
the majority of media companies and corporations are trying to encourage.
This includes not giving across any stereotypical views, whether it’s racially
influenced or not.  Also, they must not include any factors of discrimination
that give across the wrong idea about a particular group of people. They
certainly don’t want to create a scenario that actively makes an individual or
a group feel uncomfortable or uneasy. This is because any of these issues
may cause complaints by viewers and critics, which may mean action will
have to be taken towards the show in question, television presenter, or actor
involved. This could involve having to cut the show off the air as well as
repercussions for the actors and presenters involved that could result in the
person losing their job.
Also, it is important for companies and corporations not to display anything
that could cause offence to the viewers to the point in which news outlets
get involved. This is because a news publication can either make or break a
show or even a company, sometimes simply by blowing an issue well out of
proportion and causing the show to rapidly lose a large proportion of its
audience. This is because they will display this issue to masses which will
influence the general public and their opinion of the show and company
involved.

It is also important that organisations and media agencies don’t display any
information that may be insulting and harmful to different groups. Such
examples of these groups are different genders, sexual orientations,
religious beliefs, ethnic groups, disabilities etc.

Gender can often be a topic which gets passed by and almost overlooked by

the media when it comes to constraints. This is because casual sexism often
through stereotypes is unusually common within society. However, this does
not mean it should be allowed. This could involve films or programs
portraying women in stereotypical roles such as cleaners and housewives, or
being shown as being less physically able as a man and therefore shown to
do the more menial tasks. This can also be the case for men, however it is a
lot less common in the media. However, unsurprisingly many people find
gender discrimination in both ways insulting and unpleasant. Thankfully,
over recent years big steps have been taken to challenge these gender
stereotypes in film and television which has resulted in these issues being
less common within the modern media.

Religious Beliefs is certainly a topic that is important to stick to the

regulations and constraints. This is because it is very easy for the media to
unintentionally insult or discriminate against a religion whether it be
Christianity, Buddhism, Judaism etc. It is definitely within a media
company’s best interests not to insult a religion. This is because various
religious groups have vast numbers of followers with numbers reaching into
the billions for a number of groups. This means a simply unintentional insult
of through naivety has the potential to insult a large proportion of the
population on earth. Also, insulting religion’s is deeply disrespectful and is a
complete ‘no go’ not just within the media, but also in day to day life. This
can make work difficult for public broadcasters such as news broadcasters
who are often focusing on topics that may include religious extremism and
other sensitive religious topics.

Sexual Orientation is also a sensitive topic that people are becoming more
accustom to within the media with different sexual orientations slowly
becoming more commonly accepted within society. This being said, it is still
important not to insult individuals of different orientations, whether the
individuals identify as Heterosexual, Homosexual, bisexual, transsexual,
questionable etc. This is due to the fact it is very easy to put a stereotype on
these different groups of individuals, whether these are stereotypes
regarding their voice, personality, job role etc. People will find this offensive
whether they identify as any of these, simply because it is disrespectful
towards these groups of people. Often when these insults and stereotypes
are displayed, it will most commonly be within film and television. Although
it is very rare to see video games including characters of varying sexual
orientations, this is a factor that is slowly developing with the games
industry making more of an effort to include a wider range of orientations
portrayed within their games. However, at the current moment, it is still a
rare occurrence, and members of these groups may feel insulted and
alienated by the fact that their orientation is not being represented as
strongly as it should within the gaming industry.

These aforementioned ethical issues are rather solely moral issues rather
than legal issues, meaning that they are not enforced by law, they are
simply just seen as being wrong and will generally make the audience feel
uncomfortable.

Legal Issues and Constraints

Any constraints that are deemed legal constraints are simply restrictions and
constraints that are enforced by the law. These will often be enforced by
Laws or Acts that state the regulations that must be followed. These will
often be things that are harmful, wrongly influential or simply unpleasant for
the viewer. Although Legal constraints can also cover subject matters such
as copyright issues as well as not portraying any information that may be
considered Slander or Libel.

For example a well-known legal constraint act is the Broadcasting Act 1990.
It was this act that also did a lot of work and set up a lot of laws behind the
scenes also. The act made it illegal for newspaper companies to own more
than 20% of any television companies. This also applied to cross-ownership
between organisations such as radio stations and TV stations. This was also
the act that introduced Channel 5, which was set up as a channel with had
structure meaning that specific programs could be shown at the same time,
on the same day, every week.

Although there are also acts such as the Race regulations act of 1976 states
that it is illegal to treat a person unpleasantly and unfairly based simply on
their race, whether this is the colour of their skin, their ethnic origin, their
nationality etc. It helped create race equality and made discrimination and
victimization illegal throughout the UK. Also making positive discrimination
illegal also, positive discrimination is when a person may be given better
roles or opportunities simply based on the colour of their skin or their ethnic
race. This act means that it is important for the media to not portray
different ethnic groups differently due to their appearance or race. Whether
this be stereotyping or simply actively discriminating. It can only be allowed
in certain circumstances, for example, films may be allowed to portray these
views if they are focusing on a historical topic. This can be seen in Quentin
Tarantino’s film ‘Django Unchained’ wherein which he is displayed as a slave
due to the time period.

There are also intellectual property laws to take into consideration when the
media produces programs and movies to be shown on Television. These laws
help protect music, different forms of media e.g.images, videos etc, and any
other creative property. These intellectual property laws include copyright,
trade rights and patent laws each of which protecting creative property with
a number of laws. The copyright can help protect property whilst
Trademarks help to protect companies from having content stolen e.g. If a
company wished to use the slogan “I’m loving it” they wouldn’t be able to
because McDonald’s would have the rights and would have trademarked the
slogan. Similarly, the media can come under fire from these laws if they use
video footage, photos, pictures, music etc. without the permission from the
copyright owners. This means that they cannot use a companies slogan or
logo without having permission from the company. Copyright and intellectual
property laws can have serious effects on media creators that don’t follow
the guidelines. E.g. Videos may be taken down, shows may be cut from the
air, the company may be fined huge amounts of money and in extreme
circumstances, channels or media companies may be taken down
completely. This is the case of YouTube due to the fact that YouTube
channels will be removed and taken down if they violate copyright
regulations three times.

When looking at this ethical issues, we will use a case study of BBC.

Professional Codes of Practice

A media practioner should always abide by the industry’s code of conduct.

The BBC Editorial Guidelines are the guides that BBC producers have to
follow in order to do their job correctly. These Guidelines set the standard
for the BBC and essentially tells them what they can show. These Guidelines
cover a large number of topics which then tell them how to tackle certain
things.
These Topics are:

– Accuracy, Which covers sub-topics such as principles, the way they gather
their information, ensuring that they don’t mislead the audience, note-taking
and correcting mistakes among many others which focus around the
accuracy of information heading.

– Impartiality, Which covers topics such as controversial Subjects, Drama,

entertainment and culture, Elections and Referendums, Personal View
content etc.

– Harm and Offence, This is a big topic within the guidelines because it
states what the BBC can and cant Broadcast based on whether it will harm
and offend people. So this covers topics such as, the audience’s expectations
of what the BBC should Broadcast, TV scheduling based on the watershed,
language, violence, tragic events and occurrences, sex and nudity, solvent
abuse or consumption e.g. Alcohol, drugs etc. Suicide and disorders as well
as flashing images and strobe lighting.

– Fairness, Contributors and Consent, This Guideline topic ensures that all
BBC producers are Fair to the Public, Audience and even fair to those that
the content is about. This means that this topic covers features such as
contributors and informed consent, Anonymity, Deception, Intimidation and
Humiliation, the portrayal of real people in Drama, Safety and Welfare of
contributors.

– Privacy, The BBC likes to ensure that peoples Privacy is respected and will
not disclose information unless they have good reason to. This heading
covers topics such as Secret recording, Privacy and Consent,
CCTV, Reporting Death and Suffering and also whilst dealing with personal
information.

– Reporting crime and Anti Social Behavior, It is part of the BBC’s guidelines
that they must report on crime and behaviour, however they must also
ensure that they do not strike fear into their audience in worry that they too
might be a victim of crime. This means that they must cover topics such as
Reporting Crime, Dealing with criminals and Perpetrators as well as dealing
with victims of crime and anti-Social behaviour and finally the investigations
into crime and anti-social Behavior.

– Children and Young People as Contributors, Children and Young people are
vitally important to the BBC because they feel it is their role to help educate
them with a wide range of suitable content. They are also important
contributors, actors etc. This means that this section covers a few various
topics regarding young people. These topics are Safeguarding the welfare of
under 18s, Informed consent for children and young people, the impact of a
contribution.

– Politics, Public policy and Polls, When the BBC display politics they must
ensure that they do not stand favour to certain Political groups. They must
give a fair display of all the participating political parties. This means that
within this section they must cover topics such as Reporting UK political
parties, Political interviews, Parliamentary broadcasting, Elections etc.

– War, Terror and Emergencies, The BBC have a responsibility when

reporting War and Terror, they must ensure that they provide context with a
wide range of views and opinions. However, they must also ensure that they
do not distribute undue distress or harm. This then must cover the following
topics, accuracy and impartiality, identifying victims, demonstrations,
disturbances and riots. Staged events, Threats and Hoaxes, hijacking,
hostage-taking, national security concerns as well ask high-risk events and
activities.

– Religion, The BBC must ensure that they respect peoples views, freedom
to worship, practices and teachings. This is due to the fact that any wrong
displays of religion can arouse strong views and emotions. They must ensure
that they do not cause undue offence without reason too.

These are just a few of the sections and topics covered in the BBC editorial
Guidelines that all BBC Producers must follow.

Obscene Publications Act 1959:

The Obscene Publications act of 1959 was a Law that was introduced in 1959
to help prevent people publishing Material and content that was deemed
Obscene such as Pornography. This law helped Change and reform the
existing Laws which then enable police the warrant to seize such
inappropriate and unlawful content. This Law warranted the Prosecution of
Penguin Books due to there publication of their Book ‘Lady Chatterley’s
Lover’ which featured frequent Sexual Scenes as well as the Use of Obscene
Language such as ‘F**k’ and ‘C**t’. This act was later amended by the
Obscene Publications act of 1964.

Copyright and Intellectual Property Laws:

Copyright and Intellectual property Laws basically help protect your creative
property from being stolen or redistributed as someone else’s work. This can
law can include trademarked, copyrighted or even Patented pieces of work.
Copyrighted items would include creative property such as art, video etc.
However, the protection of trademarked property means that people cannot
steal items such as Logos, Slogans, Brand Names etc. Creative property may
be distributed and allowed use by certain people depending on the authors
permission. E.g. An artist may allow someone to display their work in order
to gain publicity and support. This will often work similar to a mutualistic
relationship where in which both parties will benefit from the exchange.

REVISION QUESTIONS

Discuss the legal issues in media convergence.

Explain copyright infringement as an ethical issue in the media convergence.

Why is copyright infringement common in converged media than other

mediums?

LINK TOFURTHER STUDY

https://ethicaljournalismnetwork.org/who-we-are/5-principles-of-journalism

QUESTION FROM A PAST PAPER

Explain five advantages of using interactivity to generate content for

converged media .

COURSE: DIPLOMA IN JOURNALISM

UNIT: MEDIA AND SOCIETY

LECTURER: .
 

SESSION 10

TOPIC: REGULATION OF CONVERGED MEDIA

By the end of the topic, the trainee should be able to discuss the regulation
of converged media.

Importance of regulations in converged environment

As such, regulatory reform must include measures aimed at:

1)      Creating independent entities to oversee the introduction of

competition in the market and establish regulatory mechanisms for issues
such as interconnection, licensing, and tariff rebalancing,

2)      Preparing the incumbent operator to face competition, including

timetables setting deadlines for the termination of market exclusivities,

3)      Allocating and managing scarce resources such as numbers and

spectrum resources in a non-discriminatory way within the liberalized
market,

4)      Expanding and enhancing access to telecommunications and ICT

networks and services, and

5)      Promoting and protecting consumer interests, including universal

service and privacy.

 · reflect national conditions and goals

Countries have different socio-economic, geographic, and political

circumstances. In addition, their level of infrastructure development can
vary widely. As a result, solutions to reach national goals that were effective
in one country may not translate to another and must be tailored. Therefore,
imposing ex ante regulation will require a fact-based assessment of a
country’s the market conditions and entails the collection, review and
analysis of detailed information in order to attempt to accurately predict
future behaviour and outcomes. Ex ante regulation should be targeted to
address the specific problem(s) detected. A clear and accurate demarcation
of the circumstances where market forces will not deliver desirable outcomes
will be key to implementing targeted ex ante regulation in the coming
decade.

  attempt to resolve market failure at the wholesale level

In liberalized ICT markets, any regulation should be primarily focused on

wholesale services and facilities. Where a regulator identifies competitive
concerns at the retail level, narrowly-tailored regulation of wholesale inputs
identified as bottlenecks is generally preferred, allowing other links in the
value chain of end-to-end services to be more responsive to the competitive
process. This approach ensures that competitive concerns at the retail level
are adequately addressed while also limiting ex ante regulation to those
areas where the benefits to consumers cannot be achieved using ex
post regulation.

 · To periodically review and phased-out matters when warranted

The dynamic nature of ICTs requires regulators to monitor and periodically

reassess competitive conditions in the marketplace. Technological changes
can quickly impact the ICT market, displacing the rationale for regulation or
shifting its focus towards other links in the ICT value chain. Periodic
monitoring requires regulators to devote significant time and resources to
reviewing and revising targeted ex ante regulation since static regulation
may stifle innovation and investment. Given their resources, when
adopting ex ante regulation, regulators should strike the right balance
between safeguarding the interests of consumers and promoting long-term
development of the sector. Although ex ante regulation may be necessary in
the short term, the goal is to reduce ex ante rules as competition develops
and, ultimately, for ICT services to be disciplined primarily by competition
law.

Increased Investment

Liberalization in the telecommunications sector has been greatly encouraged

by World Trade Organization (WTO) commitments and obligations,
particularly the WTO Reference Paper on regulatory principles.* Early
evidence of the impact of liberalization under the WTO's Basic
Telecommunication Agreement (BTA) in low income Sub-Saharan African
countries shows that growth in telecommunications revenues as a
percentage of GDP is higher in countries that have made 

Economic Growth and Consumer Benefits

Developing economies in Asia have made significant strides towards pro-

competitive regulation and in return have achieved considerable progress in
bridging the digital divide. One such country is India, where the Telecom
Regulatory Authority of India (TRAI) has made a comprehensive reform of
the regulatory framework to promote technological 

Growth of New Services

In order to promote the growth of new products and services, a flexible

regulatory framework capable of adapting to the rapid pace of technological
developments is needed. As such, the implementation of a unified licensing
or general authorization regime helps to stimulate the growth of new and
innovative services by allowing licensed operators to offer a broad range of
services under a single authorization. In some instances, however, it may be
unclear how current regulations and licensing rules apply to new services,
particularly those involving converged technologies

MEDIA REGULATION ON A CONVERGED ENVIRONMENT

Media policy has been central to the development of the media in all its
forms. Government policy institutions regulate the ownership, production
and distribution of the media, and seek to manage and shape some cultural
practices in order to direct the media institutions towards particular policy
goals. The freedom of communication has been constrained by general civil
and criminal law, as well as by the laws and regulations specific to the
media. The legal elements that are not specific to the media, but which have
an impact upon its operations, include the law of defamation, copyright,
contempt etc. Media organizations are also subject to a series of technical,
marketplace and conduct regulations on the elements of ownership or
content and performance, both as general forms of industry regulations, and
regulations that are specific to the media, by virtue of their unique role as an
instrument of public communication. Specifically, broadcast media have been
subject to an extensive mix of government regulations. The rationales for
media regulation have included:

 The ability use media for citizen-information and for the development
of national and cultural identity.
 The implied rights of public participation and involvement associated
with the media as forms of public communication.
 Concerns about media impact on children.
 The public good elements of media commodity including non-rival and
non-excludable elements of access and consumption.

Regulation in the media field in the original sense refers to an arbitrary

process under the rule of the state, usually concentrated in a (more or less)
independent regulatory body. This body makes decisions in situations where
there are conflicting interests. The term “regulation” is already mentioned in
the US Constitution, going back to the late

DISCUSSION QUESTION

Discuss the importance of media regulation in a converged environment.

Outline some of the issues that have made it difficult for regulators to
regulate the converged media.

Discuss the aims of media regulatory bodies.

QUESTION FROM A PAST PAPER

https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/f6ae/
dfbdeaebd32bb1e0ad8a56550b1cdc6ca85f.pdf

QUESTION FROM A PAST PAPER

https://rm.coe.int/1680783be8

COURSE: DIPLOMA IN JOURNALISM

UNIT: MEDIA CONVERGENCE AND JOURNALISM

LECTURER: MR. .

SESSION 11

TOPIC: CONVERGENCE OF MEDIA OPERATION

OBJECTIVE

By the end of the session, the trainee should be able to discuss the impact of
media convergence on media operations.

Effects of media convergences on content production

It’s so big, so great of a transformation that the word “change” doesn’t even
begin to cover it. Over the past few decades, the media hasn’t changed, it
hasn’t altered, it hasn’t evolved. Rather, it has completely converged. The
news that used to be printed in newspapers and magazines are now viewed
online. The music that was once in the form of a CD can now be downloaded
in an mp3 format anywhere the consumer wishes, whenever the consumer
wants. The letters and mail that used to come in the mailbox can now be
communicated in an email, on social media like Facebook, or via text. With
the help of smartphones, computers, tablets and more, the concept of digital
media convergence has launched farther and faster than the media could
have predicted.

We now live in a world:

 where instead of purchasing a newspaper, people in search of news

can find it online equipped with videos and other media
 where in 2013, one-third of new US marriages started online
  where a person’s cell phone can act as a phone, an mp3 player, a web
surfer, a news source and more.

Digital media convergence has changed the game plan for journalists and
reporters, advertisers and broadcasters. Whether the change is for the good
or the bad is up to the consumer, because the consumers are the ones who
are affected the most.

Digital media convergence enables news to be delivered quickly to the

public. With the help of social networking sites, the public can interact with
the media in a much more efficient way. Still, media convergence may stifle
the quality of the content and allow for a possible media monopoly when a
select few media companies control most of the media. Many
communications specialists believe that it is the content that matters, not
the channel.

Due to media convergence, the media industry is faced with manifold

challenges due to the fleet technological shift. Thus, the media industry is
compelled to be able to accommodate the said development; otherwise they
will certainly be left behind. In response to this phenomenon, media
businesspeople make a change to their business model by applying
convergence business model. In the broadcasting industries, the
convergence applied by these media businesspeople has allowed the
provision of broadcasting content in the digital format or mobile applications
such as e-paper and online streaming. In other words, convergence also
provides the consumers with an opportunity to create and distribute content.

Metro TV has a big organizational structure, which reduced the efficiency of

its management. The readiness of Metro TV, MI, and MetroTVnews.com to
head towards media convergence is evident in some ways, including the fact
that the technological infrastructure provided is sufficient and human
resources are available. However, to date, the transformation towards
convergence has not maximum and completely comprehensive. In the near
future in 2018, work systems in the newsroom are applied thoroughly using
multiple platforms that provide a synergy to spur information delivery to the
community.

Information technology is developing apace and has a significant effect on

the media industry. The digital era is a new era for the media industry, in
which they should improve themselves and follow new media trends, and
subsequently adapt their business models into convergence model. For this
very reason, Media Group with its three multiplatform media (Media
Indonesia, Medkom, and Metro TV) had long applied convergence system.
Given the complexity of convergence, mass multimedia convergence, which
is a simplified output-oriented editorial system, can be used by the three
multiplatform media synergized in the super desk newsroom. With the
integration of newsroom and convergence business, the performance can be
increased. This is aimed to answer the challenges posed in the intensifying
mass media industry competition, in which all businesses have been
conducted electrically, which urges media to convert its platform into digital
form.

Given the business competition, a converged business model must be

backed up with management. Otherwise failure in running this system may
occur. Therefore, the owner should be firm as convergence will improve the
efficiency of the organization’s organizational structure. Although this system
needs new investment in technology, this should be done consistent with the
pattern of the audience who use mobile devices in the digital era. Creativity
in news presentation and program as well as interesting shows are
imperative in order to attract the digital generation to watch news report.
Given that the millennial heavily rely on smartphones to do their daily
activities, it is advice able that media businesspeople present news programs
on YouTube or social media, which will increase viewership and number of
followers.

Media Group that owns a media business applies convergence not only for
maintaining its business presence but also for gaining profits in the midst of
sluggish media business that is stagnant and even receding at the moment.
Media businesspeople have applied the convergence system in their
respective business unit to maintain their business and gain profits.
Convergence as a business model can suppress operational costs while the
company’s revenue tends to remain stagnant and even decline. Not only
does it improve the expense efficiency, convergence can also create slimmer
management functional structure. Thus, operational cost can be diverted to
technological improvement and benefit payment as a form of appreciation
for journalists who have multitasked.

Multitasking that is performed to meet the need for information on multiple

platforms in the era of media convergence is absolute and unavoidable for
media workers. For media companies, however, multitasking invites profits
as it enables journalists to supply information for various platforms more
optimally. Convergence allows journalists to work on a number of platforms,
and given the cost efficiency, it becomes important. In the perspective of the
journalists, this is considered as important as it increases their income
through the incentives they receive as an extra benefit for their multiple
skills.
To meet the need for information on different platforms, there is no choice
for the media industry along with their journalists other than making some
changes in the working methods. These changes may include improving the
accuracy and depth of the writing, improving the picture tacking skills
(photographs and videos), improving picture transfer speed, and improving
the news producing ability. These changes make up professional demand for
modern, digital journalists. In this era of convergence, media may work on
different platforms. The news written by journalists now are not only posted
on one media but also posted on some media of different platforms.
Multitasking is a challenge for backpack journalists that require journalists’
ability to not only straight but also analyse analytic data from solid and
reliable sources and produce news.

On the other side, in terms of storage data of paramount events, now

practically all television broadcast media use their technologies to store their
file in big data archive. The big data owned by Media Group (Media
Indonesia, Metro TV, and website Metrotvnews-medkom) are very useful for
company documentation and can be utilized. The big data integrated from
three multiplatforms are very useful for documentation and can be utilized
by the company as the data in the form of visual data, text, and
photographs can improve the news and add weight to the news reporting.
Big data is a critical asset for Media Group because after convergence, all
documents will be integrated. This will make it easier to use, and even to
monetize, the data. Big data can be an asset to do fast and comprehensive
convergence. Analytic data and gadget technologies supported with the best
network connection are instrumental for collating data, starting from the
field data, more easily and enabling readers to obtain information completely
and quickly. Morally, media are also responsible for the power of
intellectuality development of an event.

Ever since applying media convergence, Media Group has been optimistic in
the media industry competition for profits. Convergence business model can
be implemented with the commitment from all lines of the company. The
results of the research according to the data obtained from the informants,
to respond to new media development,

(1) The work mechanism in the newsroom should use convergence system,

(2) Training should be provided to improve the competence of journalists

and prepare them to be modern journalists,

(3) Journalists’ difficulties should be overcome with the implementation of

the convergence system in the newsroom.
Work Mechanism in the Converged Newsroom

Media convergence can be applied with the company’s commitment,

adaptation of integrated systems in the newsroom, preparation of human
resources for multitasking, and preparation of sufficient infrastructure.
Preparation should also be carried out for the technological system, human
resources, management system, work pattern, and key performance
indicators to measure the journalists’ development in terms of skills,
knowledge, and behaviours. This will definitely require support from different
parties involved, including:

(1) IT and support department,

(2) Research and data department.

(3) Journalists,

(4) Editing department,

(5) Program/content department,

(6) News portals, and

(7) Training centre (human resource capital).

The work mechanism in the converged newsroom at Media Group that has
three platforms consists of some main priorities. Metro TV has provided a
super desk newsroom to integrate its internal work processes. The
integration of three platforms is intended to increase cost efficiency and to
prepare human resources to multitask to answer challenges for the mass
media industry in the digital era through business convergence model.

The work mechanism of the converged newsroom at Media Group that has
three multiplatform media consists of three main priorities. Metro TV has
prepared a super desk newsroom to integrate media internal processes. The
integration of three multiplatform media is intended to improve cost
efficiency and prepare human resources to multitask to answer the
challenges for the mass media industry in the digital era through
convergence business model. The work methods of convergence journalists
through a continuous process are supported by robust super desk, which will
handle those left out by the journalists. With regard to the convergence
system having been applied as an effort to develop its business
management, Media Group has implemented a work mechanism with the
integration concept.
In the convergence pattern, a journalist will deliver his or her work in the
audio, visual, and narrative form to a producer/editor. Afterwards, the
producer/editor will distribute the news materials to some platforms
according to the formats and platform need (TV, online, and print).

For the implementation using super desk newsroom model, Media Group has
provided the following:

• Integrated editing room;

• Content for various channels by integrating complete news flow for both
print and digital versions since the planning stage to the production stage;

• No particular person in charge of channels in the coordinating mechanism;

• Responsibility for newsgathering for print and digital media that is borne
by the head of section;

• In the convergence system in newsroom, there is no term such as ‘we’ or

‘they’ between different channels and no conflict between individuals or
groups related to the media where the news is to be published;

• The news owner decides on which aspect of a story is to be given and

delivered by selecting a particular format;

• The room consists of a ‘news hub’ and in the middle, there are some
spokes connected to the centre;

• There are integration of journalist roles, responsibility assignment, and

integration of work flow and shared content use;

• The central theme in the editing room that applies convergence is the
application of the available shared resources;

• All journalists in an newsroom who work for a newspaper, television, or

online media can share resources consisting of human resources, equipment
and ideas (information);

• The use of resources from different platforms can be assisted with a

database that staff members in need can access for the purpose of
publication;

• The information and data collected by journalists are stored in a database

called Budget Bank; and
• Physical arrangement of the newsroom

DISCUSS

Discuss the impact of media convergence of the work of a reporter.

Outline how media convergence has affected the production of newspapers.

LINK FOR FURTHER STUDY

https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/our-research/how-newsrooms-use-
user-generated-content

COURSE: DIPLOMA IN JOURNALISM

UNIT: MEDIA CONVERGENCE.

LECTURER: MR. .

SESSION 12

TOPIC: CONVERGENCE ON MEDIA OPERATIONS.

OBJECTIVES:

By the end of the session, the trainee should be able to:

 Discuss the effects of media convergence on media operations.

 Explain the benefits of media and multi-media convergence.
 Discuss the challenges resulting from media convergence.

EFFECTS OF MEDIA CONVERGENCE ON CONTENT DISSEMINATION

Convergent solutions are continually evolving, of course, but currently they
involve both fixed-line and mobile technologies. Companies deploy any
number of the following types of delivery, some of which the consumer can
opt-in or out of, and some are included as part of a fixed subscription. In
addition to integrated bundles and products, here are some convergence
services:

 Using the Internet for voice and video telephony

 Video on demand
 Mobile-to-mobile convergence
 Location-based services
 Fixed-mobile convergence

Convergent technologies can also combine the fixed-line with mobile

solutions to deliver convergent offerings using IP multimedia subsystem,
session initiation protocol, IPTV, voice call continuity, voice over IP (VoIP),
and broadcasting digital video from a handheld device.

BENEFITS OF MEDIA AND MULTI-MEDIA CONVERGENCE

 As media types and streams converge and supplement each other, there
are myriad benefits to the consumer and the producers. Media professionals
can use a variety of media to tell their stories and present compelling
information. While converged communication allows consumers to choose
how much they want to interact with the story and self-direct content
delivery. It also allows for better consumer service, as consumers push for
more “a la carte” types of bundles of information tailored to their specific
interests and technological needs and desires.

For media companies, there is no question this landscape provides even

more ways to boost the bottom line, and to reach consumers previously not
reachable. Media convergence also increases the visibility of each
organization to the public, a form of native advertising and raising
awareness and consumer loyalty. Collaborating, media experts say, should
ultimately result in more credibility for all companies involved.

In addition, old barriers of time and space are practically eliminated. You can
view, hear, or read virtually anything, anywhere, anytime. The electronic
transmission of data, which can be exponential, replaces the more singular,
physical transportation of material from point of creation to point of
consumption.

Technological convergence has also lowered the barriers to entry for media
production. Digitization allows consumers of media content to become
producers and distributors of media content as well, whether they are
hobbyists frequenting social media sites or professionals (designers,
filmmakers, musicians, writers, etc.) seeking to establish themselves; there
are thousands of YouTube starts and sensations who built their own
distribution channels.

Convergence saves consumers a lot of time and headaches: they no longer

need to worry about being home at a certain time on a certain day to catch
a favorite show, and it also simplifies their lives. With a little planning and
programming, consumers can arrange to have all their favorite content to be
consumed whenever is most convenient.

This dynamic trend has forced old-school media outlets to adapt or die. Print
newspapers and magazines have felt this dramatically—and yet there are
success stories. The New York Times’ website has deployed new ways of
telling stories and engaging readers, and its subscription rates are up more
than 23 percent in 2017. Entertainment Weekly and People, two of Time
Warner’s most successful print magazines, have had big successes online
(The Entertainment Weekly Must List iPad app, one of the first of its kind, in
2011) and on television. Jess Cagle, who oversees both brands, has been a
leading force in adapting the media to connect with the consumers who want
it. He says, the idea is to interact, collaborate and share information with
readers/consumers in as many ways as possible, and engaging it from a
passive audience to an engaged and active one.

Interestingly, the trend hasn’t always been from print to digital; when
Meredith Corp. bought Allrecipes.com, a recipe website comprised of user-
generated digital content, its first major initiative was to create print All
recipes magazine. By early 2017, the magazine had become a significant
revenue generator for the company.

CHALLENGES RESULTING FROM MEDIA CONVERGENCE

 Technically the companies face challenges. Traditional cable offers a

highly reliable quality, while digital content still faces issues such as
buffering, pixelated video, poor audio and visual synchronization, due
to a range of issues like varying device capabilities, and service and
network conditions. A company may fulfill its promise of delivering
high quality content on one channel but not on another.
 Security can also become an issue. Consumers who have a sub-par
experience viewing media may seek different content options or use
pirated sources.
  For content providers to reach their subscribers, content providers risk
cannibalizing revenues from traditional or legacy media delivery
options.
 Not everyone has ready and affordable access to digital media, or the
skills to employ them, creating a digital divide between information
haves and have-nots in a society where connectivity to computer
networks (and the literacy required to navigate them) is increasingly
important.
 The free circulation of media content has also posed a serious threat to
the economic viability of traditional media industries, such as book and
newspaper publishing
 The availability of free content can present itself as “just as good as”
thoroughly reported journalism, diluting the value of a well-reported
piece.
 Converged devices aren’t as reliable and often have limited
functionality. For example, the rendering of certain web pages on a
mobile browser might not work correctly due to a myriad of issues that
can make the two incompatible.
 As the number of functions in a single device escalates, the ability of
that device to serve its original function decreases.
 Consolidated media have the potential to be “used as both a weapon
of social control and a means of resistance.”

REVISION QUESTIONS

Discuss five effects of media convergence of dissemination.

Outline the challenges posed by media convergence on the dissemination of

newspapers.

Discuss the challenges associated with media convergence.

LINK FOR FURTHER STUDY

https://mediachange.ch/media/pdf/publications/
Latzer2013_Convergence.pdf

QUESTION FROM A PAST PAPER

Explain five ways in which user generated content uploaded online affects
professional journalism.

COURSE: DIPLOMA IN JOURNALISM

UNIT: MEDIA CONVERGENCE AND JOURNALISM

LECTURER: MR. .

SESSION: 13

TOPIC: CONVERGENCE ON MEDIA OPERATIONS

OBJECTIVE

By the end of the session, the trainee should be able to:

 Discuss the internet’s impact on journalistic quality.

 Explain Convergence Effects, Professionalism and Journalism Work

THE INTERNET’S IMPACT ON JOURNALISTIC QUALITY

The journalistic quality of media products is constantly in the focus of

discussions about the media business. Especially from a democracy point of
view, the decline of newspapers as a source of high quality journalism and
the inclusion of conflicting opinions is bemoaned.

 Newspapers lose readers and even more intensely advertising revenues to

other media outlets. In the United States, for instance, revenues from
newspaper advertising have dropped from $47.4 billion in 2005 to $22.8
billion in 2010, a decrease of 51.9 % (NAA, 2011). Similarly, advertising
revenues in Germany decreased by 18 %, from 4.5 billion euros to 3.69
billion euros, in the same period (BDZV, 2010; BDZV, 2005).

 As a consequence, many newspapers and magazines feel the pressure to

follow readers and advertisers onto the Internet. Unfortunately, generating
revenues besides advertising remains difficult online. And even online
advertising revenues per pair of eyeballs do not yet compare to offline rates.

Against the background of relatively high journalistic standards in

newspapers, the shifting of readers and advertisers onto the Internet raises
a rather important question concerning the integrity of the democratic
system. What is going to happen to journalistic quality and the variety of
opinions in mass media when publishers shift their business activities online?

 To answer this question, this paper focuses on economic incentives for
producers of journalistic content and on the question of how likely it is—from
an economic point of view—that providers of journalistic content will offer
(sufficiently) high quality online and provide room for competition of
opinions.

In this paper, journalistic quality is defined according to McQuail’s concept of

media performance (McQuail, 1992). This definition is based on three core
values in Western democracies that mass media is supposed to serve:
freedom, equality, and order. The most important functions of mass media
that can be derived from this definition are the procurement of information,
participation in public opinion making, control and criticism, education and
entertainment.

An important distinction from the definition of quality that is usually

employed in the Industrial Organization and management literature is that
journalistic quality plays a crucial role in society that goes beyond the pure
satisfaction of consumer needs. Usually, product quality in economics is
defined as the capability to satisfy consumer needs, i.e. quality is attached
to what consumers want, and therefore an increase in quality must lead to
greater demand.

Non-excludability in Media Markets In general, recipients who are not willing

to pay can be excluded from consumption in all media markets.2 This is
certainly the case in most print markets, where this excludability is obviously
practiced via copy prices. While, admittedly, excludability is not perfect, for
example because it is possible to pass along a newspaper to others (who
would then most of the time benefit without compensating the supplier),
newspapers possess a rather high degree of excludability. When it comes to
broadcasting and online markets, this is less obvious, because there is often
no observable price. Except for pay-TV, in most countries no direct prices
are charged by most television channels. This also holds true for the online
market, in which the vast majority of content is available for free.
 

Convergence Effects, Professionalism and Journalism Work

Regardless of the type and speed of convergence implemented in news

organizations, convergence operating on multiple levels is reshaping the
landscape of journalism in a variety of ways. “Newsroom structures,
journalistic practices and news content are all evolving” (Pavlik, 2004: 28).
Convergence processes and goals generate ‘convergence effects’ impacting
on media labor, newsroom structure, professional values and norms, form
and diversity of content produced (Domingo et al., 2007; Dupagne &
Garrison, 2006; Klinenberg, 2005; Quandt & Singer, 2009). Undoubtedly the
converged model raises serious implications on how journalism is done,
hence a major question to be raised is: Has convergence enriched journalism
or has it impoverished journalism? This is a multidimensional question.

In economic terms, convergence fosters cost-effective production by sharing

information and resources and by coordinating the distribution of content
(Mico et al., 2013). It facilitates synergistic revenue models and new
advertising opportunities (Klinenberg, 2005), caters for effective targeting
(Domingo et al., 2007) and facilitates branding strategies designed to build
loyalty and increase website traffic (Vujnovic et al., 2010). Content wise,
convergence emphasizes immediacy (Domingo, 2008), content-sharing
(Paulussen, 2012) and leads to the ‘continuously updated news story’ as
opposed to the idea of news as a finished product (Saltzis, 2012). At the
same time, convergence dynamics reinforce mimicry among news outlets
(Boczkowski, 2009), and induce ‘copy-paste journalism’ as journalists are
increasingly forced to rely uncritically on wire material and engage in
minimal fact-gathering (Davies, 2008), while stressing information provision
as opposed to analytical journalism which in turn focuses on sense-making,
contextual information, analysis, and interpretation (Singer, 2009a). Redden
and Witschge (2009) concluded that although there is an abundance of news
online, the content of mainstream news outlets is largely the same.

In professional terms, convergence is redefining well-rooted and long

established notions of who is a journalist, what exactly does he do and what
is his social role. Discussing the changing context of journalism work, O¨
rnebring (2009) argues that two major trends are developing. First, the
deregulation of labour markets and the rise of new forms of employment
favouring flexible working conditions. Deuze and Marjoribanks (2009)
describe eloquently the emerging working landscape for journalists. “Mass
layoffs, off-shoring and outsourcing, and elimination of open positions are
now standard managerial practice” (p. 555). The rise of casual employment
and atypical media work signals labor relations that are often temporary and
always contingent, non-committal (on both sides), generally without
contractual or otherwise stipulated responsibilities (or accountability) for
either employee or employer beyond the (informally agreed upon) deadline
of the project, story, or item at hand (Deuze 2007 in Deuze & Marjoribanks,
2009)

Second, the technologisation of the workplace creates a need for new

journalistic skills and competencies, while rendering large parts of the
workforce deskilled. Lee-Wright (2010) posits that the current emphasis on
new media is the apotheosis of the techie ascendancy. Looking at the BBC as
an example, it is argued that “during times of confidence and expansion, the
BBC invests in programmes and people; at other times it favours the
hardware that cannot argue back” (p. 76). In a historical view of journalistic
labor, technology has been used by owners and managers to increase
control of the news production process and make journalistic labor cheaper.

Beyond labor conditions and multiskilling, a third major implication of

convergence is associated with issues of professional role and authority.
Anderson (2008) defines journalistic authority as “the power possessed by
journalists and journalistic organizations that allows them to present their
interpretations of reality as accurate, truthful and of political importance” (p.
250). Work routines and news values have traditionally been used to
legitimize journalism’s output and distinguish it from other sources of media
work (Karlsson, 2011), while normative claims to gatekeeping and
objectivity have functioned as the cornerstones of authority and autonomy
(Singer, 2009b). But web 2.0 technologies, citizen journalism and
participatory models of journalism connote serious changes and control
shifts in all stages of news production. Thus journalism’s professionalism and
identity—commonly used as a form of occupational control—are seriously
disrupted.

Finally, a fourth result of convergence is associated with multitasking and

work overload. Amid shrinking staffs and fewer resources, “journalists find
their jobs expanding and their routines vastly altered” (Gade & Lowrey,
2011: 31). The 24/7 news cycle, the reduction of personnel (Franklin, 2012)
and extra duties stemming from multimedia and multiplatform delivery call
for multitasking and increasingly more work to be done. As mentioned
earlier, convergence connotes a social and conversational approach to
journalism (Bradshaw, 2012a; Currah, 2009) as well as a new paradigm
articulated in the never ending story (Saltzis, 2012). In that respect,
journalists are expected to optimize the social diffusion and curation of news
in an attempt to maximize traffic, brand loyalty and community-building
(Vujnovic et al., 2010), while following and updating news on a constant
basis. Furthermore, participatory journalism initiatives are spreading. The
benefits deriving from user participation—namely alternative views, novel
content and exchange of views following a habermasiam approach, are not
to be contested. On the other hand, participatory journalistic models are
time-consuming, requiring constant engagement of the professionals, so
that the content submitted is both moderated (eg. in the case of comments)
and verified (eg. in the case of photos or information received).

Challenges faced when creating UGC

Dealing with user-generated content comes with some challenges, here’s a

few of them:

Moderation of content

This is known to be one of the most leading challenges faced when using
UGC online. Organizations that seek to promote their products and services
give their customers permission to upload content on the company’s
website. The posted content might not be screened and this can lead to
uploads that might tarnish the brand.

Websites receive offensive and inappropriate content that is damaging to the

brand. Customers have the freedom to express their personal opinion and
upload the contents of their choice. Online discussions sometimes turn ugly.

Legal matters

User-generated content is mostly owned by the individual who uploads it

online. It is therefore essential that one understands the legal aspect
associated with UGC. As a brand, you will need the permission of the user if
you want to post their content on the company’s website and social media
platforms. As a business, you are required to make available direct
acknowledgment clearly indicating the original owner of the content. Many
businesses will use a platform to find content creators beforehand to work
out the ground rules and expectations in such cases.

Fake users
UGC campaigns provide a certain level of control to customers.
Unfortunately, fake user accounts usually find a way of sneaking through
online platforms. This, in turn, creates a great risk of receiving false
information from untrustworthy sources. This lowers the authenticity of your
products as other customers doubt the validity of those uploading content.

A great way to handle this is by sending invites only to those who are found
in the company’s database and email list. You can also provide badges to the
users so that you can differentiate the real users from the fake ones. Popular
websites have adopted this mode of verification by approving badges.

Needs marketing support

Business owners need to understand that in order for them to receive high-
quality ads that are authentic, they may receive a large amount of content
of poor quality. Marketers, however, hope that users will be able to upload
content that is original and very useful to the company. This means that you
have to review all the submissions made to the website. Marketing support
is also required to boost the campaign through advertising and creating
exciting tasks for users.

Ethical issues

Ethics is another key issue to consider when discussing the challenges of

UGC. Unethical behavior can be a huge blow to a brand and might lead to
loss of customers. Internet-related issues can be as a result of privacy
issues. Other ethical challenges include: unreported endorsements where a
given organization endorses a customer to give information about the brand
without disclosing the information to relevant people is unethical.

In conclusion

UGC has come a long way in content marketing. It has been used continually
by well-established brands to promote goods and services. The challenges
faced by UGC campaigns can be fixed using appropriate methodologies. The
benefits of using this campaign strategy far outweigh the number of
challenges faced. Marketers continue to come up with ways of making UGC
work best for different organization types for the benefit of both the user
and brand.

 
QUESTION FROM A PAST PAPER.

What is UGC.

What are the advantages of UGCs in content creation?

Outline the challenges when creating UGC.

RESEARCH LINK

https://reutersinstitute.politics.ox.ac.uk/our-research/how-newsrooms-use-
user-generated-content’

REVISION QUESTIONS

a)      Discuss the impact of the internet on journalism.

b)      Outline the challenges posed by the internet to journalism.

c)      Discuss five qualities of a digital journalist.

COURSE: DIPLOMA IN JOURNALISM

UNIT: MEDIA CONVERGENCE AND JOURNALISM

LECTURER: MR. .

SESSION 14
TOPIC: MEDIA CONVERGENCE ON MEDIA OPERATIONS

OBJECTIVE:

By the end of the session, the trainee should be able to:

 Discuss the impact of convergence on journalism skills.

 Explain journalism and ICT skills.
 Discuss the soft skills and hard skills for a multimedia journalist.

Convergence and Journalism Skills

Emily Bell (2007), formerly the director of digital content for Guardian News
and Media and currently the director of the Tow Center for Digital Journalism
at Columbia University’s Graduate School of Journalism, is blatantly clear.
“The truth, of course, is that an excellent journalist, using the best
technology, is still a fantastic and powerful combination for providing the
world with the best information. But even in the most expensive, challenging
and complex areas of journalism, such as war reporting and investigative
journalism, the creative technologist will have a far more inspiring role than
previously” (p. 103). As multitasking and multiskilling are becoming the new
buzzwords of the trade under convergence, a major issue to be raised
relates to the set of skills and type of training required by journalism
professionals. The following section attempts to highlight the emerging set of
skills needed in conditions of convergence.

Journalism and ICT Skills

Information gathering in order to build news items can be defined as a

structured process that extends for a certain time period (Reich, 2006). The
news process consists of two fundamental stages: news discovery and news
reporting (McManus, 1994). Reich (2006) suggests that the news discovery
stage is preceded by another one, namely information gathering. During the
gathering stage journalists obtain further data from various sources and
crosscheck information. Today in all stages of news-production journalists
employ ICT tools. These tools may include software applications as well as
internet tools and services. In simple terms, the news production process
includes five stages: Information Acquisition, Information Validation,
Information Processing, Information Presentation and Dissemination and
Information.

ICT skills basic skills web publishing skills web 2.0 skills webcasng skills
(Tradional) journalisc skills (so skills) accountability efficiency originality
charisma New Journalisc Skills (Hard skills) experse and specializaon
familiarity with mulple forms and stages of story telling - project managment
capacies

ICT SKILLS TRADITIONAL NEW JOURNALISTIC

JOURNALISTIC SKILLS SKILLS (HARD SKILLS)
(SOFT SKILLS)
Web publishing skills Accountability Expertise and
specialization
Basic skills Efficiency Familiriaty with
multiple forms and
stages of story telling
Web 2.0 skills Originality
Web casting skills Charisma Project management
capacities

Soft and Hard Skills

Apart from a series of ICTs related skills, journalists much also possess
traditional journalistic capacities associated with the production of good
stories. A recently released report on Post-Industrial Journalism (Anderson,
Bell, & Shirky, 2012) posits that journalists (should) possess four distinct
characteristics which add value to journalism; the latter perceived as an
efficient, reliable and knowledgeable source of information and analysis in
the new digital era.

(1)   Accountability. Professional accountability stems from the attempts of

media practitioners to establish and follow ethical and quality standards that
would render their work useful and viable for the society. Professional
accountability is intimately connected to principles and practices of self-
regulation (ethical guidelines, in-house ethical rules of conduct etc.). These,
in turn, are expected to inform individual journalists in their daily work and
foster public trust in what journalists do. This is actually in their self-interest
in order to maintain their autonomy and credibility.

(2)   Efficiency. Journalists can be much more efficient than machines and
citizen journalists at obtaining and disseminating certain types of information
(Compton & Benedetti, 2010). Access and ‘exclusivity’ or ‘ownership’ of a
story is created through personal contacts and efforts. Making phone calls to
the White House or the hospital, showing up at events and being receptive
to feedback, sharing views and expressing doubt, collaborating with sources
to get a story, all that makes news. These very personal and human
activities mark journalism as a form of information performance rather than
simply a process of disseminating facts

(3)   Originality. The origination of ideas, the formation of movements, and

turning innovations into practices all require originality of thought.
Journalists should be provoking change, initiating experimentation and
instigating activity. Cultural literacy skills distinguish reporters, editors,
designers and other journalists from other systems of data gathering and
dissemination

(4)   Charisma. In a networked world, the traditional notion of news

judgment associated with journalism professionals’ ability to recognize, find
and tell a story is further expanded to include conversational and marketing
skills. Adapting to this environment is a stretch for journalists who have
developed their skills in newsrooms where precision and security were the
key demands of the product, and where there was unity and clarity around a
small set of processes—talking, writing, editing. Under convergence
conditions, the ability to recognize, find and tell a story, in the most
appropriate format and for a specific audience, remains a constant
requirement, but the number of formats and variability of the audiences
have grown. Spotting good stories and telling them in the right way to the
right people via the right platform is ultimately crucial in a severely
competitive and multiplatform news environment

The ‘Super Journalist’ Paradigm Amid severe job insecurity caused by

systematic staff cuts and revenue shortage (Franklin, 2012), journalism
professionals are expected not only to enhance and adapt traditional
journalistic skills, such as writing, news judgment and networking to the
demands posed by convergence, but also to develop new skills, some of
which are really hard to possess (for instance, coding). At the same time,
while journalists are asked to work more, redefine news practices and even
share control of the news production process with amateur journalists, a
development which threatens occupational authority and identity, economic
incentives are rare for the majority of journalism professionals across the
globe.

From an organizational point of view, the reskilling of journalists is part of

the convergence process guided by multitasking, which is driven by
economic motives of cost-efficiency, greater productivity, competitiveness
and profit consolidation. Seen, however, through the lenses of occupational
professionalism articulated in terms of values, journalistic practices, job
performance and satisfaction, the idea of multitasking calling for the
reskilling of new professionals and the deskilling of midcareer ones having a
really hard time following the trends and changes, is causing serious
tensions within the journalism community. Huang et al. (2006) argued that
multimedia training is really important and feasible for new and midcareer
professionals. However, since 2006, skill demands are steadily increasing;
salaries are shrinking, while mergers and synergies are augmenting.
Unsurprisingly, recent research shows that difficulties and tensions emerge
as the industry moves towards the construction of the ‘super journalist’
paradigm.

REVISION QUESTIONS.

1. Discuss five soft skills that a journalist working for a converged media
should possess.
2. Outline the importance of ICT skills to multimedia journalist.
3. Mr.Kioi is a journalist working for M-Lens Media. His media house is
turning to convergence in the next three months, discuss what he
should do to remain relevant in the market.

LINK FOR FURTHER STUDY

http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?
doi=10.1.1.896.9394&rep=rep1&type=pdf

COURSE: DIPLOMA IN JOURNALISM

UNIT: MEDIA CONVERGENCE AND JOURNALISM

LECTURER: MR. .

SESSION 15

TOPIC: CONVERGENCE ON MEDIA OPERATIONS

OBJECTIVES

By the end of the session, the trainee should be able to:

 Discuss the meaning of interactivity in converged media.

 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of interactivity in
converged media.
 Discuss interactivity in TV.

INTERACTIVITY IN CONVERGED MEDIA

According to James Potter it is the integration of digital media including

combinations of electronic text, graphics, moving images and sound into a
structured digital computerized environment that allows people to interact
with data for appropriate purposes. In today’s society, computers and
interactive media products have become one of the most needed and
necessary products. Although, the computer has been one of human kind’s
best technological advancement, the flashy screens on high tech devices
have all taken control of many minds and has become the main exercise for
people today. According to James Potter, there are four forces that have
shaped the development of the interactive mass media and its content.
These forces are convergence, the importance of creative commo, the need
for social contact and networking, and the attraction of advertising support.

Convergence is the delivery of content via multiple media formats such as

print, television, radio, the Internet along with several portable and
interactive technologies. Media convergence allows many professionals to
tell stories, present information and entertainment to people all across the
world using a variety of media platforms. With converged media, it provides
a number of tools for story telling allowing consumers to select their own
level of interactivity while also being able to self-direct their contents
delivery. These days it seems that the most popular platform used to
converge media is the Internet.

Advantages of Internet include being able to receive information quicker,

increasing level of communication, networking and the spread of
information. Disadvantages would be  the negative influences is has (mainly
on children), the fact that it makes it difficult to sort out honest and
dishonest media content and the fact that older people aren’t able to
navigate the devices as good as the younger generation can today.

Interactive media is a method of communication in which the output from

the media comes from the input of the users. Interactive media works with
the user's participation. The media still has the same purpose but the user's
input adds interaction and brings interesting features to the system for
better enjoyment. Interactive media normally refers to products and services
on digital computer-based systems which respond to the user’s actions by
presenting content such as text, moving image, animation, video, audio, and
video games.

Advantages of interactive media

Effects on learning                   

Interactive media is helpful in the following four development dimensions in

which young children learn: social and emotional, language development,
cognitive and general knowledge, and approaches toward learning. Using
computers and educational computer software in a learning environment
helps children increase communication skills and their attitudes about
learning. Children who use educational computer software are often found
using more complex speech patterns and higher levels of verbal
communication. A study found that basic interactive books that simply read
a story aloud and highlighted words and phrases as they were spoken were
beneficial for children with lower reading abilities. Children have different
styles of learning, and interactive media helps children with visual, verbal,
auditory, and tactile learning styles.

Intuitive understanding

Interactive media makes technology more intuitive to use. Interactive

products such as smartphones, iPad's/iPod's, interactive whiteboards and
websites are all easy to use. The easy usage of these products encourages
consumers to experiment with their products rather than reading instruction
manuals.

Relationships

Interactive media promotes dialogic communication. This form of

communication allows senders and receivers to build long term trust and
cooperation. This plays a critical role in building relationships. Organizations
also use interactive media to go further than basic marketing and develop
more positive behavioral relationships.

Converging Multimedia Content Presentation Requirements for Interactive

Television

Discussion Media convergence may be perceived as phenomenon of the

Information Society evolutionary process. Manuel Castells recognizes that
“...the growing interaction between horizontal and vertical networks of
communication does not mean that the mainstream media are taking over
the new, autonomous forms of content generation and distribution. It means
that there is a process of convergence that gives birth to new media reality
whose contours and effects will ultimately be decided by political and
business struggles” (Castells, 2011). This process is particularly important
for interactive television, a domain influenced by technological advances,
techno-social interaction and social media that currently demonstrate rapid
convergence. One may historically identify the occurrence of these rapid
processes precede the establishment of new standards, a time where in
most cases opposing technologies try to gain a respectable market share
and be adopted by the users. Take for example the battle of formats
between the VHS vs. BETACAM and the more recent HD-DVD vs. the BLU-
RAY technologies. In the first case the capability of content duplication
offered by one of the systems and in the second case the extended
availability of a wide number of content titles for one of the standards,
forced the public to adopt the technologically less-advanced standard. User
choice based on the availability of replication mechanisms in one and
content in the other case is indicative of the convergence process that takes
place within the information society.

 
Whether interactive broadcasting systems will eventually catch-up with
society is a non-use non-adoption issue (Deliyannis, Antoniou, & Pandis,
2009) affected by the availability of other technologies, marketing,
technological infrastructure cultural factors and consumer behavior (de Mooij
& Hofstede, 2002). In order to research the factors of adoption or non-
adoption of technological developments, the evolution of television is in this
work addressed from the technological (Lugmayr, Niiranen, & Kalli, 2004;
Zheng, Fu, & Lugmayr, 2012), social and ethnographic perspectives (Tay &
Turner, 2009; Tsekleves, Whitham, Kondo, & Hill, 2009). Under this
standpoint it is easier to examine how users often combine communication
media and engage them constructively within their social context (Paradise,
2012). For example, in the case of television, evolution is influenced by a
number of interrelated technological, content and user factors. Today the
majority of networked mobile devices allow standard stream playback
facilities, covering the content access user demands. At the same time,
users capable to utilize the advance features of their mobile devices are able
create, process, enhance with metadata and stream/broadcast/share
audiovisual content on the WWW. This clearly transforms the user from
content receiver to content provider, triggering an interactive content
publishing cycle.

Technological Advances

Various theories and processes may be used to analyse the mechanics of the
changes that occur during convergence. Activity Theory introduced by Lev
Vygosky, Alexander Luria and Alexei Leont’ev in the 1920s describes
convergence from the socio-technical standpoint. This is achieved by
identifying and analyzing the influence between humans and interactive
systems through a temporal perspective (Bertelsen & Bødker, 2003). “A
person is influenced and in turn influences the environment and others as
human mind and human activities are linked under the model. As a result,
the changes that a person introduces to the environment influence humans
that are born within this environment” (Deliyannis, 2012). It is informative
to contrast the technological capabilities during the years where television
was the only way for the general consumer to receive audiovisual
information and today, where there are many different information sources.

Social Implications

“Diffusion of innovations” is a process introduced in 1962 by Everett M.

Rogers, used by many as an essential tool for media convergence analysis
(Srivastava & Moreland, 2012). It describes the process with which an
innovation (an idea, practice, or object perceived as new by an individual or
other unit of adoption) is communicated through certain channels over time
among the members of a social system (Rogers, Singhal, & Quinland, 2009).
The Internet is clearly the way that new systems, ideas and most
importantly content is transported and re-used today. Blogs, wikis, forums,
codebases and repositories set a solid foundation enabling users to develop,
search, communicate content (Brennan & Resnick, 2013). Users perceive the
WWW as a content-sharing platform, where information is published,
distributed, enhanced with metadata and recycled.

Content Transformation and Transportation

Our research in media policies shows that these are often outdated by
technological developments that open new content processing and
distribution routes. This becomes clearly evident when contrasting current
research on the content aspects introduced by interactive television
(Deliyannis et al., 2011) to the Australian reports on future media policies
published that include the Convergence Review (Review, 2012) based on an
independent media inquiry (Finkelstein, 2012) and the Review of the
National Classification Scheme (ALRC, 2012). In these reports is recognized
the technological infrastructure shift from broadcasting-centers that utilize
telecommunications and radio technologies to new technological
infrastructure, networks, devices, applications and content, a converging
state where content providers need to adapt. However, the issue of content
ownership remains and the reports do not address the main question: how
can the industry distribute content to society using alternative technologies
and methods and keep the strategic advantage of distribution control?.

The main content issue observed today is that it can be transformed and
transported using multiple ways. Digitization, streaming and file sharing
enable direct or indirect content exchange, while application-layer protocols
like the RTSP are openly available for network-based multimedia-content
broadcasting. Take for example the case where geographical-based licensing
is required in order to view a specific broadcast. Clearly, for those who know
better how computer-broadcasted content is distributed today, it is apparent
that the policy is already outdated. For a broadcast licensed to a network in
order to be broadcasted only on a specific country on television and the
WWW, all that is required for the stream to be relayed to another country is
access on a proxy server hiding the user’s true address, enabling content
transfer to any other location worldwide. Beyond content access, the above
policies ignore the user ability to capture, decode, possibly enhance, encode
and re-broadcast content creating a new type of broadcasting that cannot
easily be controller by content owners. Sometimes the situation is reversed.
Take for example various traditional television programs that collect, edit,
comment on and re-broadcast WWW-based videos. Content re-use is a new
development that from our experience will raise serious content ownership
issues, particularly as today cloud-based video editing software such as JW
Player Online Edition, YouTube Editor, Video Toolbox any many more such
applications are already freely available.

Interaction and User Involvement

Within traditional television, user involvement is a powerful aspect that has

in the past been implemented through a wide variety of technologies: mail,
phone, voting systems, polls, e-mail, SMS messaging, blogs, Internet chat,
video chat are all methods employed to support user to studio interaction.
These methods when combined with a medium that offers only one feedback
channel back the user often create communication bottlenecks, rendering
them unusable or raising questions about the level of feedback. On the other
hand, the personalised viewing experience offered by interactive television
can be aided by the availability of user to studio feedback. To demonstrate
how interaction can increase the level of user involvement a number of case
studies featuring different content types and interaction have been
developed.

Live User Participation

Students at the studio implemented a number of live programs in order to

study user involvement, investigate how the pre-programmed sequence of
content is altered via user-studio interaction and study the content
implications. The most representative case study featuring a free interactive
mode included a concert case study featuring a solo musician who performed
at the studio while viewers watched the performance over the network. A
number of interactive feedback channels were activated including the forum,
text-based chat, video conferencing and SMS/MMS, and all screens were
projected in front of the musician who engaged into a dialogue with the
audience. Although there were difficulties in the communication process as
they were not all immediate but ranged between a few seconds or even
minutes for the forum feedback and interaction depended on the level of
feedback attention the performer was prepared to receive, the users
managed to alter the original concert program with their requests. This is a
new development on the copyright forefront, as the broadcasted content
sequence cannot be predicted. In our previous work we have proposed the
development of a dynamic licensing system that enables studio staff to
receive content licensing on-the-fly in order to cover interactive presentation
requirements (Deliyannis et al., 2011). Content licensing is also an issue in
other areas including music information research (Karydi, Karydis, &
Deliyannis, 2012).
 

Interactive Television

During the interactive phase of television in the beginning of the year 2000
the technology that provided the interaction were mobile phones and to be
more precise SMS messages. The screen of the mobile phone acted as
second screen for television. It gave to the TV watching experience more
playfulness and playful elements in general. It also brought a huge change
into the communication between TV stars and audiences since it offered a
real time based communication through the SMS function.

The iTV-experience to take place: the viewer needs in addition to television,

a mobile device that supports SMS-function. It is surprisingly difficult to try
to define TV mobile games, particularly because of the term mobile. We are
used to associating different kinds of feelings with this term. Usually mobile
means something that one can carry and use whenever, and more
importantly, wherever one wants to. In these TV mobile games this was not
an option because one cannot play games at any time. On the contrary,
these games could only be played when they are on the air on television. On
the other hand, we really cannot use the term TV game either because it
suggests that these games are similar to the console-based TV games.
Probably the best term is still TV mobile games since these games are
played using mobile phones and watched from the TV screen.

Interaction is best seen in cross media formats. Cross media entertainment

means connection between for example mobile devices, Internet or/and
television. Cross media enabled gaming experiences between TV and mobile
phones. At first, one could participate in different TV-chats—one could send
greetings with a text message (SMS) and almost immediately see his/her
text on the TV-screen. This new form of entertainment soon became
adopted by SMS game show producers. It could be said that Finland is a
forerunner when it comes to interactive, TV-linked, mobile technology. Of
course these formats have also spread to Europe and Asia (Tuomi, 2008,
67). From the year 2002 there have been different kinds of TV-mobile
games on television. At first they were games one could participate in with a
text message—just by choosing the right coordinates to hit a certain target.
Games were often based on problem solving and the interaction between the
player and the game was limited to text messaging. Later on (2004), games
developed further and a live human host stepped onto the playing field.
Hosts were now playing against people on their sofas. For example, games
were based on getting a football past the host or trying to hit her with a
snowball. Since the participation took place via SMS or IVR,2 literally all
viewers were able to participate.
Participatory Television

After the interactive phase (based especially on iTV content and SMS),
Finnish television evolved into participatory TV by offering plenty of TV-
related material on dedicated websites as well as through online magazines
as additional news material. The phase of participatory TV is mainly the era
of the coming of Web 2.0. Participatory television exploited the convergence
between TV broadcasts and the internet, especially Web 2.0 features.
Through this convergence, the audience was able to communicate with each
other, create content, and enjoy the material provided by the broadcasters.
This, however, led to the situation where audiences could no longer be seen
as the masses. This era emphasised the individual by offering the capability
of watching TV whenever (online/net TV etc.) and wherever you wish. This
era also saw more social TV-related activity amongst the online participants.
The time when internet changed to be somewhat more social than before
and it started to accept and be based of more and more user generated
content. This had an impact on television viewing experience as well. Web
2.0 acted as second screen for television. Internet became an archive for all
the TV format’s other related material and viewers were able to browse
through asynchronous discussions, blog texts and dedicated web pages
offered by the TV channel.

Social Media Television There are different ways audience converge social
media and television together. At first, it can be used in a same way web
platforms acted in the era of participatory television. To give viewers the
possibility to gain and gather extra-material and synchronous news in
particular. If the participatory TV was more asynchronous communication,
social media brings the real-time based interaction to the scene. Basically
the same way iTV-entertainment did. Secondly, social media can be used in
order to enhance the viewing experience by allowing viewers to
communicate in real-time during the TV broadcast on TV.

REVISION QUESTIONS

 Differentiate between interactivity and participation

 Discuss the advantages of interactive media
 Discuss user participation in media convergence.

RESEARCH LINK

https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2331&context=etd
QUESTION FROM A PAST PAPER

Discuss the advantages of media interactivity.

COURSE: DIPLOMA IN JOURNALISM

UNIT: MEDIA CONVERGENCE AND JOURNALISM

LECTURER: MR. .

LESSON 16

TOPIC: THE MULTIMEDIA ASSIGNMENT EDITOR AND PRODUCER.

OBJECTIVE

By the end of the session, the trainee should be able to discuss the
roles of multimedia  assignment editors and producers.

THE MULTIMEDIA ASSIGNMENT EDITOR AND PRODUCER

Tell someone you work in the news business, and they’re likely to think
you’re a reporter, anchor, or photographer. These may be the most visible
positions in a newsroom, but many behind-the-scenes jobs are just as
critical. Some of the more important jobs include the assignment editor and
producer. While each position is independent, the two people who hold these
jobs must carefully coordinate their roles to cover the news in a cohesive,
effective way. When you add convergence to the mixture, the positions
become even more challenging and more rewarding.

 Assignment editors are basically the traffic cops in a newsroom. They have
to make sure all stories are covered with the proper resources. Here are
some of the duties of the assignment editor in a traditional TV/radio
newsroom:

 Maintain futures files. These describe stories that reporters and

producers will use in upcoming programs. They may be newspaper
clippings, news releases, or old scripts that need updating. The aim is
to ensure newsrooms cover stories that are scheduled in advance,
along with follow-up stories.
 Monitor police and fire scanners.\
 Make beat calls to emergency and government officials. These are
typically phone calls to dispatchers or administrative assistants who
can release information about spot news in the community.
 Coordinate photographers and reporters in the field. The assignment
desk is the primary contact with everyone who is covering something.
 Make quick judgment calls about story coverage. Since the assignment
editor knows who is covering what, he or she knows which resources
are available.
 Stay in constant communication with producers about breaking news
and changes.
 Build contacts with newsmakers, including politicians, emergency
officials, and any source who has an intimate knowledge of a subject.

In some medium and large market newsrooms (bigger than market 100),
multiple assignment editors split the duties by responsibility and time of day.
Big newsrooms might have a planning editor and assignment desk
assistants, or there may be daytime, night, and weekend assignment
editors. However, in small newsrooms, one assignment editor often fills
every role, and the assignment editor may be on call 24/7.

 The producer is the architect of the newscast. In the daily coverage scheme,
the assignment editor chooses what stories the station will cover and assigns
the reporters, photographers, and editors to cover them. The producer
decides how each story will look and sound. Here are some of a producer’s
duties in a traditional TV/radio newsroom:

• Decide which stories will be shown or heard in a newscast. The producer is

the “gatekeeper,” deciding what is shown on the news and what isn’t.

 • Determine what form a story will take. The story could be a short
voiceover, a copy story that the anchor reads, a reporter package, or a live
shot from the field.
 • Build the newscast to the show’s time constraints, and communicate those
guidelines to reporters. The producer tells the reporters how long their
stories should be.

 • Track progress of all reporters, photographers, and editors working on a

story.

• Communicate with anchors who present the news. The producer speaks to
anchors via their earpieces.

• Write and copyedit scripts. This is especially true for voiceover and copy
stories and national/international stories that appear in a newscast.

 • Monitor news wires, such as Associated Press, for developing stories.

 • Time the show while it is airing live. The producer may have to add or
drop stories, depending on how the show is timing out.

 • Interact with the technical crews, especially the director. The director is
the main technical person who oversees the staff that puts the newscast on
the air.

 • Order or build graphics needed to enhance news stories. These could be

full-screen graphics or over-the-shoulder anchor graphics.

 • Write headlines and teases used throughout the newscast. These are the
devices used to capture and keep audience interest in the newscast.

The number of producers and their roles also depend on the market size. In
the smallest markets, one person may produce multiple newscasts per day.
In larger markets, multiple producers may work on one newscast. In some
places, one person may act as both the producer and the assignment editor.

 The roles of both the producer and assignment editor become much more
complicated in a multimedia or converged newsroom. The two people must
now think about more than what the stories are and how they’ll be covered
for a newscast. Now, they must determine the best ways to cover the story
for print, broadcast, and online platforms.

 There is also a fundamental difference in how newspapers are structured,

compared to broadcast media. In general, a newspaper covers much more
news than the broadcast media, because a newspaper has much more space
to fill. The words in a typical half-hour program would fill about one
broadsheet page. Few newspapers have a central assignment desk. There
are multiple page editors, copyeditors, and photo editors.

 Another key difference between each medium is the deadline. TV and radio
have several deadlines throughout the day depending on when newscasts
are scheduled. Newspapers have a set deadline, usually several hours before
the presses have to roll. The Web, however, has no deadline. It needs to be
updated constantly.

 In a fully converged newsroom, one assignment desk would oversee all
news coverage and content. However, if you ask 100 people to define
convergence, you’ll get 100 different answers. Some see it strictly as
promotion between independent newspapers and television stations and
Web sites. Others see convergence as one giant newsroom, where reporters
move freely from one medium to the other. Lori Demo, Larry Dailey, and
Mary Spillman (2003) from Ball State University have come up with the idea
of a “convergence continuum.

• Cross-promotion is the process of using words and/or visual elements to

promote content produced by the partner and appearing in the partner’s
medium (e.g., when a newscaster urges the viewers to read a story
appearing in the newspaper or the newspaper publishes the logo of the
television partner).

• Cloning is the unedited display of a partner’s product (e.g., content from a

newspaper or newscast is republished on the partner’s Web site or jointly
operated Web portal).

 • Coopetition is the point at which partners cooperate by sharing

information on selected stories, but still compete and produce original
content (e.g., when a newspaper reporter appears on a newscast as an
expert to discuss a story or a broadcaster allows a print photographer to ride
on the station helicopter to cover breaking news).

 • Content sharing exists when the partners meet regularly to exchange

ideas and jointly develop special projects (e.g., election coverage or
investigative work).

• Convergence is the level at which partners have a shared

assignment/editor’s desk and the story is developed by team members who
use the strengths of each medium to best tell the story

 
RESEARCH LINKS

https://www.slideshare.net/qimlex/4-4-multimedia-production-team

https://ftms.edu.my/v2/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/MMGD0101-chapter-
4_062015.pdf

REVISION QUESTIONS

a)      Discuss the roles of an assignment editor in a multimedia newsroom.

b)      Discuss the roles of a producer in a multimedia newsroom.

COURSE: DIPLOMA IN JOURNALISM

UNIT: MEDIA CONVERGENCE AND JOURNALISM

LECTURER: MR. .

LESSON 17

TOPIC: BROADCAST WRITING AND SPEAKING

OBJECTIVE

By the end of the session, the trainee should be able to:

Writing for broadcast is unlike almost any kind of writing you might have
done before. That’s because of the fundamental differences inherent in both
the transmission and reception of broadcasting—both radio and television.
Information that is broadcast involves people saying the information out loud
while the audience takes it all in by virtue of hearing it. Broadcast is spoken
on the one hand and heard on the other. It’s as simple—and as complicated
—as that.

Almost everything we do in constructing messages for broadcast ultimately

comes down to producing words that can be spoken well and understood by
people who only get to hear them. Those two aspects of broadcast lead to a
world of challenges.

 In print, readers can reread material. They can stop and mull over what
they read or check another source. None of those options is available in
broadcast. The reporter or anchor says the material one time—at a pace
determined by the reporter or anchor. The audience gets one shot and one
shot only at understanding what’s being said. The audience can’t go back for
another pass. Viewers and listeners have no chance to think over and
decipher something that might be unclear.

Those differences in delivery and understandability result in forming

broadcast messages (news) differently than print. It’s neither better nor
worse. It’s just different. As a broadcast journalist, you must first think
about how to say the material out loud. In print, we have a series of stylistic
rules so that every time the reader encounters a name or reference, its
usage is consistent and therefore not confusing. In broadcast, where most of
the audience never sees the copy, we have rules for writing designed to
make reading the copy easier for the anchor and reporter. This chapter
explores the ways in which broadcast writing is tailored for the ear.

Rules for Readability

 The following subsections cover guidelines for making copy more clear for
broadcast announcers.

 Page Form

Copy to be read on the air is double spaced—sometimes triple spaced. In

radio, copy is written all across the page (with standard margins). In
television, use a split page with audio (the script) on the right and video
(supers and instructions) on the left.

 Numbers
Single digits on a page are too easily lost, and some looks like letters. Write
out numbers one through nine; use numerals for 10 through 999; then use
the appropriate combination of numerals and words for thousand, million,
and so on. Ordinals can go either way (second or 2nd). Years should be
written as numerals.

Abbreviations

Don’t use abbreviations in broadcast writing. Abbreviations require

translation in order to read, and that poses the potential for stumbling. In
addition, some abbreviations stand for more than one thing (St., for
example). Exceptions include Mr., Mrs., and Dr. We see them so often and
they always precede names, so there’s little danger of mispronunciation.

Symbols

Don’t use symbols. They require translation and, in the case of the dollar
sign ($), appear in a different place than when they’re read out loud.

Acronyms and Initials

An acronym involves letters to be read as a word, such as OPEC. In that

case, use all caps with no dashes. Initials are to be read as a series of
individual letters, such as I-R-S. In that case, use all caps with dashes in
between the letters. Note that in the case of most acronyms and initials, you
should use the full name of the organization on the first reference and the
initials or the acronym for subsequent references.

Sentence Length

 Keep sentences short. Go back to those two keys points that separate
broadcast from print: Read out loud and understand by being heard. Keep
the sentence length short because an announcer can only read so many
words at one time without pausing to breathe. We write short sentences to
build breathing into the process. An unnatural pause (breathing) in a
sentence could make the copy difficult to understand.

 Sound
Radio and television journalists are in the sound business, so we must think
about sound. That’s a dimension that isn’t available in print. Because we say
things out loud, the sound those syllables and words make helps convey
meaning. For that matter, we can convey meaning simply by how we say
something. If you’re not using those aspects of writing, then you’re not fully
utilizing the strengths of the medium. Where possible, choose words that
sound like what they mean: buzz, snap, tap, and so on. Try to choose hard-
sounding words to express hard messages. Kill, with its hard k sound,
emphasizes the message of the meaning.

Pronouncers

Any word that might be mispronounced requires a pronouncer—a

pronunciation guide. Written after the name within parentheses, it’s a
phonetic guide for someone who doesn’t know how to pronounce the name.
Calais, Maine, would be written as Calais (CAL us), Maine. Don’t substitute
phonetic spelling for real spelling. That will trip up people who know how to
pronounce the name, and it’s why we periodically see the phonetic spelling
written across the bottom of the screen instead of the correct spelling. This
only applies to proper names. If you’re planning to use a word that isn’t a
proper name but that you think might be mispronounced, you need to
evaluate why you’re using that word.

All of the preceding rules are designed with the notion that announcers
should be able to pick up any piece of broadcast copy—even one they have
never seen before—and read it well. In an ideal world, that would never
actually happen. In the real world of broadcast, it happens all the time.
Anchors have a much better chance of reading copy well if it conforms to
those rules of readability.

Rules for Understandability

We need to construct messages in such a way that someone who only gets
to hear the material—and gets to hear it once—can understand it. We need
to do this within a framework that recognizes that as passive media, radio
listeners or television viewers might be splitting their attention among
multiple tasks. Guidelines for enhancing understandability follow.

 Informal
We don’t write broadcast copy exactly the way we speak, but it’s close.
Spoken language is a bit too casual and frequently not grammatically
correct. Broadcast copy is what we wish we had said if we collected and
organized our thoughts properly and cleaned it up to make it right before we
said anything. The writing, however, remains informal, and it’s just fine to
use more casual terms like kids instead of children.

Word Choice

 Good writing is all about good word choice and proper ordering of those
words. Since this is journalism, the first rule for word choice is accuracy. The
word has to be right. Not close to right. Not nearly right. Absolutely right.
Next, the word has to be appropriate for the context. Remember the
audience only gets to hear the information and only gets to hear it once.
Every word that you use has to be clear and understandable instantly in the
context in which you’re using the word. Whatever meaning a word conjures
in the minds of the listeners is the way you should use it. That means
defending word choice based on its fourth dictionary definition probably isn’t
going to cut it. Use words the way they’re commonly used.

Numbers

There are certain rules for how to write numbers so that an announcer can
read them. On the other side of the coin, it’s critical to understand that
people generally don’t take in and process numbers well when they only get
to hear them. Keep numbers at a minimum in broadcast copy so you don’t
leave the audience behind. Obviously, if the story is about a tax increase,
you’re going to have to use numbers. But think about whether the audience
needs to know that 96 out of 100 students passed the test, or whether you
could just say almost all. Along those lines, rounding numbers can help an
audience better understand the material. For example, it’s easier to process
the phrase more than a thousand than it is to grapple with 1,012. Even in
television, where it’s possible to put numbers on the screen where people
can read them, minimize the use of numbers.

Contractions

We speak in contractions, and generally it’s acceptable to use them in

broadcast copy, with two exceptions. First, do not use them if the meaning
might be missed. The difference between can and can’t is an announcer’s
ability to pronounce the t sound clearly and the audience to hear that—
although the meanings are opposite. Other contractions with not don’t
present as much of a problem. So always spell outcan not.
 

Titles before Names

In broadcast, we put titles and identifiers before the name. That’s because
what people need to know is the title—which is likely why we’re talking with
someone. The name itself is detail that is less critical to understanding the
story. We also tend to shorten titles. No need to do that for nice, short, self-
explanatory titles, but we commonly change a long obscure title into a short
description of what the audience needs to know (e.g., a state welfare official
rather than some long, involved title). We also tend to shorten names in two
ways: First, don’t use middle names or initials unless the person is
commonly known that way—and few people are. Second, we tend to use a
shortened first name if people are commonly known or go by the shortened
name, rather than their formal name. Consequently, Joseph frequently
becomes Joe—assuming the person goes by Joe.

Attribution before the Statement

Broadcast generally puts attribution—the source of information— before the

statement or information. That’s because the source determines how we
look at or think about any piece of information. In broadcast, we can’t afford
to have the audience mulling over the source and reevaluating the
information because we continue reading. Therefore, it is more important to
say right up front that Superintendent of Schools Joe Smith is the source
who thinks the school board should vote on a plan to close a school. The title
and source give the statement more credibility than if it were made by angry
parent John Doe. Telling people the source of information before presenting
the facts makes it clearer and easier to digest the information when people
only get to hear it.

One Idea or Thought per Sentence

We also keep sentences short for the sake of the audience. People can only
take in so much information at one time when they only get to hear it. Each
sentence in broadcast should contain no more than one important thought or
idea. If you have more than one key point, you have an overloaded sentence
that will be harder to read and much harder to understand. Split up the
information into separate sentences.

Voice and Tense

Use active voice wherever possible. In active voice, the subject of the
sentence does the action as opposed to passive voice, where the subject of
the sentence receives the action. Active is shorter, tighter, punchier, and
more interesting. Our first choice in tense is present. Broadcast is all about
what’s going on now, so present tense plays to that strength. Second choice
is future tense. Third choice is present perfect, which uses “has” and “have”
to indicate that some activity, while in the past, took place recently.

Leads

The lead, the opening sentence of a story, is by far the most important
sentence in the story. But the broadcast lead isn’t at all like the print lead
and doesn’t serve the same purpose. In fact, the broadcast lead most closely
parallels the print headline. The sole job of the broadcast lead is to get the
attention of the audience just as the print headline’s job is to direct the
reader to the story. The lead may also convey information about the story,
but that’s not its critical function. It’s all about getting the attention of the
listener or viewer. Consequently, the lead must be short, strong, and
interesting.

RESEARCH LINK

https://faculty.tamuc.edu/_disabled/jmdempsey/documents/320.News1-
14.pdf

REVISION QUESTIONS

Discuss the rules for readability in broadcast.

Discuss the rules for understandability in broadcast writing.

COURSE: DIPLOMA IN JOURNALISM

UNIT: MEDIA CONVERGENCE AND JOURNALISM

LECTURER: MR. .

 
 

LESSON 18

TOPIC: WRITING FOR THE WEB

OBJECTIVE

By the end of the session, the trainee should be able to:

 Discuss the traditional news writing and the web writing.

 Tell the story through multimedia platforms.

WRITING FOR THE WEB

The great thing about writing for the World Wide Web, or Web for short, is
that it makes everyone a publisher with global reach. The kid in his bedroom
on the computer after dinner is on par with the multinational company in
many ways. People from California to Taiwan to Poland can read whatever a
formerly unknown student has to say.

 The Web is a medley of news and information produced by everyone from

that kid all the way on up to award-winning professional journalists and the
international companies that employ them. Because the Web is a pool that
everyone can jump into, it is also a place where the rules of writing are
relative to what is being said and who is saying it.

 From the early days of the Web, the most common style of writing has been
standard wire or newspaper style. That’s because many traditional news
outlets shoveled their old-media content onto the Web. That’s still the case,
so, in many places, the rules for writing on the Web are just the same as
they are for writing in print, or only a shade different.

 Slowly, however, three forces are pushing writing on the Web away from its
old-media roots. The first and most powerful force is the ability to self-
publish with unlimited reach. People who think they have something to
report or say can do so without having to worry about anyone pushing rules
of style on them. They are their own editors, and this situation leads to a
looser style.

 The second force promoting a change in writing style is multimedia. In the

past, journalists wrote for one branch of journalism at a time. Broadcast
journalists use different rules than print journalists for writing. Within
broadcast and print journalism there are many subdivisions of style.

 The exciting thing about the flexibility of the Web is that all types of media
can come together, or converge. Print, still images, sound, moving pictures,
and animation can all be used to tell the same story in a way that wasn’t
possible before the advent of the Web. This new reality creates a need for
people who are comfortable working with many writing styles
simultaneously. It also opens avenues for journalists to create new ways of
writing and storytelling.

The critical eye of readers on the Web is the third force reshaping
journalistic writing on the Web. It impacts everyone, from The New York
Times to the most obscure blog, and is a result of the Web’s interactive
nature. The Web is interactive not in the way a video game is, but more like
the ways in which people interact at a café in a closeknit neighborhood. This
interactivity allows people to communicate with unprecedented speed and
reach. There is a constant electronic conversation going on that has turned
journalism into a two-way street, and changed the way writers approach
their craft.

Traditional News Writing and the Web

An eye-tracking study done in 2000 examined the ways in which people

viewed Web pages. The majority of the subjects in their study viewed text
first, not photos or graphics, which might have seemed more logical. Jakob
Nielsen, who The New York Times once called “the guru of webpage
usability,” found similar use issues in his studies. These findings make it
very clear that text is as important (if not more important) as any other part
of a Web site.

 The basis for all news writing is the inverted pyramid, with its mandate to
put the most important information at the top of a printed story. News
writers are required to answer the who, what, where, when, how, and why
very early in the story, leaving the fine details and background for later. On
the Web it is no different. In fact, it’s more important to produce compact
and to-the-point stories.

Text is the easiest content to produce for the Web. It’s easier to distribute
words via the Web than it is via the printed page. Therefore, it’s not
surprising that most news on the Web comes in the form of the printed
word.

 The first efforts by newspapers and television stations to put their content
on the Web resulted in the faithful reproduction of their printed news stories
and TV scripts on a Web page. This is what is derisively known as
“shovelware.” Shoveling something already produced for one medium into
the new form of the Web is easy and cheap. Today most people in the news
industry agree the Web is capable of standing on its own as a platform for
news creation and delivery. The only question left to answer is “How?”

The first answer to that question is by sharpening of already familiar skills.

Take everything you’ve learned about writing the most basic story for print
and hold on tight to those rules. Nielsen has often stated that Web users
aren’t readers. They scan. Thus, you want to put multiple entry points into a
story. The use of headlines, decks, subheads, and other “breakout” formats
can give your readers the chance they need to latch on to your story and
stick with it. You need to cut out flowery or promotional language and stick
to the bare bones, adding detail where it makes sense.

 If this sounds familiar, it might be because you’ve read it earlier in this
book. The inverted pyramid remains one of Nielsen’s preferred styles of Web
writing and was a large portion of Chapter 3. To aid you here, we will review
the structure of an inverted pyramid story, taking into account the special
considerations you need to keep in mind when you write it for the Web.

Headline

 Writing a headline is a specialized skill that most reporters are not expected
to master. It’s the copy editor’s job in most news shops, but it is a good
place to start thinking about writing for the Web. When writing a headline,
less is more and the same is true of the stories themselves.

 The headline is tricky because it has to do several things all at once and in a
very short space. The headline must be attention grabbing and make it clear
to any reader what the story is about. It also must not repeat the lead.
 You must distill a story and its headline into its two most important parts.
The first part of any story you need to capture is what is new.

Lead

 Writing a lead is the second hardest part of writing any story, second only
to the headline. Luckily it’s a little easier on the Web because you are
generally expected to be more direct. There is less room to show off your
creative side.

 The lead of a story should immediately reveal the most important facts, and
leave the reader asking questions that will make them read on. This
construction is similar to that of a good print story, but there is a difference.
Web users are “impatient and fickle” to quote George Murray and Tania
Costanzo’s examination of site usability. If they don’t find what they want
right away, they’re likely to go someplace else. Web readers are typically
looking for specific information, while print readers are often looking to be
entertained. A lead that in print may be indirect or slow to develop should be
to the point and without mystery on the Web.

 The lead sets the theme for any story. Everything in the story should follow
logically from the theme set in the lead. The news is what is both new and
interesting. If something is new but not interesting or interesting but not
new, then you’ll either put it lower in the story or omit it altogether.

The easiest way to make a story interesting, even a brief and to-the point
Web story, is to give it a voice. The voice a Web writer wants to give a story
is the voice of the people making the news, not his or her own voice as a
writer. In print, it is often considered a virtue for the reporter to develop a
distinct voice. For the Web, you want to go back to basics and stick with a
recounting of the most valuable facts.

Quotes are the key to giving a Web news story personality without taking
the time to impose your own writing voice on the story. The second or third
paragraph of a story should ideally be a quote from someone who can
support the facts of the lead with the pop of emotion or the weight of
experience. A good quote will make the reader interested in the story, even
if the facts in the lead failed to produce much of a response.

 Once the news has been delivered in the lead and the human factor has
been established in the supporting quote, it’s time for the “nut graph.”
 

Nut Graph

The “nut graph” is a paragraph high up in the story, usually the fourth or
fifth paragraph, that explains why the story is important. It gives the story
context, and it is just another element of the way news stories have been
written for years.

 The headline and lead deliver the news. The first supporting quote makes
you care about the story. The job of the nut graph is to tell you why you
should care or why it’s an important story. Again, strong similarities exist
between writing for the Web and writing for print except that Web writing
should be more direct and lean than writing you might find in print.

 The nut graph is often used as a way to recap a long-running story like a
trial. The story of the day might be that a judge has unexpectedly declared a
mistrial. The lead and the quote will capture the facts and drama of the
moment. The nut graph follows up the news with a brief explanation of why
there was even a trial in the first place.

 Once the nut graph has let the reader know that, for example, the mayor
was on trial for embezzling $10 million in city funds over 6 years, you can
move on to the body of the story.

Body

The body of any story is just gravy. The reader should have all of the basic
facts about a story by the fourth or fifth paragraph. After that comes the
details associated with the news of the day and then a more complete telling
of the story from its beginning.

 Quotes and facts that more fully explain the how and why of a story fill out
the body as a story moves from the most relevant facts to the least relevant
facts. The hardest part of writing a Web story is deciding what to keep out.
Every word should have meaning. Every quote should represent something
more than a statement of fact. Recognizing what is filler and what is central
to the story is the key to writing a good Web story.
Each news organization differs in style and emphasis, but if you master this
general framework you will be ready to adapt to the demands of most
editors.

Telling Your Story through Multiple Media

The next logical step for journalism on the Web is to try to tell a cohesive
story through multiple forms of media. The goal of most major news groups
is to develop a reusable multimedia storytelling form, where words, sound,
images, and interactivity all come together to deliver the ultimate news
experience. No one has reached this goal yet.

 Part of the problem is that words are the common thread linking all types of
media, but styles of writing have evolved to fit each type of media. No
common style of writing exists that is flexible enough to support everything
from a text story to an interactive feature to a TV-style story.

 Journalists are trained and employed in a single medium, whether radio or

TV or print, and their work is judged by the standards of that medium.
Journalism today is set up to feed talent to multiple business arms. It is not
set up to prepare reporters for a world where they need to be comfortable
working in all forms.

 In general, print is considered to be formal and direct and is written in the
past tense. It also requires the writer to convey details of appearance and
circumstance that bring the story to life.

 Video, on the other hand, tells a lot without loading up on words. Writing for
video is all about using words that support your video. The video is the
story, and the facts fill in the information not obvious from the images. This
storytelling form is much more personal and informal and uses the present
tense.

Both forms demand the use of active rather than passive constructions.

 Captions for images, and copy for information graphics, fall somewhere in
between. Their roots are in print journalism, but their writing guidelines are
not so different from those for TV. Caption information is expected to fill in
the gaps of what is not immediately obvious from the visual information.
 These various forms of media provide a quandary for the budding journalist.
Some people believe in sticking with one specialty, like reporting for TV.
Others urge new journalists to dabble in a little bit of everything, from
reporting for print to shooting video and recording sound.

 The world of convergence is a world of creative opportunities. Those

opportunities are most open to people who have more than one skill and
work across styles. Journalists who are not afraid to break the mold on style,
while adhering to the rules on substance and ethics, will then be the ones
who will create a new form of storytelling.

 The early experiments in crossing borders include TV reporters and

personalities using the Web as an outlet for columns or commentary in their
areas of expertise. Newspaper reporters are writing and recording voice
tracks for slide shows on the Web. Radio reporters are snapping photos to
go along with posts of their audio to the Web.

 It is a slow process, and each branch of journalism has its own demands
that must be learned and mastered.

COURSE: DIPLOMA IN JOURNALISM

UNIT: MEDIA CONVERGENCE AND JOURNALISM

LECTURER: MR. .

LESSON 19

TOPIC: EMERGING ISSUES AND TRENDS

OBJECTIVE

By the end of the session, the trainee should be able to discuss the
emerging issues and trends in media convergence and journalism.

Emerging Issues and trends

An emerging trend is a topic area that is growing in interest and utility over
time.  A trend could also be   what's hip or popular at a certain point in time.
While a trend usually refers to a certain style in fashion or entertainment,
there could be a trend toward warmer temperatures (if people are following
trends associated with global warming).

Advancement and application of information technology are ever changing.

Some of the trends in the information technology are as follows:

1.   Cloud Computing

One of the most talked about concept in information technology is the cloud
computing. Clouding computing is defined as utilization of computing
services, i.e. software as well as hardware as a service over a network.
Typically, this network is the internet.

Cloud computing offers 3 types of broad services mainly Infrastructure as a

Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS) and Software as a Service
(SaaS).

Some of the benefit of cloud computing is as follows:

 Cloud computing reduces IT infrastructure cost of the company.

 Cloud computing promotes the concept of virtualization, which enables
server and storage device to be utilized across organization.
 Cloud computing makes maintenance of software and hardware easier
as installation is not required on each end user’s computer.

Some issues concerning cloud computing are privacy, compliance, security,

legal, abuse, IT governance, etc.

2.   Mobile Application

Another emerging trend within information technology is mobile applications

(software application on Smart phone, tablet, etc.)

Mobile application or mobile app has become a success since its introduction.
They are designed to run on Smartphone, tablets and other mobile devices.
They are available as a download from various mobile operating systems like
Apple, Blackberry, Nokia, etc. Some of the mobile app are available free
where as some involve download cost. The revenue collected is shared
between app distributor and app developer.

3.   User Interfaces

User interface has undergone a revolution since introduction of touch screen.
The touch screen capability has revolutionized way end users interact with
application. Touch screen enables the user to directly interact with what is
displayed and also removes any intermediate hand-held device like the
mouse.

Touch screen capability is utilized in smart phones, tablet, information kiosks

and other information appliances.

4.   Analytics

The field of analytics has grown many folds in recent years. Analytics is a
process which helps in discovering the informational patterns with data. The
field of analytics is a combination of statistics, computer programming and
operations research.

The field of analytics has shown growth in the field of data analytics,
predictive analytics and social analytics.

Data analytics is tool used to support decision-making process. It converts

raw data into meaningful information.

Predictive analytics is tool used to predict future events based on current

and historical information.

Social media analytics is tool used by companies to understand and

accommodate customer needs.

The every changing field of information technology has seen great

advancement and changes in the last decade. And from the emerging trend,
it can be concluded that its influence on business is ever growing, and it will
help companies to serve customers better.

Challenges posed by emerging issues and trends can range from matters
such as:

a)      How to deliver a product on time.

b)      How to respond to market competition.

c)      How to predict emerging markets.

d)     Building Legal and ethical Frame works

e)      Cyber security and other insecurities of trade.

f)       Financial constraints and obligations

RESEARCH LINK

http://imsnoida.com/emerging-trends-media-communication/

REVISION QUESTIONS

a)      Discuss audience fragmentation in the media industry.

b)      Outline the impact of the rise of UGC in media industry.

c)       Outline the media organization changes that have resulted from
convergence.

QUESTION FROM A PAST PAPER

Explain five characteristics of new media.

Media convergence has become a trending phenomenon in the media

industry. Discuss five measures that a media house can take to ensure that
it is ready for media convergence.

COURSE: DIPLOMA IN JOURNALISM

UNIT: MEDIA CONVERGENCE AND JOURNALISM

LECTURER: MR. .

SESSION 20
TOPIC: REVISION

OBJECTIVE

This session is meant to summarize the content covered in the

previous session.

Media convergence is the interlinking of computing and other information

technologies, media content, media companies and communication networks
that have arisen as the result of the evolution and popularization of the
Internet as well as the activities, products and services that have emerged in
the digital media

Media convergence is the merging of mass communication outlets – print,

television, radio, the Internet along with portable and interactive
technologies through various digital media platforms.

This move toward media integration is now commonly known as “media

convergence” which has been defined in several ways. John Carrey of
Fordham University, explains that, simply put, this refers to the notion that
once separated media are now together. Also viewing it from another
standpoint Denis McQuail has an interesting definition of convergence. He
expresses that convergence is often related to technological advances and in
some case has became an excuse for deregulation of the media. This is
because there is not a complete definition of what regulations can be applied
from the old media to the new one.

TYPES OF MEDIA CONVERGENCE

1. Ownership convergence. This relates to arrangements within one large

media company that encourage cross-promotion and content sharing among
print, online, and television platforms owned by the same company. The
biggest example in the United States is the Tribune Company. President Jack
Fuller said that owning television, radio, and newspapers in a single market
provided a way to lower costs, increase efficiencies, and “provide higher
quality news in times of economic duress”

2. Tactical convergence. This describes the content-sharing arrangements

and partnerships that have arisen among media companies with separate
ownership. The most common model is a partnership between a television
station or cable channel and a newspaper where each company keeps its
own revenues. Gordon noted: “In most markets, the primary motivation for
—and initial results of—these partnerships seemed to be promotional”
(2003, p. 65). The relationship between Florida Today, based in Melbourne
on Florida’s east coast, and WKMG-TV, headquartered in Orlando, about 70
miles away to the west, provides an example. This form of convergence has
become most common in the United States. The American Press Institute
publishes a convergence tracker on its Web site and it represents a useful
source for details across the country. Between June and September 2004,
Ball State University professors Larry Dailey, Lori Demo, and Mary Spillman
surveyed editorial managers at all 1,452 daily English-language newspapers
in the United States. They received 372 replies, a response rate of 25.6
percent. They reported that almost 30 percent of daily newspapers had
partnerships with television stations, at various circulation levels (Saba,
2004).

3. Structural convergence. This form of convergence is associated with

changes in newsgathering and distribution, Gordon wrote, but it is also a
management process in the sense of introducing changes in work practices.
An example was the Orlando Sentinel’s decision to employ a team of
multimedia producers and editors to repackage print material for television.
The team rewrites print content in a form suitable for television; meanwhile,
a separate Web site produces original material and also repackages content
from the newspaper and television partner. They also produce focused
content, such as television programs about the movies and high school
sports, and arrangealkbacks between print reporters and the television
partner. Talkbacks consist of a conversation between the television anchor
and a specialist reporter in the field. Dailey and his colleagues reported that
29.6 percent of respondents said a reporter—usually a beat expert—
appeared on a partner’s broadcast to explain a story at least once a month
(Saba, 2004).

4. Information-gathering convergence. This takes place at the reporting

level and is Gordon’s term for situations where media companies require
reporters to have multiple skills (2003, p. 69). In some parts of the world,
this represents the most controversial form of convergence as people debate
whether one person can successfully produce quality content in all forms of
media. Several terms have arisen to describe this phenomenon, including
platypus or Inspector Gadget or backpack journalism. The single multimedia
reporter may be an appropriate and workable option at small news events or
at small market media organizations. But at a major news event where
groups of mono-media reporters outnumber a single multimedia reporter,
this form of reporting is not likely to produce quality. Digital technology
makes the multi-skilled journalist possible, but we won’t see too many
Inspector Gadgets until journalists are sufficiently trained and equipped. The
type of cross-platform training needed to produce these journalists has
always been a problematic issue in the United States.

 5. Storytelling or presentation convergence. Gordon said this type of

convergence operates at the level of the working journalist, though it needs
management support in terms of purchasing the most appropriate
equipment. He predicted that new forms of storytelling would emerge from
the combination of computers, portable newsgathering devices, and the
interactive potential of the Web and television, as journalists learned to
appreciate each medium’s unique capabilities (2003, p. 70). Many journalists
are pondering how to do this form of convergence. Doug Feaver, executive
editor of washingtonpost.com, said his journalists were “inventing a new
medium” as they worked. This form of convergence remains in the
experimental or evolutionary phase in many newsrooms but we may see it
emerge as more and more people graduate with advanced digital skills.

Importance of regulations in converged environment

As such, regulatory reform must include measures aimed at:

1)      Creating independent entities to oversee the introduction of

competition in the market and establish regulatory mechanisms for issues
such as interconnection, licensing, and tariff rebalancing,

2)      Preparing the incumbent operator to face competition, including

timetables setting deadlines for the termination of market exclusivities,

3)      Allocating and managing scarce resources such as numbers and

spectrum resources in a non-discriminatory way within the liberalized
market,

4)      Expanding and enhancing access to telecommunications and ICT

networks and services, and
5)      Promoting and protecting consumer interests, including universal
service and privacy.

CHALLENGES RESULTING FROM MEDIA CONVERGENCE

 Technically the companies face challenges. Traditional cable offers a

highly reliable quality, while digital content still faces issues such as
buffering, pixelated video, poor audio and visual synchronization, due
to a range of issues like varying device capabilities, and service and
network conditions. A company may fulfill its promise of delivering
high quality content on one channel but not on another.
 Security can also become an issue. Consumers who have a sub-par
experience viewing media may seek different content options or use
pirated sources.
 For content providers to reach their subscribers, content providers risk
cannibalizing revenues from traditional or legacy media delivery
options.
 Not everyone has ready and affordable access to digital media, or the
skills to employ them, creating a digital divide between information
haves and have-nots in a society where connectivity to computer
networks (and the literacy required to navigate them) is increasingly
important.
 The free circulation of media content has also posed a serious threat to
the economic viability of traditional media industries, such as book and
newspaper publishing
 The availability of free content can present itself as “just as good as”
thoroughly reported journalism, diluting the value of a well-reported
piece.
 Converged devices aren’t as reliable and often have limited
functionality. For example, the rendering of certain web pages on a
mobile browser might not work correctly due to a myriad of issues that
can make the two incompatible.
 As the number of functions in a single device escalates, the ability of
that device to serve its original function decreases.
 Consolidated media have the potential to be “used as both a weapon
of social control and a means of resistance.”