Central University of Kashmir
Nowgam, Srinagar, J&K- 190015
www.cukashmir.ac.in
MACJ -101
Introduction to Convergent Journalism
Unit I
Definition, concept and implications of Convergence. Convergence in Media research,
technology and convergence, recent models of convergence- Convergence Continuum,
Lawson Borders model, ICTs, ICT in India
Course Title: Introduction to Convergent Journalism
Course Code: MACJ- 101
Department: Convergent Journalism
Year: 2016
Compiled by: ASIF KHAN
Email:
Contact:
Designation: Assistant Professor
Introduction to Convergent journalism
CENTRAL UNIVERSITY OF KASHMIR
Unit I
Convergence:
Media convergence is the merging of mass communication outlets like print, television,
and radio, the Internet along with portable and interactive technologies through various
digital media platforms. Media convergence allows mass media professionals to tell
stories and present information and entertainment using a variety of media. Converged
communication provides multiple tools for storytelling, allowing consumers to select
level of interactivity while self-directing content delivery.
Technological convergence is the tendency for different technological systems to evolve
toward performing similar tasks. Convergence can refer to previously separate
technologies such as voice (and telephony features), data (and productivity
applications), and video that now share resources and interact with each other
synergistically.
The rise of digital communication in the late 20th century has made it possible for
media organizations (or individuals) to deliver text, audio, and video material over the
same wired, wireless, or fiber-optic connections. At the same time, it inspired some
media organizations to explore multimedia delivery of information. This digital
convergence of news media, in particular, was called "Mediamorphosis" by researcher
Roger Fidler, in his 1997 book by that name. Today, we are surrounded by a multi-level
convergent media world where all modes of communication and information are
continually reforming to adapt to the enduring demands of technologies, "changing the
way we create, consume, learn and interact with each other"
Convergence in this instance is defined as the interlinking of computing and other
information technologies, media content, and communication networks that has arisen
as the result of the evolution and popularization of the Internet as well as the activities,
products and services that have emerged in the digital media space. Many experts view
this as simply being the tip of the iceberg, as all facets of institutional activity and social
life such as business, government, art, journalism, health, and education are increasingly
being carried out in these digital media spaces across a growing network of information
and communication technology devices.
Convergence generally means the intersection of old and new media. Jenkins states that
convergence is, "The flow of content across multiple media platforms, the cooperation
between multiple media industries, and the migratory behavior of media audiences."
Media convergence is not just a technological shift or a technological process, it also
includes shifts within the industrial, cultural, and social paradigms that encourage the
consumer to seek out new information. Convergence, simply put, is how individual
consumers interact with others on a social level and use various media platforms to
create new experiences, new forms of media and content that connect us socially, and
not just to other consumers, but to the corporate producers of media in ways that have
not been as readily accessible in the past.
Advances in technology bring the ability for technological convergence that Rheingold
believes can alter the "social-side effects," in that "the virtual, social and physical world
are colliding, merging and coordinating.”
It was predicted in the 1990s that a digital revolution would take place, and that old
media would be pushed to one side by new media. Broadcasting is increasingly being
replaced by the Internet, enabling consumers all over the world the freedom to access
their preferred media content more easily and at a more available rate than ever before.
Web 2.0 is a concept that takes the network as a platform for information sharing,
interoperability, user-centered design, and collaboration on the World Wide Web. A
Web 2.0 site allows users to interact and collaborate with each other in a social media
dialogue as creators (prosumers) of user-generated content in a virtual community, in
contrast to websites where users (consumers) are limited to the passive viewing of
content that was created for them. Examples of Web 2.0 include social networking sites,
blogs, wikis, and video sharing sites, hosted services, web applications, mashups and
folksonomies.
Implications of Convergence:
The move from analog to digital information transmission has allows for vast amounts
of data to be disseminated with fewer resources. Communication technology
advancements are simultaneously the cause and the result of convergence. The term
convergence is currently in a state of flux. It is important to land on a definition to
further our understanding. Grant (2009) gives a survey of many definitions currently in
use. By blending these definitions one can surmise that convergence is an inter-textual
form of content delivery using digital transmission methods. This definition mentions
content delivery over communication because of its emphasis on the mass media.
To understand how these changes are affecting mass communication practitioners we
must narrow our subject of inquiry further to that of convergence journalism. Criado
and Kraeplin (2009) give a very functional definition. They define convergence
journalism as, print, broadcast, and online news staffs forging partnerships in which
journalists work and distribute content across several news platforms. Media
companies have been trying to implement these strategies to increase efficiency and
audience reach.
Newspapers seem to have been better at implementing these strategies than television
stations. It also seems that newspapers have more to gain from convergence journalism
(Criado & Kraeplin, 2009). Newspapers do certainly have a disadvantage in terms of
traditional delivery compared to television stations. Newspapers must be sought out
while television stations are delivered free over the air to a person’s home. It is easy to
see how partnering with a television station and moving to the Internet can have a
profound effect for newspapers.
A positive effect of convergence is that efficiency in content creation and delivery has
allowed for more information for consumers. Television stations are allowed to have
more in-depth reports because of partnerships with newspapers. Newspapers and
television stations are allowed to deliver full multimedia reports of events via the
Internet.
One negative effect of convergence journalism is that fewer interests are controlling the
information delivered to the mass audience. This narrowing of voices is known as Media
Consolidation. There has been a great amount of criticism waged against the resulting
media giants.
Fortunately, as media consumers are becoming more technologically savvy they have
taken to becoming journalists themselves. Kolodzy (2009) notes, anyone with a cell
phone or camera can take photos or videos of a news event or newsmaker and post the
pictures online. This has led to a democratization of information dissemination. The
conventional gatekeepers are slowly losing total control over the information that is
allowed to flow to widespread audiences. Of course this is a trend that is currently
taking place. Grant (2009) notes that it is risky to analyze a trend that is still in process.
This democratization of information could unfortunately end because of regulatory or
market pressures.
Models of Convergence
Nicholas Negroponte Model of Convergence
The first media researcher to describe convergence was Ithiel de Sola Pool in his book
‘Technologies of Freedom’ who discussed the interdependence of various media.
(Murali, 2003) The first introduction of the concept ‘media convergence’ into media
research might have occurred even earlier, in 1979, when Nicholas Negroponte
presented a convergence model based on three intersecting circles (Figure 1).
Figure 1: Negroponte’s circles describing convergence
The circles illustrate how three media industries come together as a single entity. From
these circles, the media convergence debate has continued. Over the years, convergence
as an effect rather than as a process has been used to denote everything from
organizational structures, new high-technological inventions to mergers between media
companies.
Flynn Model of Convergence
Flynn (2000) identifies three areas of convergence in the digital world (Figure 2).
Devices,
Networks and
Content
The convergence of devices is, according to Flynn, when two devices are merged
together. The challenge is whether the consumers will use these merged devices or not.
Flynn claims, that if there is no consumer adaptation of the resulting hybrid,
convergence will not take place. Convergence of networks originates from the
discussion and development of the once popular concept ‘electronic information
superhighway’ denoting a broadband-switched network infrastructure.
Networks
Devices
Content
Convergence
Figure 2: Flynn's three areas of Convergence
The content convergence, in Flynn’s opinion, is limited since he believes that
technological barriers still make it impossible to use the same kind of content in all the
different publishing channels. Flynn argues that the conventional view on convergence
over-emphasizes the benefits to be derived from the potential advent of ‘write-once-
run-anywhere’ content and instead suggests a fourth type of convergence, that of the
consumers. Flynn seems to have adopted an almost philosophical view of convergence
of devices, claiming that it does not exist if the consumers are not willing to use the new
devices. However, if the devices exist, the convergence of devices must have taken place
in the production of the new device, regardless of the consumers’ willingness to use it.
Gordon Model of Convergence
Gordon (2002) identifies five types of convergence: ownership, tactical, structural,
information gathering and storytelling convergence (see Figure 3). Ownership
convergence could be compared to merging of companies. Tactical convergence is a
form of cross promotion, structural convergence is a process taking place within the
editorial departments, influencing the editors to become more of multimedia editors.
The information- gathering convergence, as described by Gordon, could best be
summarized as a form of backpacking journalism where the reporters carry all their
equipment with them, producing content for all imaginable publishing channels.
Storytelling convergence is, according to Gordon, about new ways to present
information in the different publishing channels.
Ownership
Storytelling Structural
Convergence
Information
Tactical
Gathering
Figure 3: Gordon’s types of Convergence
DDS Model of Convergence
Dailey, Demo and Spillman (2003) have presented a model of convergence called ‘The
Convergence Continuum’. The model has been created because of the authors’ belief
that there is a lack of a common, behaviour-based definition of convergence and a lack
of a common instrument for measuring convergence effects. They therefore suggest a
model for convergence in newsroom content sharing with the purpose of making it
easier for researchers all over the world to compare results. The model consists of five
partly overlapping areas, 5 Cs of convergence. (see Figure 4)
Figure 4: DDS Model of Convergence-Convergence Continuum
Lawson-Borders Model of Convergence
Lawson-Borders (2006) suggests another model of convergence, where the starting
point is that convergence is a ‘concept as well as a process’. She does not discuss creation
of content to the same extent as is discussed in the Convergence Continuum, but has
more of a technological approach. She claims that convergence could be described as a
wedding of technology and content delivery by means of computer technology. (see
Figure 5).
Figure 5: Lawson-Borders’ model of Convergence
Lawson-Borders has identified seven ‘observations’ of convergence all beginning with
the letter C: Communication, commitment, cooperation, compensation, culture,
competition, and customer. These seven areas are partly overlapping and can serve as a
guideline for best practices to expound on convergence both as a concept and a process.
Henry Jenkins Model of Convergence
Jenkins (2001) does not try to combine many types of convergence into one model. He
explains the confusion when attempting to define convergence to originate from the fact
that people talk about convergence in several contexts. He divides convergence into five
areas, technological, economic, social or organic, cultural and global convergence.
Technological convergence is the digitalization of all media content, economic
convergence deals with the integration of the entertainment industry and the social or
organic version of the process handles the consumers’ multitasking strategies for
navigating the new information environment.
Technological
Social/organic Economic
Convergne
ce
Cultural Global
Figure 6: Henry Jenkins’ model of Convergence
ICT in India
The closing decade of twentieth century was the opening of historic information and
communication technology interventions for development. This period has witnessed
enormous and unprecedented changes in every aspect of communications technologies,
policies, infrastructure development and services. Political leaders of India have begun
abandoning archaic, government control over communication that has lately moved
from government to national and international private players. Finally, airwaves and
electronic signals have achieved their freedom from centuries old colonial bondage to
reach out and connect people through a privately owned and operated communication
network and infrastructure. Both international and national private players have taken
a dominant role in redefining, reshaping and providing telecommunication,
broadcasting and information services for national development. It has initiated an era
of partnership of public and private entrepreneurial skills and abilities to bring about
unlimited connectivity. There has been a gradual transformation from industrial society
to information society.
New communication technologies such as satellites, cable television, wireless telephony,
the Internet and computers are bringing about noticeable changes in the society.
Communication technology includes the hardware equipment, organizational structures
and social values by which individuals collect process and exchange information. The
new media have certain characteristics that are similar in some respects to those of
both interpersonal and mass media communication, but that are different in many other
respects. Interpersonal communication consists of a face-to-face exchange between two
or more individuals. The message flow is from one to a few individuals, feedback is
immediate and usually plentiful and the messages are often relatively high in socio-
emotional content. In contrast, mass media communication includes all those means of
transmitting messages such as radio, television, newspapers and film, which enable a
source of one or a few individuals to reach a large audience. Some type of hardware
equipment is always involved in mass communication feedback is limited and delayed
and the messages are often relatively low in socio-emotional content.
The new media integrate the characteristics of both interpersonal and mass
communication. Communication that occurs through these media often links two
individuals or a small number of people. In this sense, the new media are like
interpersonal communication, in that the messages are targeted to specific individuals
which is often called de-massification . But interactive communication via the new
media, like email on the internet, is somewhat like mass media communication in that
hardware equipment –computers, satellites and telephone lines in this case is
necessarily involved. Information exchange via the new media is interactive, meaning
that the participants in a communication process have control over and can change
roles in their mutual discourse. Such interactivity is also particularly characteristic of
face –to-face interpersonal communication.
The term “Information Society” came into use along with new information and
communication technologies (ICTs) –internet, e-mail , mobile telephones .These
interactive , performative and participatory technologies of communication are at the
heart of the communication revolution that is occurring in India. The ICTs are driving
the social changes in India. These technologies, once distinctive, are converging today to
deliver data, voice and video in ways not possible before. Technological determinism is
an approach that considers technology as the main cause of social change. However,
certain changes in society occur because of non- technological forces, such as
government policies, international politics and public opinion. These are social forces
and their use in explaining social change is called social determinism. The social forces
like government policies combined with technological innovations fostered the
communication revolution in India.
