EQUIPMENT

COMPRESSORS

TRAINING MANUAL
COURSE EXP-PR-EQ130
Revision 1
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

EQUIPMENT

COMPRESSORS

CONTENT

1. THE FUNCTIONS OF COMPRESSORS.........................................................................4

1.1. INTRODUCTION.......................................................................................................4
1.2. THE MAIN CATEGORIES.........................................................................................5
1.3. THE VARIOUS APPLICATIONS ...............................................................................8
2. OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF COMPRESSORS.............................................................9
2.1. RECIPROCATING VOLUMETRIC COMPRESSORS...............................................9
2.2. ROTARY VOLUMETRIC COMPRESSORS............................................................12
2.2.1. The vane compressor .......................................................................................12
2.2.2. The screw (also called worm) compressor .......................................................13
2.2.3. The lobe compressor (Roots) ...........................................................................14
2.3. CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS..........................................................................16
2.4. DYNAMIC AXIAL COMPRESSORS .......................................................................18
3. THE VARIOUS TYPES OF COMPRESSOR .................................................................19
3.1. RECIPROCATING VOLUMETRIC COMPRESSORS.............................................19
3.1.1. The gas section ................................................................................................19
3.1.1.1. The pistons.................................................................................................20
3.1.1.2. The valves (also known as clapper valves) ................................................20
3.1.2. The motion section ...........................................................................................22
3.1.3. Sealing of the "gas" section ..............................................................................23
3.1.3.1. Sealing between the piston and the cylinder ..............................................23
3.1.3.2. Sealing between the piston rod and the "motion" section...........................24
3.2. ROTARY VOLUMETRIC COMPRESSORS............................................................25
3.2.1. The vane compressor .......................................................................................25
3.2.2. The screw compressor .....................................................................................25
3.2.2.1. Lubricated screw compressor ....................................................................26
3.2.2.2. Non-lubricated screw compressor..............................................................27
3.3. CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS..........................................................................28
3.3.1. Rotor and compressor casing ...........................................................................29
3.3.1.1. General ......................................................................................................29
3.3.1.2. Stator design ..............................................................................................30
3.3.1.3. The rotor.....................................................................................................32
3.3.1.4. Centrifugal compressor wheels ..................................................................33
3.3.2. The oil sealing system ......................................................................................34
3.3.3. The gas sealing system ....................................................................................37
3.4. DYNAMIC AXIAL COMPRESSORS .......................................................................38
3.5. TURBO-EXPANDERS ............................................................................................40
3.6. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE VARIOUS TYPES ....................43
4. REPRESENTATION OF COMPRESSORS AND COMPRESSOR DATA .....................44
Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN
Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 2 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

5. COMPRESSORS IN THE PROCESS ...........................................................................45

5.1. LOCATION AND CRITICALITY ..............................................................................45
6. AUXILIARY SYSTEMS ..................................................................................................46
6.1. THE AUXILIARY SYSTEMS OF A RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR ................46
6.1.1. Cooling .............................................................................................................47
6.1.2. Lubrication ........................................................................................................48
6.1.3. Alarms and safety systems ...............................................................................48
6.2. AUXILIARY SYSTEMS OF ROTARY VOLUMETRIC COMPRESSORS ................49
6.2.1. The vane compressor .......................................................................................49
6.3. AUXILIARY SYSTEMS OF THE CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR ........................50
6.3.1. Lubrication ........................................................................................................51
7. OPERATING PARAMETERS ........................................................................................53
7.1. ANTI-SURGE SYSTEM ..........................................................................................53
8. OPERATION OF COMPRESSORS...............................................................................55
8.1. STARTING UP A RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR ...........................................55
8.1.1. Preparation of the auxiliary systems .................................................................55
8.1.2. Preparation of the compressor..........................................................................56
8.1.3. Starting up the compressor...............................................................................56
8.2. STARTING UP A CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR................................................57
8.2.1. Preparation .......................................................................................................57
8.2.2. Starting up the compressor...............................................................................58
8.2.3. Monitoring in operation .....................................................................................58
8.2.4. Monitoring in operation .....................................................................................59
8.3. 1st LEVEL MAINTENANCE .....................................................................................60
9. TROUBLESHOOTING...................................................................................................61
9.1. POSSIBLE CAUSES OF OPERATIONAL ANOMALIES.........................................61
10. SUMMARY OF FIGURES............................................................................................63
11. SUMMARY OF TABLES..............................................................................................65

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 3 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

1. THE FUNCTIONS OF COMPRESSORS

1.1. INTRODUCTION

Compressors are mechanical devices that

enable the pressure of a GAS to be
increased.

Compressors have a wide range of

applications.

Figure 1: Example of a screw (or worm)

type air compressor

The following list provides examples of operational applications for these machines:

production of compressed air (instrument air, air for cleaning parts, for painting,
etc.);

compression and displacement of process gases;

transport of materials in powder form ("pneumatic" transport of powders);

production of vacuums and negative pressures (distillation, vacuum crystallization,

evaporation, etc.);

sanitation of enclosed areas ventilation, air conditioning, etc.);

stirring of fermentation tanks.

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 4 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

1.2. THE MAIN CATEGORIES

Compressors can be divided into four main categories, which will be described in detail in
the following chapters:

Reciprocating (volumetric)

Rotary (volumetric)

Centrifugal

Axial flow

Figure 2: Main categories of compressors

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 5 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

Figure 3: Reciprocating compressor

Figure 4: Screw-type rotary

compressor

Figure 5: Centrifugal compressor

Figure 6: Axial flow compressor

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 6 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

Volumetric compressors Dynamic compressors

Type of
compressor
Reciprocating Rotary Centrifugal Axial flow

Can propel
gases at a wide
range of flow- Well adapted to Very high
Well adapted to
rates medium and efficiency
low flow-rates
high gas flow-
Regular flow rates Well adapted to
Can propel
very high flow-
gases at all
Advantages Satisfactory Relatively rates and to
pressures
reliability flexible to moderate
operate pressures
Relatively
Flowrates more
flexible to
regular than Excellent Excellent
operate
with reliability reliability
reciprocating
compressors

Not suitable for

Pulsed flow
low flow-rates
Moderate
Surging at low Large rotors,
reliability for the Not suitable for
flow-rates delicate and
Disadvantages valves high pressures
makes costly to
(50 bars max.)
operation manufacture
A back-up
sensitive
machine is
required
High price

Table 1: Advantages and disadvantages of the various compressor types

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 7 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

1.3. THE VARIOUS APPLICATIONS

The choice between a reciprocating compressor and a centrifugal compressor will depend
on the pressures to be obtained. Other parameters also need to be taken into account for
the final choice (size, weight, price, etc.).

Figure 7: Application ranges for the various compressor types

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 8 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

2. OPERATING PRINCIPLE OF COMPRESSORS

2.1. RECIPROCATING VOLUMETRIC COMPRESSORS

Reciprocating compressors comprise one or several pistons that move inside a cylinder.

When the piston is displaced, a volume of gas is drawn in through the side opposite from
the piston displacement.

Reciprocating compressors are widely used in petrochemicals, where the gas flow-rates
are low to medium and the compression ratios are high.

A typical example of the reciprocating principle is

the bicycle pump.

The body of the pump is called the CYLINDER.

The part that moves inside the cylinder is called
the PISTON.

Figure 8: Example of a bicycle pump

When the piston starts to move downwards, the

air contained in the cylinder is expelled from the
cylinder, via the hose connecting the pump to the bicycle. The air pressure in the tire
increases each time this operation is repeated

When the piston moves towards the top, a new volume of air is drawn into the cylinder.

If the piston compresses the gas only on one stroke ("to" movement) then the compressor
is said to be a single-effect compressor. If the piston compresses the gas on both strokes
("to" + "from"), the compressor is said to be a double-effect compressor.

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 9 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

Figure 9: Diagram of a double-effect piston

Figure 10: Double-effect compressor

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 10 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

In a piston reciprocating compressor, the compression is produced by one or several

cylinders.

A piston moves with a

reciprocating movement in
each of the cylinders, driven
by the connecting rod from
the moving section.

In the chamber, the piston

separates two chambers (or
effects) whose volume varies
as the piston moves.

Figure 11: Cross-section of a

double-effect cylinder

The suction and discharge of the gas in each of the effects is controlled by suction and
discharge valves or clapper valves, respectively.
The valves are opened by the difference in pressure on either side of the valve concerned.

Depending on the size of the cylinder, each effect can have 1 to 4 suction valves and as
many discharge valves.

Figure 12: Examples of valves

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 11 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

2.2. ROTARY VOLUMETRIC COMPRESSORS

2.2.1. The vane compressor

This type of compressor consists of a stator in which an eccentric rotor rotates. This rotor
has grooves that contain sliding vanes which are pressed against the wall of the stator by
centrifugal force.

Under the effect of centrifugal force, the vanes are continuously pressed against the
cylinder. The volume between the two successive vanes is variable.

The gas drawn in by the progressive increase in volume is then trapped between two
vanes and carried to the discharge.

In this discharge area, the volume decreases and the compressed gas escapes into the
discharge pipe.

Figure 13: Vane compressor

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 12 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

2.2.2. The screw (also called worm) compressor

The moving part consists of two screws (or threaded rods) which mesh with each other.

These screws rotate in opposite directions. The gas

passageway is parallel to the axes of the two screws.

The female screw always has one more screw turn (or
thread) than the male screw, with a different profile.

Figure 14: Male and female screws

The gas is progressively compressed as it passes through volumes that become smaller
and smaller until it reaches the discharge tube (the chambers are formed by the walls of
the body and the threads of the two screws).

Figure 15: Compression cycle

It can be said that a groove acts as a cylinder whose volume is progressively reduced by a
lobe that fills it, acting as the piston.

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 13 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

1st phase: Suction

On the suction tube end, a flute fills with gas for as long as it is in contact with the
suction aperture.

2nd phase: Compression

Due to the rotation of the rotors, the flute is separated from the suction aperture.
The gas imprisoned in the flute is compressed because the volume available for it is
reduced by the meshing of the lobes of the male rotor with those of the female rotor.

3rd phase: Discharge

Compression ends when the flute reaches the edge of the discharge aperture. The
compressed gas is then discharged regularly until the discharge aperture is closed
off again.

Comment:

To ensure a continuous flow of gas at the discharge end, the system is designed so that
there are always two flutes in contact with the suction and discharge apertures. One flute
therefore communicates with the discharge aperture before the previous one is completely
empty and moves beyond it.

2.2.3. The lobe compressor (Roots)

These compressors comprise two meshed rotors which have a lobe profile.

They are housed in a body with two orifices,

one for suction and the other for discharge.

Figure 16: Lobes

The meshing of the two rotors is obtained by means of a pair of synchronisation gears
(also called timing gears) located outside the machine.

The clearance between the two rotors can be between 0.1 and 1 mm, depending on the
type of machine.

The shafts of the rotors are supported by bearings, which are located on the outside.
Sealing between the internal chambers and the outside is provided either by packing
glands or by mechanical packings.

The two rotors are driven in opposite directions.

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN
Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 14 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

Figure 17: Principle of operation of a lobe compressor

The gas is entrained by the rotation of the lobes, from the suction to the discharge, without
any variation in volume between the inlet and outlet.

Figure 18: Principle of operation of a lobe compressor

As the rotors turn without any contact between them, no lubrication is necessary and the
compression is therefore free from impurities.

General specifications

flow-rate: 200 to 30,000 m3/h

usual compression ratio: 1.2 to 1.8

standard rotation speed: 1 500 to 2 000 rpm

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 15 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

2.3. CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

These are machines in which the exchange of energy takes place between a wheel
equipped with vanes that rotate around a shaft, and a permanent flow of fluid.

Figure 19: Centrifuge compressor

A centrifugal compressor is a dynamic compression

device that uses centrifugal force to increase the pressure
of the gas between one point and another.

Figure 20: Wheel of a centrifugal compressor (1)

The centrifugal compressor is classified as dynamic in

contrast to a positive displacement (reciprocating
machine).

It consists of:

a wheel with vanes that rotate around its shaft

a guide vane in the same axis as the wheel

a spiral manifold with an increasing cross-section,

called a volute or scroll.

Figure 21: Wheel of a centrifugal compressor (2)

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 16 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

The gas enters the machine through the guide vane assembly, in line with the axis of the
main shaft, and the centrifugal force generated by the rotation of the compressor wheel
projects it towards the outside of the wheel. It acquires a lot of kinetic energy that is
transformed into pressure energy in the manifold, which has an increasing cross-section.

At the input and output of each wheel, the gas is guided by parts of the stator that
constitute:

The gas intake duct of the intake flange of

the first wheel;

The diffuser at the outlet of each wheel. In

the diffuser, the pressure of the gas is
increased by reducing its velocity; this is
achieved due to the increase in cross-
section.

The return duct which guides the fluid at the

outlet of the diffuser, and conveys it to the
inlet of the next wheel.

The discharge volute which conveys the

gas to the discharge flange

Figure 22: Diffuser and volute

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 17 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

2.4. DYNAMIC AXIAL COMPRESSORS

The gas passes through the compressor parallel

to the axis of the rotating wheel.

The rotor sucks in and accelerates the gas.

The velocity of the gas is then reduced in the

stator.

This decrease in velocity causes an increase in

pressure.

Figure 23: Principle of the axial compressor wheel

Figure 24: Axial compressor wheel

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 18 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

3. THE VARIOUS TYPES OF COMPRESSOR

3.1. RECIPROCATING VOLUMETRIC COMPRESSORS

Figure 25: Reciprocating volumetric compressor

A reciprocating volumetric compressor is made up of two sections:

The "gas" section, which comprises the pistons, the valves (or clapper valves) and
the other parts that take part in the compression of the gas.

The "motion" section, which transforms the rotary movement into a reciprocating
movement, and which is not in contact with the gas.

3.1.1. The gas section

The gas section mainly consists of:

The pistons

The valves or clapper valves

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 19 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

3.1.1.1. The pistons

The pistons are usually made of metal and sometimes of aluminum alloy, for reasons of
weight and expansion. They are equipped with piston rings for to provide sealing with
respect to the cylinder wall and to align the piston.

Figure 26: Piston of a reciprocating compressor

3.1.1.2. The valves (also known as clapper valves)

The valves operate as check valves. They consist of a

fixed part that is secured to the cylinder of the compressor,
and a clapper that is free to move inside the fixed part.

Figure 27: Valves of a reciprocating compressor

As shown in the photos,

the valves are subject to
many mechanical forces
during their opening and
closing phases, and also
to relatively high
temperatures.

Figure 28: Valves

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 20 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

The deterioration of a valve results in abnormally high cylinder temperatures during the
operation of the compressor, and a loud clicking noise from the valves.

It is ABSOLUTELY ESSENTIAL to check the intake

and discharge temperatures of the cylinders every
day, or even several times a day.

Figure 29: "Hoerbiger" valves

The following problems can occur on these valves:

Valve sealing problem

Consequences:

Poor compression.

High temperature in the cylinder due to the temperature rise of the

compressed gas.

Burst valve

Consequences

Possible debris in the cylinder, resulting in a deterioration of the sealing

between the cylinder and the piston.

Risk of piston failure.

Shut-down of the machine due to vibrations.

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 21 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

3.1.2. The motion section

The motion section transforms the rotary motion into a reciprocating motion.

The components of the motion section are:

The crankshaft: this is supported by several pillow blocks and has eccentric shaft
sections known as crank pins, on which the connecting rods are articulated.

The piston rods: There is one connecting rod per cylinder. The big end is the end
which rotates on one of the crank pins of the crankshaft. The small end is the part
that of the connecting rod that rotates on the cross-head pin.

The cross-heads, also known as slipper blocks. There is one cross-head for each
cylinder, and therefore for each connecting rod. The cross-head are guided by
slipper guides which impose a rectilinear movement. The piston rod of each cylinder
is secured to the corresponding cross-head.

It is the "connecting rod + cross-head + guide" assembly that enables the continuous
rotary motion of the crankshaft to be converted into a reciprocating rectilinear motion that
is communicated to the piston by the piston rod.

4 2
7
1

6
3
8
5
1 Crankshaft 5 Cross-head
2 Crankshaft 6 Slipper guide
3 Connecting rod 7 Piston rod
4 Cross-head / connecting rod 8 Piston
joint

Figure 30: Motion section of a reciprocating compressor

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 22 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

The various components of the motion section are housed in the block or casing.

Each cylinder is connected to the block by a spacer (or intermediate section), which can
comprise either one or two intermediate compartments if the gas to be compressed is
dangerous.

3.1.3. Sealing of the "gas" section

3.1.3.1. Sealing between the piston and the cylinder

In order to maintain proper sealing between the cylinder and the piston, and to facilitate
the piston displacement, the latter is surrounded by a series of piston rings.

For double-effect pistons, two sets of piston rings are provided:

Carrier ring
This ring distributes the weight of
the piston around the cylinder
and guides the piston in the
cylinder in order to maintain
appropriate rod movement and
coaxiality between the cylinder
and the piston.
Certain pistons are mounted
without carrier rings, thereby
requiring lubrication.

Figure 31: Carrier rings

Sealing ring

This ring provides sealing between the

front and rear effects.

Figure 32: Piston rings

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 23 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

3.1.3.2. Sealing between the piston rod and the "motion" section

This sealing is provided by the packing of the piston rod. It

consists of a stack of rings which press against the rod
and prevent the gas from passing.

The packings are usually connected to the LP torch

system in order to evacuate any gas trapped between
them.

Figure 33: Piston rod packing

There are secondary seals and nitrogen barriers in the safety spacers.

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 24 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

3.2. ROTARY VOLUMETRIC COMPRESSORS

These machines have an undeniable advantage in that, unlike reciprocating compressors,

they produce a constant flow rather that a pulsating flow.

There are basically three types of volumetric compressor in use:

rotary lobe type compressors,

rotary screw compressors (helical),

rotary vane compressors (for example used to compress flare gas).

3.2.1. The vane compressor

Operating characteristics:

Suction volume flow : 200 to 5 000 m3/h

Compression ratio : up to 7

Rotation speed : 1 500 rpm

Peripheral velocity : 16 to 17 m/s

3.2.2. The screw compressor

This type de compressor is often used in our installations to supply the instrument air and
utility air systems.

There are two types of screw compressor:

non-lubricated screw compressors,

lubricated screw compressors.

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 25 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

3.2.2.1. Lubricated screw compressor

The component parts are the same as

for the non-lubricated compressor.

In lubricated compressors, oil is

purposely mixed with the air at the
compressor intake.

Figure 34: Cross-sectional view of a

lubricated Screw Compressor

In the case of lubricated screws, the

synchronisation gears are not necessary, as the screws are in contact with each other.
Its presence serves three purposes:

to absorb most of the heat generated by compression, which makes it

possible to reduce the temperature of the gas and increase the efficiency,

to lubricate the pillow blocks,

to improve the efficiency of the machine by reducing the internal leaks, due
to its presence between the lobe and the casing.

The fluid discharged into the compressor block is a mixture of compressed air and oil. It is
directed to a triple effect separator in which the air is cleared of the oil it contains.

Final purification of the air is achieved by means of a de-oiling cartridge with a high
separation capability. The oil is therefore fully recovered and, after passing through a
cooler, returns to the compressor under the effect of the pressure.

However, this type of compressor is no longer recommended due to the risk of fire
experienced on a few installations.
Effectively, when the screws are worn or suffer from increased mechanical play, the oil
vaporises and ignites in the contact of air and the hot parts.

General characteristics

Intake volume flow: 150 to 20,000 m3/h

Discharge pressure: up to 50 bars

Rotation speed: 3 000 to 20 000 rpm

Peripheral velocity: 20 to 40 m/s

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 26 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

Figure 35: Cutaway and internal view of a lubricated screw compressor

3.2.2.2. Non-lubricated screw compressor

With practically the same constitution as the previous compressor, the absence of any
metal-to-metal contact practically eliminates all risk of wear to the compression parts and
avoids power loss due to friction.

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 27 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

3.3. CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSORS

Figure 36: Centrifugal compressor with vertical mating face (Barrel)

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 28 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

Figure 37: Two-stage centrifugal compressor with horizontal mating face

3.3.1. Rotor and compressor casing

3.3.1.1. General

The casing of a compressor must fulfill a certain number functions:

It houses all the internal parts of the compressor: rotor with its pillow blocks,
its thrust bearing and its sealing devices; stator with the parts that make up the
diffuser and the return duct; vibration or axial displacement sensor.

It provides the connection to the process by means of intake and discharge

flanges.

It provides the mechanical strength of the entire machine to withstand the

internal pressure, and the sealing of the internal chamber with respect to the
atmosphere.

It supports and locates the compressor.

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 29 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

3.3.1.2. Stator design

Stator with horizontal mating faces: This

design is used for low and medium pressures
between 40 and 100 bar . The stator is
manufactured in two parts, which are
assembled with a horizontal parting line (metal-
to-metal contact).

This configuration is adopted for axial

compressors and centrifugal compressors
producing low and medium pressure levels.

Figure 38: Stator with horizontal mating faces

Stator with vertical mating faces

("barrel"): this is used for high
pressures . This configuration is
adopted for high-pressure
centrifugal compressors.

Figure 39: Stator with vertical

mating faces

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 30 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

Figure 40: Centrifugal compressor

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 31 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

3.3.1.3. The rotor

The rotor, which is driven by a coupling, is

rotationally guided by two pillow blocks, which are
generally located one at each end.

These bearings can consist of plain pillow blocks

or can be equipped with linings, which are better
suited to high rotation speeds and high loads.
Although still rare, magnetic bearings are
currently being developed and starting to appear.

The axial positioning of the rotor is ensured by a

thrust bearing located at the end of the rotor
(usually on at the end opposite to the coupling
(EOC)). This thrust bearing usually consists of
liners that press against a collar on the shaft.

Figure 41: Rotor with wheels

The axial force against the

thrust bearing is generated by the
difference between the pressure on each
wheel and any thrust due to coupling.
To achieve the right balance in the
mobile part in the stator, a collector
called a balancing line may be installed.
It can be considerably reduced by
astutely arranging the wheels (dual-flow
wheels or back-to-back wheels), or by
using a balancing piston or drum.

Figure 42: Positioning of the rotor

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 32 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

3.3.1.4. Centrifugal compressor wheels

Figure 43: Centrifugal compressor wheels

The open wheel is used for medium flow-rates and high discharge pressures. It is only
used in single-stage compressors.

The semi-enclosed wheel is used for high flow-rates. This type of wheel can be used to
equip multi-stage or single-stage compressors.

The enclosed wheel is mainly used in multi-stage compressors.

The wheels enable the required quantity of gas

to be compressed under the operating
conditions.

These wheels are mounted on a shaft, the

complete assembly constitutes the rotor, whose
rotation speed can exceed 20,000 rpm.

Figure 44: Operating principle of a wheel

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 33 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

3.3.2. The oil sealing system

1/ Turbo compressor 6/ Lub oil cooler

2/ Spur type gear 7/ Lube oil filter
3/ Lub oil tank 8/ Seal oil tank
4/ Auxilliary lube oil pump 9/ seal oil pump
5/ Main lube oil 10 / seal oil cooler

The lube oil supply lubricates mechanical parts such as

Lube oil supply
bearings.

The seal oil supply contributes to sealing by creating an

Seal oil supply
oil barrier against potential gas leaks.

Used to control the system’s oil temperature. If the oil is

Refrigerant
too hot, its fluidity may increase and it will not do the job
(CoolingSystem)
it is supposed to do.

Used to evacuate calories stored in the coolant and

Cooling water
participating in the temperature regulation.

Figure 45: Typical sealing system

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN
Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 34 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

See course on packings for details of operation.

The following photos are given as examples only. Seal packings will be covered in a
specific course.

Figure 46: Examples of seal packings

The system is designed to:

produce an oil pressure in excess of the gas pressure,

maintain this pressure until the machine comes to a complete standstill in the case
of a cut-out,

create this pressure before the machine is started up, and for the time it takes to
heat up the drive turbine in the case of turbo-compressors.

This fluid can be an inert gas or a gas that is specific to the case of sealing by means o
labyrinths or dry packings.

A seal labyrinth is a type of seal used in compressors. Labyrinths do not completely stop
leaks but greatly reduce them. For this reason, labyrinths are generally used as seals
between the different stages of a compressor.

As for a shaft seal, they are often used in

combination with other types of seals.

Sealing is particularly important (if there is a

leak to the outside, there is a risk to human life)
and is therefore regularly checked and
monitored by safety alarms and systems.

Figure 47: Seal labyrinth

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN
Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 35 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

The system comprises:

the oil tank or reservoir,

the oil pumps,

the coolants,

the filters,

a pressurized oil accumulator tank,

the pressurized oil distribution pipes,

the non-contaminated oil return pipes, which return the oil to the main oil tank at
atmospheric pressure,

the contaminated oil return pipes, which return the contaminated oil to the
scavenge tank at the gas pressure,

the drain valves and the main oil tank,

the monitoring, warning and safety equipment.

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 36 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

3.3.3. The gas sealing system

The principle of operation of the spiral-grooved gas packing is based on an equilibrium of

the aerostatic forces and aerodynamic forces to provide a minimum and stable interface
seal.

The aerodynamic forces are only produced in rotation. During rotation, the spiral grooves
play an essential part by generating an opening force that enables an acceptable interface
clearance to be obtained.

Figure 48: Functional diagram of a gas

packing monitoring system

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 37 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

3.4. DYNAMIC AXIAL COMPRESSORS

Axial compressors are used to generate high flow-rates.

Constitution

These compressors are made up of the following components:

Inducer blades (adjustable inlet guide

vanes): Their purpose is to guide the fluid as
it enters the wheel. They enable the
characteristics of the compressor to be
adapted to the variations in the
characteristics of the system it supplies. In
other words, the volume of fluid can be
maintained constant by adjusting the
position of these blades.

Figure 49: Adjustable blades

Diffuser: Its purpose is to convert the dynamic pressure of the fluid into static
pressure by reducing the velocity. The vanes in the diffuser are sometimes
adjustable, in which case they play the same part as the adjustable inlet guide
vanes.

Figure 50: Axial compressor rotor

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 38 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

Figure 51: Dynamic axial compressor

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 39 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

3.5. TURBO-EXPANDERS

The turbo-expander consists of an expansion

turbine which is "linked up" to a compression
stage, which recovers the energy produced
by the expansion of the gas.

Figure 52: Turbo-expander

The expansion of gas with a pressure

reduction ratio has its main applications in the
gas industry (recovery of natural gas
condensates), in the petrochemical industry
(recovery of ethylene from pyrolysis gas) and
in the production of oxygen by separation of
air.

In all these applications, the main objective is

the generation of low temperatures, and sometimes also the adaptation of the gas
pressure to the process used.

There are 3 main sections:

The expander casing and the parts that are attached to it: adjustable inlet
guide vane actuator grid and their discharge diffuser support.

The compressor casing which contains the main components.

The purely mechanical section, which is located between the previous two
sections and is connected to them via the 4 inlet / outlet pipes.

Description of the expander casing section.

The gas enters from the top and exits axially.

A grid of adjustable vanes enables the flow to be shut off automatically (thus also enabling
a progressive start-up), and opened to varying degrees in order to vary the flow-rate and
therefore maintain an acceptable efficiency of the expansion system.

Since a part of the expansion occurs in these vanes, the decrease in temperature and the
slightest formation of ice or various types of hydrate, or even the presence of dust, will
tend to block the system and prevent the regulation from operating.

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 40 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

Description of the compressor casing section

The casing is obtained by machining cast or welded rough parts, and comprises an axial
inlet and a tangential outlet.

Figure 53: Principle of operation of a Turbo-expander

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 41 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

Figure 54: Turbo-expander

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 42 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

3.6. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE VARIOUS TYPES

Volumetric compressors Dynamic compressors

Type of
compressor
Reciprocating Rotary Centrifugal Axial

Well adapted to Very high

Well adapted to
Can propel medium and efficiency
low flow-rates
gases at a wide high gas flow-
range of flow- rates Well adapted to
Can propel
rates very high flow-
gases at all
Advantages Relatively rates and to
pressures
Regular flow flexible to moderate
operate pressures
Relatively
Satisfactory
flexible to
reliability Excellent Excellent
operate
reliability reliability

Pulsed flow Not suitable for

low flow-rates
Moderate
Large rotors,
reliability for the Surging
Rarely used for delicate and
Disadvantages valves phenomena at
high pressures costly to
low flow-rates
manufacture
A back-up makes
machine is operation
necessary sensitive

Table 2: Advantages and disadvantages of the various types of compressor

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 43 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

4. REPRESENTATION OF COMPRESSORS AND COMPRESSOR

DATA

Description of the equipment

PID: Ao31440B (Appendix A)
Compressor: Centrifugal
Brand: Nuovo Pignone
Type: BCL 407

Operation settings
Fluid: gas
Suction T°: 40°C
Discharge T°: 160°C
Discharge pressure: 28.8 BARG
Suction rate: 7239 m3/h

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 44 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

5. COMPRESSORS IN THE PROCESS

5.1. LOCATION AND CRITICALITY

As we have seen previously, a compressor is used to transfer gas from one location to
another:

Transfer of gas from a platform to the onshore installations.

Compression of air to supply the "instrument" and "utility" air systems.

Injection of gas into the reservoir.

If this function stops, it is easy to understand that this will cause serious problems for the
correct operation of the installation.

Take the example of compressors, located in the gas processing line and transferring the
gas from a desulfurization unit to a dehydration unit. The criticality will be high because the
shut-down of any of these compressors will result in halted production.

It is for this reason in particular that in some installations a backup compressor is installed,
in case a problem occurs.

Figure 55: Location of the compressor in the process

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 45 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

6. AUXILIARY SYSTEMS

6.1. THE AUXILIARY SYSTEMS OF A RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR

1 Air intake manifold 12 Compressor piston

2 Drive cylinder 13 Cylinder discharge valves
3 Intake valve 14 Compressor piston rod
4 Intake valve rockers 15 Guide cross-head
5 Cylinder head 16 Compressor connecting rod
6 Exhaust manifolds 17 Crankshaft
7 Exhaust manifolds 18 Drive connecting rods
8 Camshaft 19 Casing
9 Air intake manifold 20 Cylinder envelope
10 Cylinder suction valves 21 Drive piston
11 Adjustable dead space control 22 Intake manifold safety valve

Figure 56: View of a reciprocating compressor

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN
Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 46 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

Figure 57: Diagram of the auxiliary systems of a reciprocating compressor

6.1.1. Cooling

When a gas is compressed, its temperature increases. This heat is dissipated in the
various parts of the compressor.

When mechanical parts are in regular motion, their temperature increases.

It is therefore necessary to provide a cooling system. This system causes water to

circulate around the cylinder of the compressor.

In order to ensure that this cooling water is always at a regular temperature, it is routed
through refrigerants and heat exchanger type coolers of another type of temperature
regulation system.
(Heat exchangers are covered in a different course).

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 47 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

6.1.2. Lubrication

The function of the lubrication system is to ensure lubrication during operation and prior to
start-up, in other words to supply the shaft assembly with a flow of oil which is constant
in terms of viscosity, pressure, temperature and filtration.

This function is usually provided by an oil unit, which may be shared with the sealing
system.

The oil unit comprises:

the oil tank or reservoir,

the coolers,

the filters,

a pressure tank, if necessary,

the distribution pipes,

the oil return pipes,

the monitoring, warning and safety equipment.

6.1.3. Alarms and safety systems

The function of these auxiliary systems is to ensure:

The correct operation of the compressor throughout the range of

characteristics required by the process.

the start-up of the plant without any incidents on the machine (drive,
coupling, step-up gearbox) ...,

emergency shut-down: indication, deceleration and isolation of the

compressor.

Temperature threshold and vibration sensors

Packing leaks

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 48 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

6.2. AUXILIARY SYSTEMS OF ROTARY VOLUMETRIC COMPRESSORS

6.2.1. The vane compressor

Operation with lubrication:

The vanes are usually made of composite material. The oil, in addition to reducing the
friction between the vanes and the stator, also evacuates calories and improves the
sealing at the points of contact between the vanes and the stator. In this configuration, the
compressed gas is contaminated by the oil.

Cooling

Different methods can be used to eliminate the heat produced by compression and friction:

Forced air circulation: in this case, the compressor is equipped with cooling fins.

Water circulation in a double cooling envelope around the cylinder.

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 49 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

6.3. AUXILIARY SYSTEMS OF THE CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR

Figure 58: Diagram of the auxiliary systems of a centrifugal compressor

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN
Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 50 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

6.3.1. Lubrication

The operation of the pillow blocks and thrust bearings is dependent on the "hydrodynamic"
principle, i.e. on the build-up and sustainment of an oil wedge.
Oil wedge: this is the very thin layer of oil that is found between two parts and prevents
direct friction between them when they are moving.
The lubrication pressure does not contribute to the build-up of this oil wedge in any way,
but simply enables the pillow block to be filled and the flow to be maintained, which in turn
determines the temperature of the pillow block and therefore the viscosity of the oil in the
pillow block and thrust bearing.

The oil temperature is maintained at a suitable level by the coolers (oil that is too cold and
viscous) and by heaters (oil that is too hot is unusable) installed in the system. They
ensure the removal of the calories introduced by:

the solid sections of the shaft (particularly at the discharge end),

the actual operation of the pillow blocks and thrust bearings.

The pressure measured at the discharge of the auxiliary oil pumps depends mainly on the
connection pipes between the oil unit and the machine (lengths and diameters that
determine the pressure loss as a function of the required flow-rate).

The flow-rate of the lubricant depends solely on the quantity of heat to be evacuated from
the pillow block.

The viscosity of the oil required for the correct operation of the pillow block will determine
the quality of the lubricant chosen according to the parameters of the machine: rotation
speed, weight of rotor, specific load, type of pillow block, on-load operating temperature of
the machine, material of which the rotor is made, etc.

The filtration depends on the operating clearances of the pillow block and on the type of
pillow block.

Alarms and safety systems

The function of these auxiliary systems is to ensure:

the correct operation of the compressor throughout the range of characteristics

required by the process: the equipment will inform the operator when the machine's
surge and overload areas have almost been reached, and if necessary will operate the
corresponding anti-surge or rpm limiting auxiliary systems,

the start-up of the unit without any negative effect on the mechanical condition of its
components: compressor, drive machine, coupling, step-up gearbox, etc.,

emergency shut-down: indication, deceleration and isolation of the compressor.

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 51 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

The main function of the alarms is to enable the operators to complete the necessary
operations for correcting operational anomalies, performing adjustments and carrying out
routine maintenance in good time, without having to stop the machine.

Among these functions, the anti-surge system is an important safety device for the
protection of the compressor.

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 52 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

7. OPERATING PARAMETERS

7.1. ANTI-SURGE SYSTEM

Surging is an extremely violent phenomenon which involves the entire mass of gas
present in the machine.

The gas no longer flows regularly through the machine but is subject to alternating
movements in all or part of the compressor.

It results in:

vibrations in the vanes of the compressor wheels,

reversed axial thrust on the rotor,

very low frequency vibrations in the compressor assembly (dull rumbling),

which are obviously very detrimental to the mechanical strength of the
machine.

The surge phenomenon occurs in the operating areas where the gas flow is slow.

It is therefore possible to show, in a compression ratio Vs flow-rate diagram, a prohibited

operating area limited by a curve known as the surge limit curve.

Figure 59: Prohibited operating area

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN
Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 53 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

It is therefore important to permanently ensure that there is a sufficient gas flow in the
machine so that it is always working above the surge limit.

In practice, if the flow-rate required by the process falls below the surge limit, an anti-
surge control system similar to the one shown in the above curve provides a means of
ensuring a sufficiently high flow-rate in the compressor so that it operates in a stable zone:
the excess gas flowing through the machine is cooled and recirculated to the suction end,
or is vented to the atmosphere in the case of an air compressor.

For this reason, it is clear that the operation of a compressor needs to be monitored very
carefully because the slightest problem can have very considerable consequences in
terms of equipment safety and cost.

The operating parameters to be measured and monitored are listed in the following table.
Some of these parameters are measured on the DCR displays in the control room, and are
recorded in the system history. All the other parameters are measured directly on the
machine by the operator. It is important to pay particular attention to the noise produced by
the compressor, because certain variations in this noise indicate problems.

Figure 60: Example of a centrifugal compressor anti-surge control system

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 54 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

8. OPERATION OF COMPRESSORS

8.1. STARTING UP A RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR

The following is a simplified standard start-up sequence. It contains the typical phases
used on the machines installed on our sites. It will be necessary to obtain the
"OPERGUID" procedures from the site corresponding to the machines installed. The latter
procedures prevail over any procedures given herein.

8.1.1. Preparation of the auxiliary systems

Cooling water system: start-up on the cylinders, on the oil cooler and on the
intercoolers.

Lubrication system: make sure that there is a sufficient quantity of oil in the
frame and in the mechanical lubricator unit.

Check the oil circulation to the cylinders and packings by manually operating the
lubricators, after disconnecting the check valves screwed onto the cylinder cases
and spacers.

Configure and activate the lubrication systems.

Bleed: the pulse dampers, the buffer tanks of each stage,

the spacers.

Instrument air: supply the suction valve control devices.

Vent the piston rod packings.

Open the valves:

to the LP torch,

to the atmospheric vent,

to the vacuum restart tank.

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 55 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

8.1.2. Preparation of the compressor

Vacuum pumping of the compressor by locking the suction valves open,

opening the bypass, or by opening additional dead spaces.

Crank the compressor using a crank handle (if provided).

Flush the gas systems and the compressor with inert gas.

Configure the system to start according to the defined procedure.

8.1.3. Starting up the compressor

Safety chart: Reset the bars (reset of the alarms and safety systems)

Lubrication:

Pre-lubricate the moving section by operating the manual or electric pump. Make
sure that the lubrication operates correctly: at the correct pressure.

By manually operating the mechanical lubricators, pre-lubricate the piston rod

packings.

Start the drive machine

Compressors driven by electric motors accelerate off-load in about 10 seconds. They can
begin compressing gas within less than 1/2 a minute.

Loading of the compressor and connection of the systems according to the current
procedure.

Monitoring of the various points to be monitored on:

the Process system,

the lubrication systems,

the cooling system,

the separator chambers.

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 56 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

8.2. STARTING UP A CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR

8.2.1. Preparation

Lubricating and sealing oil systems:

Check the levels in the tanks – Top up if necessary.

Bleed off the water from the bottom of the tanks.

Start up the heating system to a temperature of ~ 40 °C.

Check that the oil systems are open.

Safety system tests.

Start up the lubrication system.

Open the water supply to the coolers.

Check the pressures and temperatures.

Dp through the filters in service, inert gas pressure in the tanks.

Open the vapor and bleed systems.

Start up the sealing system.

Same operations as above.

On the lubrication system, check that a decrease in pressure initially causes the back-
up pump to start, then causes the plant to shut down.

On the sealing system, check that a decrease in level in the upper tank initially causes
the back-up pump to start, then causes the plant to shut down.

Process system:

Pressurize the compressor.

Bleed the low points of the compressor.

Check the process safety systems.

Configure the system to start up according to the defined procedure.

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 57 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

8.2.2. Starting up the compressor

Request for authorization to start up.

Reset the safety chart.

Bypass the low flow-rate safety systems if appropriate.

Start the drive machine or follow the recommended acceleration procedure (steam
turbine).

Load the compressor and connect the systems according to the current procedure.

Set the oil temperature at the outlets of the coolers to approximately 50 °C.

8.2.3. Monitoring in operation

Process system:

Suction pressure.

Discharge pressure.

Suction temperature.

Flow discharge temperature.

Anti-surge system.

Buffer tank levels.

Auxiliary systems:

Pressure, temperatures, oil circulation.

Dp through filters.

Gas/oil separation of contaminated sealing oil.

Barrage gas pressure.

Inert gas discharge pressure into the tanks.

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 58 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

Drive system:

Temperature and vibrations of the step-up gearbox.

Electric motor current.

Steam systems: Pressures - Temperatures.

8.2.4. Monitoring in operation

Lubrication and sealing systems.

Levels in oil tanks.

Pressure.

Temperature.

Dp through filters.

Process system

Buffer tank levels.

Suction and discharge pressures.

Suction and discharge temperature.

Gas flow-rate, stability.

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 59 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

8.3. 1st LEVEL MAINTENANCE

1st level maintenance (also called servicing) includes:

Cleanness: cleanness is essential to good health and makes leak detection

easier, for example.

Levels: topping up.

Fuels: filling, filters.

Lubrication, samples, checks.*

Manual lubrication

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 60 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

9. TROUBLESHOOTING

9.1. POSSIBLE CAUSES OF OPERATIONAL ANOMALIES

Increase leakage due to:

destruction of the inter-stage labyrinths,

fouling of the ducts and wheels of a centrifugal compressor,

early signs of seizure of a packing, a pillow block or a thrust bearing.

By monitoring the performance of a machine, and particularly its efficiency data, it is

possible to monitor the condition of the internal parts of the machine while it is in operation.
Other measurements and other information are obviously essential (vibration level, axial
displacements, oil overheating, results of oil analyses, etc.), in order to determine the
mechanical condition of the compressor.

Caution, leaks that are presumed to be internal may in fact be caused by poor sealing of
process valves or improper positioning.

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 61 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 62 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

10. SUMMARY OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Example of a screw (or worm) type air compressor..............................................4
Figure 2: Main categories of compressors ...........................................................................5
Figure 3: Reciprocating compressor ....................................................................................6
Figure 4: Screw-type rotary compressor ..............................................................................6
Figure 5: Centrifugal compressor.........................................................................................6
Figure 6: Axial flow compressor...........................................................................................6
Figure 7: Application ranges for the various compressor types ...........................................8
Figure 8: Example of a bicycle pump...................................................................................9
Figure 9: Diagram of a double-effect piston .......................................................................10
Figure 10: Double-effect compressor.................................................................................10
Figure 11: Cross-section of a double-effect cylinder..........................................................11
Figure 12: Examples of valves...........................................................................................11
Figure 13: Vane compressor..............................................................................................12
Figure 14: Male and female screws ...................................................................................13
Figure 15: Compression cycle ...........................................................................................13
Figure 16: Lobes................................................................................................................14
Figure 17: Principle of operation of a lobe compressor......................................................15
Figure 18: Principle of operation of a lobe compressor......................................................15
Figure 19: Centrifuge compressor .....................................................................................16
Figure 20: Wheel of a centrifugal compressor (1) ..............................................................16
Figure 21: Wheel of a centrifugal compressor (2) ..............................................................16
Figure 22: Diffuser and volute............................................................................................17
Figure 23: Principle of the axial compressor wheel............................................................18
Figure 24: Axial compressor wheel....................................................................................18
Figure 25: Reciprocating volumetric compressor...............................................................19
Figure 26: Piston of a reciprocating compressor................................................................20
Figure 27: Valves of a reciprocating compressor...............................................................20
Figure 28: Valves ...............................................................................................................20
Figure 29: "Hoerbiger" valves ............................................................................................21
Figure 30: Motion section of a reciprocating compressor ..................................................22
Figure 31: Carrier rings ......................................................................................................23
Figure 32: Piston rings .......................................................................................................23
Figure 33: Piston rod packing ............................................................................................24
Figure 34: Cross-sectional view of a lubricated Screw Compressor ..................................26
Figure 35: Cutaway and internal view of a lubricated screw compressor ..........................27
Figure 36: Centrifugal compressor with vertical mating face (Barrel).................................28
Figure 37: Two-stage centrifugal compressor with horizontal mating face.........................29
Figure 38: Stator with horizontal mating faces ...................................................................30
Figure 39: Stator with vertical mating faces .......................................................................30
Figure 40: Centrifugal compressor.....................................................................................31
Figure 41: Rotor with wheels .............................................................................................32
Figure 42: Positioning of the rotor......................................................................................32
Figure 43: Centrifugal compressor wheels.........................................................................33
Figure 44: Operating principle of a wheel ..........................................................................33

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 63 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

Figure 45: Typical sealing system......................................................................................34

Figure 46: Examples of seal packings ...............................................................................35
Figure 47: Seal labyrinth ....................................................................................................35
Figure 48: Functional diagram of a gas packing monitoring system ..................................37
Figure 49: Adjustable blades .............................................................................................38
Figure 50: Axial compressor rotor......................................................................................38
Figure 51: Dynamic axial compressor................................................................................39
Figure 52: Turbo-expander ................................................................................................40
Figure 53: Principle of operation of a Turbo-expander.......................................................41
Figure 54: Turbo-expander ................................................................................................42
Figure 55: Location of the compressor in the process .......................................................45
Figure 56: View of a reciprocating compressor..................................................................46
Figure 57: Diagram of the auxiliary systems of a reciprocating compressor ......................47
Figure 58: Diagram of the auxiliary systems of a centrifugal compressor ..........................50
Figure 59: Prohibited operating area .................................................................................53
Figure 61: Example of a centrifugal compressor anti-surge control system.......................54

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 64 / 65
 Exploration & Production
Equipment
Compressors

11. SUMMARY OF TABLES

Table 1: Advantages and disadvantages of the various compressor types .........................7
Table 2: Advantages and disadvantages of the various types of compressor ...................43

Training course: EXP-PR-EQ130-EN

Last revised: 17/01/2007 Page 65 / 65