Wireless Networks

There are four main types of wireless networks.

1. Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPAN) are short-range networks that connect devices
within a relatively small area. A WPAN generally connects devices within a person's reach,
though the range can extend up to about 30 feet. Using Bluetooth technology, a WPAN can
interconnect compatible devices near a central location, such interconnecting a headset to a
laptop on your desk.

2. Wireless Local Area Networks (WLAN) are wireless networks that use radio waves, not
Bluetooth technology like WPANs. There is usually at least one cable that is the access point
for internet access, such as a wired internet connection going into a router, which then
broadcasts the wireless signal to other devices. WLANs are used for connecting to local
resources and to the internet. The range can be confined to a single room or home or spread
across an entire building or campus with the use of spread-spectrum or OFDM technologies.

3. Wireless Wide Area Networks (WWAN) can be maintained over large areas, such as cities or
countries, via multiple satellite systems, antenna sites or mobile phone signals. With a wide
coverage area, WWANs provide a way to stay connected when other forms of network access
are unavailable.

4. Wireless Metropolitan Area Networks (WMAN) connect several different WLANs in a

metropolitan area, such as different buildings in a city.

Mobile Generations
As the Cellular systems improvised with respect to voice quality and data rate, they were
categorized into generations. In this section, the main features of all generations are
described.
A. First Generation (1G): These phones were the first mobile phones to be used, which was
introduced in 1982 and completed in early 1990. It was used for voice services and was based
on AMPS. The AMPS system was frequency modulated and used frequency division multiple
access (FDMA) with a channel capacity of 30 KHz and frequency band of 824- 894MHz. Its basic
features were:

• Use analog signal

• Poor voice quality
• Poor battery life
• Large phone size
• Limited capacity
• Poor security
• Offered very low level of spectrum efficiency
It introduced mobile technologies such as Mobile Telephone System (MTS), Advanced Mobile
Telephone System (AMTS), Improved Mobile Telephone Service (IMTS), and Push to Talk
(PTT). It had no security at all since voice calls were played back in radio towers, making
these calls susceptible to unwanted eavesdropping by third parties.
B. Second Generation (2G): 2G refers to the second generation based on GSM and was
emerged in late 1980s. It uses digital signals for voice transmission. Main focus of this
technology was on digital signals and it also provides services to deliver text and picture
message at low speed (in Kbps). It uses the bandwidth of 30 to 200 KHz. The main features of
2G are :

• Data speed: upto 9.6 Kbps to 14.4 Kbps.

• Use digital signals
• Enables services such as text messages
• Provides better quality and capacity
• Unable to handle complex data such as videos

C. 2.5 G and 2.75 G: The GSM technology was continuously modified and improvised to
provide better services which led to development of advanced technologies between 2G and
3G. Next to 2G, 2.5G and then 2.75 G system uses packet switched and circuit switched
domain and provides data rate up to 384 kbps. e.g. GPRS , EDGE and IS95B. It’s features are:

• Totally digital and packet switched

• Send/receive e-mail messages
• Web browsing
• Speed : 64-384 Kbps
• Camera phones
• Take a time of 6-9 mins. to download a 3 mins. MP3 song.

D. Third Generation (3G): 3G is based on GSM and was launched in 2000. The aim of this
technology was to offer high speed data. The original technology was improved to allow data
up to 14 Mbps and more using packet switching. It also offers data services, access to
television/video, new services like Global Roaming. It operates at a range of 2100MHz and has
a bandwidth of 5-20MHz used for High-speed internet service, video chatting. 3G mobile
system is called as UMTS (Universal Mobile Telecommunication System) in Europe, while
CDMA2000 is the name of American 3G variant.
The main features of 3G are:

• Speed: 2 Mbps, hence provides faster communication

• Typically, the devices are called smart phones
• Increased bandwidth and data transfer rates to accommodate web-based applications and
audio and video files.
• Provides faster communication
• High speed web/more security/video conferencing/3D gaming
 • Large capacities and broadband capabilities ( To download a 3 minute MP3 song only 11 sec-
1.5 mins time required. )
• TV streaming/mobile TV/Phone calls
• Expensive fees for 3G licenses services
• It was challenge to build the infrastructure for 3G
• High bandwidth requirement
• Expensive 3G handsets

E. Fourth Generation (4G): 4G offers a downloading speed of 100Mbps. 4G provides same

feature as 3G and additional services like Multi-Media Newspapers, to watch T.V programs
with more clarity and send data much faster than previous generations . LTE (Long Term
Evolution) is considered as 4G technology. 4G is being developed to accommodate the
(Quality of Service) QoS and rate requirements set by forthcoming applications like wireless
broadband access, Multimedia Messaging Service (MMS), video chat, mobile TV, HDTV
content, Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB), minimal services like voice and data, and other
services that utilize bandwidth.
The main features of 4G are:

• Speed: 10Mbps-1Gbps
• High quality streaming video
• High security
• Provide any kind of service at any time as per user requirements anywhere
• Expanded multimedia services
• Complex to implement
• Need complicated hardware
• Expensive equipments required to implement next generation network

F. Fifth Generation (5G): 5G refers to Fifth Generation which started from late 2010s.
Facilities that might be seen with 5G technology includes far better levels of connectivity and
coverage. The main focus of 5G will be on world-Wireless World Wide Web (WWWW). It is a
complete wireless communication with no limitations. The main features of 5G are :

• It is highly supportable to WWWW (wireless World Wide Web)

• High speed, high capacity
• Provides large broadcasting of data in Gbps
• Multi-media newspapers, watch TV programs with the clarity (HD Clarity)
• Faster data transmission that of the previous generation
• Large phone memory, dialing speed, clarity in audio/video
• Support interactive multimedia, voice, streaming video, internet and other

Handheld wireless communication device means a wireless communication device

that is portable, and includes, but is not limited to, wireless telephones, tablets, ipads,
smartphones, or laptops, whether it is physically attached to a vehicle.
GSM in Wireless Communication
GSM stands for Global System for Mobile Communication. GSM is
an open and digital cellular technology used for mobile
communication. It uses 4 different frequency bands of 850 MHz,
900 MHz, 1800 MHz and 1900 MHz . It uses the combination of
FDMA and TDMA. This article includes all the concepts of GSM
architecture and how it works.

GSM is having 4 different sizes of cells are used in GSM :

1. Macro : In this size of cell, Base Station antenna is installed.

2. Micro : In this size of cell, antenna height is less than the
average roof level.
3. Pico : Small cells’ diameter of few meters.
4. Umbrella : It covers the shadowed (Fill the gaps between
cells) regions.

Features of GSM are :

1. Supports international roaming

2. Clear voice clarity
3. Ability to support multiple handheld devices.
4. Spectral / frequency efficiency
5. Low powered handheld devices.
6. Ease of accessing network
7. International ISDN compatibility.

Mobile Fax: With GSM, you can send and receive faxes to any place where
GSM service is available.

Secured LAN access: GSM provides secured access for corporate LAN. It
encrypts the air links and provides additional security for confidential e-mails
and faxes.

Advantages of GSM
o Since GSM service is obtained over 200 countries, so it provides worldwide
roaming for its clients to roam throughout the world.
 o GSM is extremely secured because its devices and facilities cannot be easily
duplicated.

o It has an extensive coverage in all over the world.

o Clear voice calls and efficient use of spectrum.

o Compatible with wide range of handsets and accessories.

o Advanced features such as short messages, caller ID, Call hold, Call forwarding
etc.

o Compatible with Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) and other

telephone company services.

Disadvantages of GSM
o The biggest disadvantage of GSM is that multiple users share the same
bandwidth. This may cause interference and due to interference bandwidth
limitation occurs.

o The other disadvantage of GSM is that it may cause electronic interference.

That is the reason why sensitive locations like hospitals and airplanes require
cell phone to be turned off otherwise it can create interference with the
equipments of hospitals and airplanes.

CDMA Full Form

CDMA stands for Code Division Multiple Access. It is basically a
channel access method and is also an example of multiple access.
Multiple access basically means that information by several
transmitters can be sent simultaneously onto a single
communication channel.
 There are multiple users which are provided or assigned variant
CDMA codes and thus the users can access the entire band of
frequencies or the whole bandwidth. This method does not limit the
frequency range of the user. Hence, with the help of CDMA, multiple
users can share a band of frequencies without any kind of undue
interference between them. CDMA makes the use of spectrum
technology along with analog to digital conversion(ADC). It is thus
used by various radio communication technologies. Mainly, it is
used for mobile communication.

Characteristics of CDMA

• Itallows more users to connect at a given time and thus provides

improved data and voice communication capacity.
• A full spectrum is used by all the channels in CDMA.
• CDMA systems make the use of power control to eliminate the
interference and noise and to thus improve the network quality.
• CDMA encodes the user transmissions into distinct and unique
codes in order to secure its signals.
 • InCDMA systems all the cells can thus use the same frequency.
• CDMA systems have a soft nocapacity.Thus there is no particular
limit to the number of users in a CDMA system but with increase
in the number of users the performance degrades.

Advantages

• Increased user capacity is an advantage of the CDMA as it supports

a lot more users in comparison to TDMA or FDMA.
• CDMA is more secure as the information transmitted is below the
noise floor making the intrusion of the spectrum difficult.
• CDMA systems have comparatively fewer dropouts than GSM.
Thus, it can also be used in rural areas.
• The cost of the calls in CDMA is lower in comparison to the cost in
GSM.
• CDMA provides a high quality of voice with almost no noise during
the calls.
• Using CDMA problems like multipath and fading do not occur.
• CDMA has a very low power requirement.

Disadvantages

• CDMA lacks the facility of international roaming which is

provided by GSM.
• Since there is no limit to the number of users the system
performance degrades with an increase in the number of users.
• Self-jamming problem occurs in CDMA systems because of loss of
orthogonality.
• The problem of channel pollution occurs in CDMA systems which
thus degrades the quality of audio.
• Since most of the mobile companies use GSM thus there is a lack
of handsets for CDMA technology.

Antenna and Wave propagation plays a vital role in wireless communication networks.
An antenna is an electrical conductor or a system of conductors that radiates/collects
(transmits or receives) electromagnetic energy into/from space. An idealized isotropic
antenna radiates equally in all directions.
Propagation Mechanisms
Wireless transmissions propagate in three modes. They are −

• Ground-wave propagation
• Sky-wave propagation
• Line-of-sight propagation

Ground wave propagation follows the contour of the earth, while sky wave
propagation uses reflection by both earth and ionosphere.
Line of sight propagation requires the transmitting and receiving antennas to be within
the line of sight of each other. Depending upon the frequency of the underlying signal,
the particular mode of propagation is followed.
Examples of ground wave and sky wave communication are AM radio and international
broadcasts such as BBC. Above 30 MHz, neither ground wave nor sky wave
propagation operates and the communication is through line of sight.

Multipath propagation
In wireless media, signals propagate using three principles, which are reflection,
scattering, and diffraction.
• Reflection occurs when the signal encounters a large solid surface, whose
size is much larger than the wavelength of the signal, e.g., a solid wall.
• Diffraction occurs when the signal encounters an edge or a corner, whose
size is larger than the wavelength of the signal, e.g., an edge of a wall.
• Scattering occurs when the signal encounters small objects of size smaller
than the wavelength of the signal.

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 Antenna
An antenna is a metallic structure that is
used to transmit radio EM waves. We can
define it as the launching of waves or
radiations in space, which is efficiently
accomplished with dielectric structures
called antennas. An antenna acts as
a transducer that converts the electrical
power into EM waves. The electric
charges are the source of the EM or
electromagnetic waves.

The transmitting antenna carries the

electric current, converts it into the form
of radiation, and transmits it into space.
The Antenna can be used as
a transmitting antenna or the receiving
antenna.

The antenna uses voltage and current

from the source (transmission line) to
launch Electromagnetic waves into the
particular medium.

Types of Antenna
The different types of Antenna are as follows:
Based on the directions
The antennas are categorized based on the direction of the radiations emitted
by them. The three major types of Antenna based on the direction are Omni-
directional antenna, semi-directional antenna, and directional antenna.

Dipole Antenna
o The Dipole antenna consists of two straight wires that lie along the same axis.
It is also called a doublet. It is the most common used class of the antenna.

The two wires or conductors of the dipole antenna are connected to the
transmitter or receiver.

o Other variants of dipole antenna include turnstile antenna, halo antenna,

batwing antenna, etc.

o The dipole antennas smaller than one half the wavelength is called as short
dipole antennas. It has very low radiation resistance.

Hertzian Dipole
 o Hertzian dipole carriers a uniform current, which is represented as:
I=Io cosωt
Hertzian dipole signifies the infinitesimal current element Idl, which serves as
a building block for the field of the real antennas. The tiny current element
practically is not possible but is considered as a reference for the practical
antennas.

o The Hertzian dipole has a constant current over its short length along the

conductor. Hence, it is used for the analysis of more complex geometrical

antennas.

Antenna Gain
An isotropic antenna (also known as an omnidirectional antenna)

An isotropic antenna is a theoretical antenna that radiates equally in all directions -

horizontally and vertically with the same intensity. The antenna has a gain of 1 (0 dB) in
the spherical space all around it and has an efficiency of 100%. An isotropic antenna is
used as a reference antenna to evaluate antenna gain.

The Marconi antenna is used primarily with frequencies below 2 MHz. The
difference between the Marconi antenna and the Hertz antenna is that the
Marconi type requires a conducting path to the ground, and the Hertz type does
not. The Marconi antenna is usually a quarter-wave grounded antenna or any
odd multiple of a quarter wavelength.

Multiple Access Techniques

In wireless communication systems, it is often desirable to allow the subscriber to send
information simultaneously from the mobile station to the base station while receiving
information from the base station to the mobile station.
A cellular system divides any given area into cells where a mobile unit in each cell
communicates with a base station. The main aim in the cellular system design is to be
able to increase the capacity of the channel, i.e., to handle as many calls as possible in
a given bandwidth with a sufficient level of quality of service.
There are several different ways to allow access to the channel. These includes mainly
the following −

• Frequency division multiple-access (FDMA)

 • Time division multiple-access (TDMA)
• Code division multiple-access (CDMA)

Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA)

FDMA is the basic technology for advanced mobile phone services. The features of
FDMA are as follows.

• FDMA allots a different sub-band of frequency to each different user to access

the network.
• If FDMA is not in use, the channel is left idle instead of allotting to the other
users.
• FDMA is implemented in Narrowband systems and it is less complex than
TDMA.
• Tight filtering is done here to reduce adjacent channel interference.
• The base station BS and mobile station MS, transmit and receive simultaneously
and continuously in FDMA.

Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA)

In the cases where continuous transmission is not required, there TDMA is used instead
of FDMA. The features of TDMA include the following.

• TDMA shares a single carrier frequency with several users where each users
makes use of non-overlapping time slots.
• Data transmission in TDMA is not continuous, but occurs in bursts. Hence
handsoff process is simpler.
• TDMA uses different time slots for transmission and reception thus duplexers
are not required.
• TDMA has an advantage that is possible to allocate different numbers of time
slots per frame to different users.
• Bandwidth can be supplied on demand to different users by concatenating or
reassigning time slot based on priority.

Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

Code division multiple access technique is an example of multiple access where several
transmitters use a single channel to send information simultaneously. Its features are as
follows.
 • In CDMA every user uses the full available spectrum instead of getting allotted
by separate frequency.
• CDMA is much recommended for voice and data communications.
• While multiple codes occupy the same channel in CDMA, the users having same
code can communicate with each other.
• CDMA offers more air-space capacity than TDMA.
• The hands-off between base stations is very well handled by CDMA.
• Wired
Wireless Network
Network

A wired network “Wireless” means without

employs wires to link wire, media that is made up of
devices to the Internet electromagnetic waves (EM
1.
or another network, Waves) or infrared waves.
such as laptops or Antennas or sensors will be
desktop PCs. present on all wireless devices

Faster transmission
2. Slow transmission speed
speed

Propagation delay is
3. Propagation delay is high
Low

More Secure & hence Less Secure & hence less

4.
Reliable Reliable

Devices must be hard-

5. Installation is Quick
wired

6. Less Expensive More Expensive

High installation & Low installation & maintenance

7.
maintenance cost cost

Hub, Switch, etc. Wireless routers, access points,

8.
devices are used etc. are used.