7ETC04 Professional Elective - III (PE-III)

(ii) Mobile Communication and Networks

Course Requisite:

4ETC01 Analog and Digital Communication

Course Objectives:

1.To know the evolution of Mobile communication and cell concept to improve
capacity of the system.

2.To know the role of equalization in Mobile communication and to study different
types of Equalizers and Diversity techniques.

3.To understand the concepts of orthogonal frequency division multiplexing.

Course Outcomes:

1.After completing the course, the students will be able to:

2.Explain basic concept of Cellular systems and standards

3.Demonstrate knowledge of Signal propagation model

4.Compare different multiple access techniques in mobile communication.

5.Summarise the concept of rake receiver

6.Demonstrate advance knowledge of MIMO

7.Compare different Mobile Communication Systems and standards

Unit-1 Cellular concepts

Cellular concepts: Evolution of Mobile Radio Communication Systems, 1G, 2G,

2.5G, and 3G Wireless Cellular Networks and Standards, Cell structure, frequency
reuse, cell splitting and sectoring, Channel assignment, concept of handoff,
Interference (both Adjacent Channel and Co-Channel), capacity, power control
mechanisms. (7)
Cellular Fundamentals:

Evolution of Mobile Systems (1G, 2G, 3G, 4G):

• Time to time, how technology is developing. From wired to wireless, phone

calls to the internet, like these connectivity features are improvising. All
these technologies are named with generations like 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G and now
it is running on 5G.

• For evolution of the mobile network communication,G stands

for Generation of technology.

• For each generation to generation,there has been a change in

technology,speed,frequency, and performance.

• Each generation has some standards, technical capabilities, and new

features.

1G (First Generation)

• The first generation of the mobile network was based on a set of cells or
interconnected cells. The signal covers within its wide area of network
coverage. Hence initially wireless phones are known as “cell phones”.

• The 1st commercial automated mobile communication network was

launched by NTT in Japan in 1979, followed by the launch of the Nordic
Mobile Telephony (NMT) system in Denmark, Finland, Norway, and
Sweden in 1981.

• Year – 1970 – 1980

• Standards – AMPS (Advanced Mobile Phone System).

• Services – Voice only

• Technology – analog

• Speed – 1kbps to 2.4 kbps

• Multiplexing – FDMA

• Switching – circuit switching

 • Core Network – PSTN

• Frequency – 800- 900 MHz

• RF bandwidth – 30 kHz.

The band has capacity for 832 duplex channels, among which 21 are reserved for
call establishment and the rest for voice communication .

Limitations:

• Poor voice communications and no security as voice calls are played on

radio towers.

• Not all networks were based on the same protocols, they were highly
dependent on their manufacturers. So that the connectivity between two
different networks is not an easier thing.

2G (Second Generation)

• Second generation, mobile phone services become popular.In 2G

technology,GSM technoloy(Global System for Mobile or Groupe Special
Mobile)introduced.Its main objectives were the interconnection of networks
and the possibility of connecting to them with the same terminal, and the
first concept of roaming.

• GSM provide digital voice and data,international roaming allowing the

customer to go from one place to another.

• Other advantages

• better voice quality,

• higher speed to transmit data.

• fax transmission, and the SMS facility.

• Improved transmission of data at a higher speed (56 kbps),exchange

of images,browsing the Internet,due to the implementation of GPRS
(General Packet Radio Service) technology on existing networks
 and favors the appearance of “Blackberries” and the first
“smartphones”.

• Year – 1980 -1990

• Digital technology

• Speed – 14kbps at 64 Kbps

• Frequency band – 850 – 1900 MHz (GSM) and 825 – 849 MHz
(CDMA)

• Bandwidth/channel – GSM divides each 200 kHz channel into 25 kHz

blocks The CDMA channel is nominally 1.23 MHz

• Multiplexing / Access Technology – TDMA and CDMA.

• Switching – Circuit switching

• Standards – GSM (Global System for Mobile Communications), IS-

95 (CDMA) – used in America and parts of Asia), JDC (Japanese
Digital Cellular) (based on TDMA), used in Japan, iDEN (based on
TDMA), Proprietary communication network used by Nextel in the
United States.

Services:

• Digital voice, SMS, international roaming, conference, call waiting, call

hold, call transfer, call blocking, caller ID number,

• Closed user groups (CUG), USSD services, authentication,

• Billing based on services provided to the customers, like charges based on

local calls, long-distance calls, discounted calls, real-time billing.

2.5 Generation

• From the 2G network,slightly minor up-gradation before the 3G

network,named as 2.5 Generation.

• Introduction of the packet network to provide high-speed data transfer and

the Internet.
 • Year – 2000-2003

• Standards – General Radio Packet Service (GPRS) and EDGE (Enhanced

Data Rates in GSM)

• Frequency: 850 -1900 MHz

• Speed – 115kpbs (GPRS) / 384 kbps (EDGE)

• Switching – Packet switching for data transfer

• Multiplexing – GPRS and EDGE (8-PSK) minimum offset.

Services:

• Push to talk, multimedia, web-based entertainment information, support

WAP, MMS, SMS, mobile games, search and directory, email access, video
conferencing.

3G (Third Generation)

• This new generation is a clear evolution of the previous network

generations. There is a huge upgradation with this 3G technology.

• In the 3G network,offers increased data speed, greater voice and data

transmission, support for various applications, and at low cost.

• The data is sent through the technology called Packet Switching. Voice calls
are translated by circuit switching.

• This higher speed contributed to the appearance of audio, images,

communications, and video applications in real-time. The first video call
feature was introduced with the 3rd generation of networks only. The year
2000

Standards:

• UMTS (WCDMA) based on GSM (Global Systems for Mobile) 2G system

infrastructure, standardized by 3GPP.

• CDMA 2000 based on standard 2G CDMA (IS-95) technology, standardized

by 3GPP2.
 • TD-SCDMA radio interface released in 2009 and only offered in China

• Speed: 384KBPS 2Mbps

• Frequency: about 8 to 2.5 GHz

• Bandwidth: 5 to 20 MHz

• Multiplexing and access technologies

• HSPA is an update to W-CDMA that offers speeds of 14.4 Mbit / s

download and 5.76 Mbit / s upload.

• HSPA + can provide theoretical peak data rates of up to 168 Mbit / s

downstream and 22 Mbit / s upstream.

• CDMA2000 1X: Can support both voice and data services. The maximum
data rate can reach 153 kbps.

• Radio interface called WCDMA (Wideband Code Division Multiple Access)

Services:

• voice mobile telephony, high-speed Internet access, fixed wireless Internet

access, video calls, chat and conferences, mobile television, video-on-
demand, location-based services, telemedicine, Internet browsing, email,
pagers, fax and navigation maps, games, mobile music, multimedia services
such as digital photos and movies. localized services to access traffic and
weather updates, mobile office services, such as virtual banking.

4G (Forth Generation)

• 4G is mainly focused on High Speed.

The evolution continues and improvements are introduced in the antennas, in
their capacity, coverage, and signal quality.

• The fourth-generation mobile system is entirely IP based. The main

objective of 4G technology is to provide high speed, high quality, high
capacity, security, and low-cost services for voice and data, multimedia, and
internet services over IP(Internet Protocol).
 • To use the 4G mobile communication network, users’ terminals must be
able to select the destination wireless system. To provide wireless services
anytime, anywhere, terminal mobility is a key factor in 4G.

• In the 4G network, We can browse using mobile devices at speeds of up to

20 Megabits per second.

• We can watch movies or football matches in real-time, that is, while they are
being played and with a quality that is very comparable to what we could
watch on our television.

• Start – 2010s. In 2008, ITU-R specifies requirements for 4G systems

• Standards – Long-Term Evolution Time-Division Duplex (LTE-TDD and

LTE-FDD) standard WiMAX mobile (802.16m standardized by the IEEE)

• Speed – 100 Mbps on the move and 1 Gbps when standing still.

• IP telephony

• New frequencies, wider frequency channel bandwidth.

• Multiplexing / Access Technologies – OFDM, MC-CDMA, CDMA, and

LAS-Red-LMDS

• Bandwidth – 5-20 MHz, optionally up to 40 MHz

• Frequency Bands: – LTE covers a range of different bands. 700, 750, 800,
850, 1900, 1700/2100 (AWS), 2300 (WCS) 2500 and 2600 MHz are used in
North America (bands 2, 4, 5, 7, 12, 13, 17, 25, 26 , 30, 41); 2500 MHz in
South America; 700, 800, 900, 1800, 2600 MHz in Europe (bands 3, 7,
20); 800, 1800 and 2600 MHz in Asia (bands 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 11, 13, 40) 1800
MHz and 2300 MHz in Australia and New Zealand (bands 3, 40).

Services:

• Mobile Web Access, IP Telephony, Gaming Services, High Definition

Mobile TV, Video Conferencing, 3D Television, Cloud Computing,
Management of Multiple Streaming Streams and Fast Mobile Phone
 Movements, Digital Video Broadcasting (DVB), Access to dynamic
information, portable devices.

5G (Fifth Generation)

• Start of the year – 2015

• The physical and data link layer defines 5G wireless technology indicating
Open Wireless Architecture (OWA) technology,network layer is subdivided
into two layers; the upper network layer for the mobile terminal and the
lower network level for the interface.

• Here all routing is based on IP addresses that would be different in every IP

network around the world. In 5G technology, the bit rate loss is overcome by
the Open Transport Protocol (OTP)supported by Transport and Session
Layer. The application layer is for the quality of service management across
various types of networks. 5G advances a true wireless world Wireless-
World Wide Web (WWWW).

• 5G (Fifth Generation)

• Start of the year – 2015

• The physical and data link layer defines 5G wireless technology indicating
Open Wireless Architecture (OWA) technology,network layer is subdivided
into two layers; the upper network layer for the mobile terminal and the
lower network level for the interface.

• Here all routing is based on IP addresses that would be different in every IP

network around the world. In 5G technology, the bit rate loss is overcome by
the Open Transport Protocol (OTP)supported by Transport and Session
Layer. The application layer is for the quality of service management across
various types of networks. 5G advances a true wireless world Wireless-
World Wide Web (WWWW).

Services:

• People and devices connected anywhere at any time. Your application will
make the real world a Wi-Fi zone.
 • Mobile IP addresses assigned according to the connected network and
geographical position. Radio signals also at higher altitudes. Multiple
parallel services, to know the weather and your geographical position while
you speak.

• Education will be easier. A student who sits anywhere in the world can
attend the class.

• Remote diagnosis is a great feature of 5G. A Doctor can treat the patient
located in the remote part of the world. Monitoring will be easier, a
government organization and other researchers can monitor anywhere in the
world.

• It is possible to reduce the crime rate. Visualization of the universe, galaxies,

and planets will be possible. It is also possible to detect natural disasters
more quickly, including tsunamis, earthquakes, etc.

• Supports Internet of Things and M2M – 100 times more connected devices,
Indoor coverage, and signaling efficiency

• Reduction of around 90% in the consumption of energy to the network.

• Its radio technology will facilitate different versions of radio technologies to

share the same spectrum efficiently

Basic Cellular System:

Two types of Basic Cellular System:
Circuit Switched system :
Each traffic channel is dedicated to a user until its cell is terminated.
Packet Switched:

• Packets are sent towards the destination irrespective of each other. Each
packet find its own route to the destination, no predetermined path; when a
node is reached the decision as to which node to hop to in the next step.
• Each packet finds its way using the information source and destination IP
addresses it carries.

Circuit Switching

• Circuit-switched systems can be of two types:

1. Analog Circuit-Switched System

2. Digital Circuit-Switched System

Analog Circuit-Switched System

• A basic analog cellular system consists of three subsystems:

1. A Mobile Unit

2. A Cell Site

3. A Mobile Telephone Switching Office (MTSO) with connections to link

the three subsystems

Analog Circuit-Switched System

Analog Circuit-Switched System

Mobile Units:

• contains a control unit, a transceiver,&an antenna system.

Cell site:

• Provides interface between MTSO and mobile units.It has a control unit,
radio cabinets, antennas, a power plant, and data terminals

MTSO:
 • Is the heart of the analog cellular mobile system. Its processor provides
central coordination and cellular administration.

• The switching office, the central coordinating element for all cell sites,
contains the cellular processor and cellular switch.It interfaces with
telephone company zone offices,controls call processing, provides operation
and maintenance, and handles billing activities.

Connections:

• The radio and high-speed data links connect the three subsystems.

• Each mobile unit use one CH (not fixed) in the entire band assigned
by the serving area,each site having multichannel capabilities ,connect
simultaneously to many mobile units .

The cellular switch:

• Analog or digital.

• Switches calls to connect mobile subscribers to other mobile subscribers and

to the nationwide telephone network,uses voice trunks.

• Contains data links providing supervision links between processor and

switch and between cell sites and processor.

The radio link :

• Carries voice and signaling between mobile unit and cell site.

• High-speed data links must use either microwave links or T-carriers (wire
lines).

• Microwave radio links or T-carriers carry both voice and data between cell
site and MTS.

Cellular Concept
 • Major breakthrough since solve the problem of spectral congestion and user
capacity,offered very high capacity in a limited spectrum allocation without
any major technological changes.

• Is system-level idea replacing a single, high power transmitter (large cell)

with many low power transmitters (small cells), each providing coverage to
only a small portion of the service area.

• Each base station is allocated a portion of the total number of channels

available to the entire system, and nearby base stations are assigned different
groups of channels so all available channels are assigned to a relatively
small number of neighboring base stations.

• Neighboring base stations are assigned different groups of channels to

minimize interference between base stations .

• Base stations are systematically spaced and their channel groups,the

available channels are distributed throughout the geographic region and
reused as many times

• Interference between co-channel stations is kept below acceptable levels.

Fundamental principle (of modern wireless communication systems)

• As demand for service increases (more channels needed), number of base

stations ( transmitter power to avoid added interference),provide additional
radio capacity with no additional increase in radio spectrum,is, enables a
fixed number of channels to serve an arbitrarily large number of subscribers
by reusing the channels throughout the coverage region.

• Cellular concept allows every piece of subscriber equipment to be

manufactured with the same set of channels,any mobile may be used
anywhere within the region.

• Frequency Reuse Cellular radio systems rely on an intelligent allocation and

reuse of channels throughout a coverage region .

• Cell:Each cellular base station is allocated a group of radio channels within

a small geographic area.
 • Base stations in adjacent cells are assigned channel groups different
channels than neighboring cells .

• Base station antennas are designed to achieve the desired coverage within
the particular cell.

• By limiting the coverage area to within the boundaries of a cell, the same
group of channels used to cover different cells ,separated from one another
to keep interference levels within tolerable limits.

Frequency reuse or frequency planning

• The design process of selecting and allocating channel groups for all of the
cellular base stations within a system

• Figure 3.1 concept of cellular frequency reuse,

• Cells labeled with the same letter use the same group of channels. Frequency
reuse plan indicate where different frequency channels are used. Hexagonal
cell shape is conceptual ,simplistic model of the radio coverage for each base
station,Universally adopted permits easy and manageable analysis of a
cellular system.

Footprint

• The actual radio coverage of a cell,determined from field measurements or

propagation prediction models,,

• Real footprint is amorphous ,choose a circle to represent the coverage area

of a base station, adjacent circles cannot be overlaid upon a map without
leaving gaps or creating overlapping regions.

• Geometric shapes square, an equilateral triangle, and a hexagon. cover an

entire region without overlap and with equal area.

• A designed cell serve weakest mobiles within the footprint, located at the
edge of the cell.

• Hexagon largest area of the three for a given distance between the center of
a polygon and its farthest perimeter points.
• In hexagon geometry, fewest number of cells can cover a geographic region.

• To understand the frequency reuse concept, consider a cellular system which

has a total of S duplex channels available for use.

• When using hexagons to model coverage areas, base station transmitters are
represent as either being in the center of the cell (center-excited cells) or on
three of the six cell vertices (edge-excited cells).

• Omnidirectional antennas are used in center-excited cells and sectored

directional antennas are used in corner-excited cells,given transmitter serves
the mobiles successfully.
Frequency reuse concept,

• Consider a cellular system which has a

• S –total duplex channels available ,Group of k CH allocated to each Cell (k

< S), S CHs divided among N cells into unique and disjoint channel
groups ,having same number of channels

• N cells -complete set of available frequencies is called a cluster.

• If a cluster is replicated M times within the system, the total number of

duplex channels, C-a measure of capacity and is given by A B G C F E D B
GFEACDGFEBCD

• S= kN
 C= MkN= MS

Number of cell/ cluster

Q.Explain Various techniques proposed for increasing capacity of a cellular system
are:
i. Cell splitting

ii. Cell sectoring

iii. Repeaters for extending range

iv. Micro zone method

Ans:

Improving Capacity In Cellular Systems

• To satisfy increase in the demand for wireless services no. of radio channels
allocated to each cell become inadequate/insufficient.

• To increase the capacity of a cellular system, more no. of radio channels

allocate to each cell in order to meet the requirements of mobile traffic.

• Various techniques proposed for increasing capacity of a cellular system are:

i. Cell splitting

ii. Cell sectoring

iii. Repeaters for extending range

iv. Micro zone method

Cell Splitting

• Cell splitting is a method in which congested (heavy traffic) cell is

subdivided into smaller cells, and each smaller cell is having its own base
station with reduction in antenna height and transmitter power.
• Original congested bigger cell is called macrocell and the smaller cells are
called microcells.

• Capacity of cellular network can be increased by creating micro-cells within

the original cells having smaller radius than macro-cells, because more
channels per unit area are available in a network.

• Micro-cells added to preserved frequency reuse plan of the system .

• For micro-cells, the transmit power of transmitter should be reduced, and

each micro-cell ½ radius to that of macro-cell.


Fig. 2.14 shows a cell splitting in which a

congested cell, divided into smaller microcells,
and the base stations are put up at corners of
the cells.
Transmit power of the new cells calculated by analyzing the received power
at the cell boundaries, required in order to make sure that frequency reuse
 plan for the micro-cells is also working the same way as it was working for
the macro-cells.
 


In cell splitting, following factors should be carefully

monitored;

1. In cell splitting, allocation of channels to the new cells (micro-cells) must be

done very cautiously. So, in order to avoid co-channel interference, cells
must follow the minimum reuse distance principle.
2. Power levels of the transmitters for new and old cells must be redesigned. If
the transmitter of the old cell has the same power as that of new cells, then
the channels in old cell interfere with the channels of new cell. But, if the
power level of transmitter is too low then it may result into in sufficient area
coverage.
3. In order to overcome the problem of point (2); the channels of macro-cell is
divided into two parts. The channels in the first part are for the new cell and
other part consists of channel for the old cell. Splitting of cells is done
according to the number of subscribers present in the areas, and the power
levels of the transmitters must be redesigned according to the allocated
channels to old and new cells.
4. Antennas of different heights and power levels are used for smooth and easy
handoff, technique called Umbrella cell approach. Using this approach large
coverage area is provided for high speed users and small coverage area to
low speed users. Therefore, the number of call handoffs is maximized for
high speed users and provides more channels for slow speed users.
5. Main idea in cell splitting is rescaling of entire system. Reuse factor (D/R)
is kept constant because by decreasing the radius of cell (R) and, at the same
time, the separation between co-channels (D) is also decreased. So, high
capacity can be achieved without changing the (D/R) ratio of system.

Sectoring

Sectoring improves S/I

• The technique for decreasing co-channel interference and thus increasing
system capacity by using directional antennas is called sectoring.
• The technique for decreasing co-channel interference and thus increasing
system capacity by using directional antennas is called sectoring.
• The technique for decreasing co-channel interference and thus increasing
system capacity by using directional antennas is called sectoring.
• The technique for decreasing co-channel interference and thus increasing
system capacity by using directional antennas is called sectoring.

• The factor by which the co-channel interference is reduced depends on the

amount of sectoring used.

• Another way of improving the channel capacity of a cellular system is to

decrease the D/R ratio while keeping the same cell radius. Improvement in
capacity achieved by reducing the number of cells in a cluster, hence
increasing the frequency reuse.

• To achieve this, the relative interference must be minimized without

decreasing the transmit power. For minimizing co-channel interference in a
cellular network, a single Omni-directional antenna is replaced with multiple
directional antennas, with each transmitting within a smaller region.

• These smaller regions are called sectors and minimizing co-channel

interference while improving the capacity of a system by using multiple
directional antennas is called sectoring.

• A cell is divided either into three 120 degree or six 60 degree sectors. In the
three-sector arrangement, three antennas are located, in each sector with one
transmit and two receive antennas.

• The placement of two receive antennas provide antenna diversity(space

diversity), improves reception of a signal by efficiently providing a big
target for signals transmitted from mobile units.

• The division between two receive antenna depends on height of antennas

above ground. When sectoring technique is used in cellular
 systems,channels used in a particular sector are broken down into sectored
groups, used inside a particular sector.

• With 7-cell reuse pattern and 120 degree sectors, no. of interfering cells in
the neighboring tier is brought down from six to two.

• Cell sectoring improves S/I ratio, increase capacity of a cellular system.

• Cell sectoring is very efficient, because it utilized the existing system

structures, minimized the co-channel interference, with the use of directional
antennas, a particular cell will get interference and transmit only a fraction
of the available co-channel cells.

• Reuse ratio q = (NI ´ S/I)1/n, where NI depends on the type of antenna used.
For an omni-directional antenna with only first-tier of co-channel interferer,
the number of co-channel interfering cells NI = 6, but for a 120 degree
directional antenna, it is 2 So, the increase
Microcell Zone Concept

• one sites are connected to a single base station and share the same radio
equipment.

• Zones are connected by coaxial cable, fiber optic cable, or microwave link to
the base station.

• Multiple zones and a single base station make up a cell. As a mobile travels
within the cell, it is served by the zone with the strongest signal.

• This technique/ approach superior to sectoring since number of handoffs

reduced, antennas are placed at the outer edges of the cell, and any base
station channel may be assigned to any zone by the base station, useful along
highways or along urban traffic corridors.
 • . This concept is related with sharing the same radio equipment by different
micro-cells, results in decreasing of cluster size & increase system capacity.

• Micro-cell zone concept is used to improve capacity of cellular systems.

• To improve both capacity and signal quality of a cellular system, sectoring

depends upon correct setting up of directional antennas at the cell-site,
increase no. of handoffs and trunking inefficiencies.

• In a 3-sector or 6-sector cellular system, each sector acts like a new cell with
a different shape and cell. Channels allocated to the un-sectored cell are
divided between the different sectors present in a cell, thereby decreasing
number of channels available in each sector.

• Handoff takes place when mobile user moves from one sector to another
sector of the same cell, increase network load on BSC and MSC of the
cellular system. The problem of channel partitioning and increase in network
load become very hard if all the 3 or 6-sectored directional antennas are
placed at the centre of the cell.

Advantages of micro zone concept:

1. When mobile user moves from one zone to another within the same cell, can
keep the same channel for the call progress.

2. Effect of interference is very low due to installation of low power

transmitters.

3. Better signal quality.

4. Fewer handoffs when a call is in progress.

Channel Assignment strategies:

Advantages of Dynamic Channel Allocation

 Reduction of blocking probability

 Reduction of call drop probability during Hand Off Improvement of
System Trunking Capacity [Traffic Intensity/Channel]- All Channels
are Accessible by all Cells

But

• Storage and Computational Load on MSC.

• MSC must Collect real-time Channel Occupancy Data.
• Traffic Distribution Information
• Radio Signal Strength Indications (RSSI) of all the Channels
Handoff Definition
Intersystem Handoff

Prioritizing Handoff