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CANTONESE MADE EASY :

A BOOK OF SIMPLE SENTENCES IN THE CANTONESE DIALECT, WITH

FREE AND LITERAL TRANSLATIONS , AND DIRECTIONS
FOR THE RENDERING OF ENGLISH GRAM
MATICAL FORMS IN CHINESE.

SECOND EDITION .
REVISED AND ENLARGED .

BY

J. DYER BALL , M.R.A. S. , ETC. ,

OF HER MAJESTY'S CIVIL SERVICE, HONGKONG,

Author of " Easy Sentences in the Hakka Dialect with a Vocabulary," " Easy Sentences in
,,
the Cantonese Dialect with a Vocabulary,' "The Cantonese-made-Easy Vocabu
lary," and " An English-Cantonese Pocket Vocabulary without the
Chinese Characters or Tonic Marks," &c.

E
REES
OF THE
UNIVI
CALIFORNIA

HONGKONG :

PRINTED AT THE ' CHINA MAIL ' OFFICE .

1888 .
[ALL RIGHTS RESERVED . ]
65359
*

PL1733

B3

1888

MAIN
UNIV
C

CONTENTS .

PREFACES.
Page.
Preface to the First Edition , I

::
"" 99 Second Edition, .. IX

INTRODUCTION.

The Cantonese Dialect, .. .. XIII

The Correct Pronunciation of Pure Cantonese , .. XV

:

The Tones, .. XVIII

Methods of Describing Tones, .. XXII

List of Tones, .. ·· ·· XXIII

Division of the Tones , .. XXIV

Description of the Tones, .. .. XXIV

Marks to Designate the Tones, .. .. XXVIII

Tonic Exercises, .. .. XXXII

Aspirated and Non-aspirated Words , .. XXXVIII

Long and Short Vowels, .. .. XLII

:

Pronunciation, .. .. XLVI
:

Syllabary, .. .. .. XLVII
:

LESSONS.

Abbreviations , .. 1
:

The Numerals , .. .. 2
:

Lesson I.- Domestic , .. 4

:

"" II.- General, .. 6

:

"9 III. 29 .. .. 8
:

:
:

65359
 Page.
Lesson IV.- General, .. .. 10

:
:
-
V. .. 12

:
"" ""

:
:

:
"" VI .— Relationships, .. 14

:
"" VII.-Opposites, .. 16

:
92 VIII.-Monetary , .. .. 18

:
"" IX.-Commercial , .. 20

:
"" X. 22 ·· .. .. 22

:
XI .- Medical, .. .. 24
33

..

:
:
"" XII. Ecclesiastical, .. .. .. 26
34

XIII.-Nautical, .. .. 28
XIV. Judicial, ..
14

.. 30

:
:

:
99 XV.-Educational, .. .. 32

:
GRAMMAR.
Nouns, .. 36
:

:
Articles, .. 43
:

:
Classifiers , & c . , .. 44
:

Adjectives, .. : .. 59
:
:

:
Numeral Adjectives , .. 62
:
:

Pronouns, .. 68

Adjective Pronouns, .. 73
:
:

Verbs, .. 77
Adverbs, .. .. 101
:
:

Prepositions, .. .. .. 105
:

Conjunctions, .. ..109
:

Interjections , .. 111
:

Finals, .. 112
:

Simple Directions , .. 117

:

Final Directions, .. 118

:

APPENDIX .
Excursus 1. Chinese Grammar, .. .. .. .. .. .. 1

"" 2. Differences between the Book Language and Colloquial, .. 1

.. 3
:

"" 3. Reasons why Europeans speak Cantonese poorly,

INDEX .

8002
 PREFACE . I

A
REGFFOF T
( THE
UNI Ty DASI
Or

PREFACE

TO THE FIRST EDITION.

This little book is meant to supply a want. The Author has heard a beginner
in Chinese sadly lamenting the difficulty he had in the use of his phrase book to
know what the Chinese words really meant. Before him and before many a learner
there appear on the opened pages of his book sentences in English and sentences in
Chinese. He reads the English and his Chinese teacher reads the Chinese over to
him until he learns the sounds. By dint of memory he learns that a certain
English sentence is expressed in Chinese by certain Chinese words, which he sup
poses are the equivalents of the English words ; but as soon as he commences to
analyse the two sentences- to place them side by side, he finds that there seems to
be very little similarity between the two. The one often has more words by far
than the other ; there are no numbers, no moods, no tenses, or but halting ex
pedients to represent them, which are well nigh unintelligible to him ; and the use
of his dictionary, at first, affords him but little assistance in his attempts to pick
asunder the component parts of a Chinese sentence, for either he does not find the
word that is given in his phrase book, or he is embarrassed by the multiplicity of
renderings for one word.

ARRANGEMENT OF THIS BOOK.

In some of the first books in Cantonese and English by the veteran sinologists
this difficulty was in a great measure met by a literal as well as a free translation
being given of the Chinese. The Author has resuscitated this old plan and trusts it
will be found of service. In some cases it will be found, however, that it has been
well nigh impossible, on account of the idiomatic differences of the two languages, to
give a perfectly intelligible and literal rendering of the Chinese ; for it sometimes
happens , as George MacDonald well remarks, that :-"It is often curious how a
literal rendering, even when it gives quite the meaning, will not do, because of the
different ranks of the two words in their respective languages." (Adela Cathcart,
p. 34). Yet with the object of pointing out the connection of the different words
 P
II PREFACE .

PREFACE.

and their respective places in the sentence, even a poor literal translation will assist
the learner far better to grasp the construction of the sentence and the real
meaning of the words than a free translation, which must necessarily often be but
a paraphrase of the Chinese.
When two or more English words represent one Chinese word the Author has
in the literal translation connected them by a hyphen, and the same holds good of
the Chinese and English. Any exceptions to this are so plain that there is no
necessity to make any note of them.
The fault of most phrase books in Chinese is the multiplying Chinese words
in a sentence ; especially do such books delight in a redundancy of particles ; one is
almost sickened by a glance through some of the phrase books in use where 'ko ko',
ni ko', ke' , and many other particles are brought in at any time and every time to
the detriment of the learner's fluency in speaking. The consequence of this fault in
that learners pile up the component parts of a sentence until the outcome is some
thing wonderful to hearken to, and more like a foreign language than good Chinese.
The Chinese are fonder of expressing themselves in a terse and concise
manner than most book-makers represent them as doing. Redundancy of words
are cut out of good Chinese colloquial with an unsparing hand : and it would be a
good thing for a learner to lay it down as a general rule that if it is possible to
express his meaning with few words he should do so ; for though to his own ear
the addition of words may make the meaning plainer, it has probably a directly
contrary effect on a Chinese ear.

Compare :

Néi lai to' ni shu' k'ap, péi ko ko'shü kwo' 'ugo ‘t'ai kin'
and
Lai ni shu' péi ko'shü ‘ngo t'ai la.

There is often also no distinction made in phrase books between the colloquial
and book language : immediately after a sentence which would be understood by
any woman or child comes one so bookish that if the learner were to attempt to air
his newly-acquired knowledge, thus obtained, out of the range of his study or of the
ears of his erudite teacher, he would find his talk utterly unintelligible to the mass of
his hearers. In short a hotchpotch of anything and everything is thrown together,
mixed and pure, Cantonese and provincialisms, and the result is a phrase book.
Many of the simplest and commonest forms of expression are entirely omitted
even in books of considerable size where want of space could be no excuse.
There is often also apparent in these books an evident attempt to put the English
sentence which the compiler chooses into Chinese, ignoring often to a great extent
 PREFACE. III

PREFACE.

the simple fact that the idiom is essentially English ; and the result is a sentence
composed of Chinese words which is either constructed on an English idiom wholly
foreign to the genius of the language, or stilted in order to convey the whole
meaning of the English sentence into Chinese ; or else the two sentences are not the
counterparts of each other, and the learner is misled.
Knowing these defects, the Author has endeavoured to avoid them.
It appeared to him that a compiler should endeavour above everything else to
have his Chinese perfect and readable, or shun, as a Chinese would term it, and ther
try his best to render the Chinese into English. Under such conditions there is
more likelihood of getting good Chinese into our phrase books than when the
opposite plan is tried.
Daily intercourse for nearly a quarter of a century with all classes of Chinese
in their daily life, and years of daily contact with all grades of Chinese in the
course of his official duties, where no attempts, or but few, are made to adapt them
selves to the foreign ear, have placed him, he believes, in an exceptionally favourable
position to hear and note the different idioms of good Cantonese. He has en

deavoured to embody a number of them in this book, which, if it meets with a

favourable reception, might induce him to attempt something more pretentious on
a future occasion.
Nothing, he hopes, will be found amongst the fifteen Lessons but pure good
colloquial ; and from the examples given in that part of the book, as well as in the
part which follows, the learner will be able to frame other sentences.
In learning Cantonese, the learner should aim first at acquiring such common
idioms and such words as to make himself understood by even the illiterate class, for
then all classes will understand him. Starting in this manner he will lay a good
solid foundation for his colloquial, which will stand him in good stead all through
his stay in China. After this foundation is laid he can easily acquire the mixed.
colloquial, composed principally of what he has already learned, and partly of book
terms ; and if he has previously pleased the illiterate ear, qualify himself to please
the fastidious ear of the scholar. Though there is no hard and fast line between
these two forms of colloquial, as they merge more or less into each other, there is
still a distinction . And the learner should keep this distinction in his mind and
ask his teacher whether any new phrase he comes across is colloquial or not.
Without this precaution he will find himself talking in a most ridiculous style, at
one breath as it were using Johnsonian words and pure English.
In most, if not all, phrase books the tones seem to be a thing of secondary
importance. If the compiler carefully gives the tones as he finds them in his dic
tionary he congratulates himself on at least stretching a point. As a general rule

3
 IV PREFACE.

PREFACE.

no attempt is ever made to give the tones as they are spoken, or when the attempt
has been made the compiler has had so little idea of the frequency of difference
between colloquial and book tones that his attempts to point one or two out have
not been of the practical use that they might have been . It is one thing to read a
book and utter all the tones correctly, but quite another thing to explain to a
Chinese the contents of a few pages thereof, and if the speaker sticks to the same
tones in speaking as in reading he will not find that all he says is understood. It is,
the Author believes, an ignoring of this fact that often spoils foreigners' Chinese.
The awkward thing about ignoring these tones in books for the use of those who
wish to learn to speak Chinese is that the learner attempts to say the word in
the tone that he sees it marked in his book or dictionary, the consequence being
that he systematically mispronounces it ; while if the tone were marked properly
he would at least attempt to pronounce it properly.
The colloquial tones in this book are given instead of those used in the book
language ; but an asterisk is placed at such words to show that the word has
another tone as well.

It will be noticed that occasionally the tones of one word are different in differ
ent connections.
Learners may at once make up their minds to the belief that there are more
tones in the Chinese than many of the old scholars will give credit for. The chung
yap is introduced in this phrase book. The man who pretends to doubt its
existence may as well confess at once that he knows nothing about differences in
tones ; it was well known by one or two of the older sinologists in olden times, but
was well-nigh forgotten until unearthed recently. There is more excuse for the
scepticism that exists about some of the other tones, though there can be no doubt
as to their existence. The Author would call attention to what has never been
noticed yet in Cantonese as regards its systematic application to all the tones, and
that is what for want of a better term he must call complimental tones. These
tones are very distinctly marked in the Swatow dialect, where the latter of two
words, the second of which is a repetition of the former, is put in a slightly
higher or lower tone according to which series of tones the word occurs in. This,
it would almost seem, also happens but to a very infinitesimal degree in Cantonese,
though it occurs in conformity to the general rule which differentiates the tones
in the Cantonese and Swatow respectively, that is to say that as a certain
word in Swatow which is in the lower series of tones, when rendered in Can
tonese rises into the higher series, and vice versâ, so the complimental tone
which in Swatow would be lower than the original tone in the Cantonese is
higher than the original tone sound, and vice versa. This variation between
 PREFACE . V

PREFACE.

the original and complimental tones in Cantonese is about the interval of half
a tone in music.* Each tone of the nine can have this secondary tone. This of

course will be considered a moot point at present, as even some Chinese deny their
existence. It would appear to be a law of Chinese pronunciation that when two
words of identical sound follow each other, the latter of the two falls, or rises into a
higher or lower complimental tone. And it is probably the same law or one nearly
akin to it that gives rise to the formation of new words in different tones to dis
tinguish them from words of identical sound of which there are not a few in Can
tonese, such as 'ko and 個 ko' &c.
Instead then of only eight tones in Cantonese it is the fact that there are a
dozen well-defined tones at least, and possibly others which are very indefinite and
perhaps are only being formed at present. This however need not trouble the
beginner. It is well that he should know at the same time that he must not
attempt to fit every Chinese word into a sound corresponding to the eight, nine,
or ten tones recognised by the dictionaries. Cantonese will not be confined in that
way, and much of the poor pronunciation of Chinese by Europeans is on account
of their persistent attempts to pronounce all Chinese words as if they must belong
to one or other of the eight or nine tones their dictionaries tell them about. Get
a good teacher, then copy him exactly no matter what your dictionary may say
about the tone of the word ; for it is important that the beginner, who wishes to
do more than just run a chance of being partially understood, should pay particular
attention to these important tones, though at the same time let him not run into
the other extreme of hesitating before he utters a word to think what tone it
should be in. If he can manage to get fluent in Chinese idioms, an occasional
mistake in the tones is not of such vital importance, though to be deprecated.

GRAMMAR,

The Directions for rendering English Grammatical Forms and Idioms into
Chinese and vice versâ will, it is hoped, prove of service in enabling the beginner to
form a conception of the mode in which English grammatical forms may be rendered
in Chinese, a language which at first sight appears to be devoid of all grammar.
The construction of the component parts and the building up of the sentence from
its component phrases will also appear to a certain extent.

* Note to Second Edition. -It will be noted that the Author does not here refer to the
Colloquial rising tone at all, though one of his critics so misunderstood and consequently proceeded,
owing to the misunderstanding, to contradict the above statement.

S
REE
R
CNT
 VI PREFACE.

PREFACE.
I
The notes are not exhaustive, but it is hoped that they are of sufficient
variety and length to give the learner such an idea of the construction of the
colloquial, and of many of its idioms, as to enable him to avoid egregious errors.
So little has been attempted in this way hitherto, that it is with considerable
diffidence one makes the attempt of laying down instructions, when hitherto the
learner has generally had to bungle on as well as he could himself.
It is hoped, however, that the experience of one who has made the study of
Chinese a life work will not prove useless to the beginner.
The study of Chinese is sufficiently difficult to make every little hint a
desideratum.

FINAL PARTICLES.

The Final Particles are most useful little words, quite altering the whole force
of the sentence when differently applied. These little particles at the end of a
sentence are often put to a dreadful martyrdom in beginners' books. The student
must not suppose that because they are so plentifully sprinkled over the pages of
his book that he cannot close his mouth without enunciating one or two of them as
he would punctuate each of his written sentences. They are in fact often left out i
with advantage ; but when left out to make up for their absence the voice lingers
often on the last word in the sentence longer than it would otherwise do, and with
a peculiar intonation and rising inflection.
Too little attention has been paid to them hitherto. Our dictionaries do not
contain all that are in use. A list appears of as many as the compiler has been able
to discover up to the present time with their tonal variations ; but it is not at all
improbable that there are more to be discovered. Nearly half of this list is not to
be found in the dictionaries. If the finals used in the different dialects and sub
dialects of Cantonese were included, the list might be made of an enormous length,
as, for instance, in the Shun-tak dialect, to mention a few instances amongst many,
we have the finals, tá, téi, tí, and others besides those in use in pure Cantonese.
This is, however, not the place to go into a dissertation on the finals, but the
hint may be of use if taken advantage of, for there are a great many more shades of
meaning to be expressed by a proper use of these little words than most Europeans
have ever dreamt of.

CHINESE CHARACTERS.

The Chinese characters are given more as a guide to the teacher than for use
by the beginner. If the latter can and will take advice it is this :-Don't
 PREFACE. VII

PREFACE.

trouble yourself with the character, or the book language at first. If you will learn
the characters, learn them out of the colloquial books for the first year, and then,
when you are tolerably proficient in colloquial, a knowledge of the book way of
expressing what you have already acquired in colloquial will not be apt to confuse
you, or spoil your colloquial.
One thing at a time is enough. If you wish to speak Chinese well, learn to
speak it before you learn to read it. A Chinese child learns to speak his native
tongue before he learns to read it ; and yet we, go-ahead Westerners, think we know
better than Dame Nature, and insist on learning two languages (the book language
and the colloquial) at the same time-two languages which, be it remembered, are
so alike and yet so dissimilar as to create no end of a confusion in the tyro's brain.
The result is that we produce but few good speakers of Chinese.
Above all things let him who would speak Chinese not be ashamed to talk
whenever he has a chance. Air his Chinese at all times : it will get musty if he
does not. What does it matter if he does make mistakes at first ? If he finds he

is not understood when he puts a thing in one way, then put it in another. He
should try to get up a pretty extensive vocabulary of apparent synonyms, and
by experience and experiment he will learn what words are best understood by
different classes of people, and what are the right words to use. Of course all this
implies a great deal of patience ; but if a man has no patience he had better not
come to far Cathay.

ORTHOGRAPHY.

The orthography is Williams' with the exception of some slight variations where
necessary.
The classes of variants are given below, so that the scholar may find no difficulty
in using Williams' Tonic Dictionary or Eitel's Chinese Dictionary.

In this book. In Williams' and Eitel's.

éi ... ... í (or i in Eitel's.)

:
:.

ö ... ... ... ... ... éu

wú ... ... ... ... ... ... ú
wui ... ... ... ... ... ... ui
yí ... ... ... ... ... í
yü ... ... ... ... ... ü

Ifthe beginner would be a good speaker let him not follow the pronunciations
given in Dictionaries, if he finds such to clash with that of his teacher, provided he
 VIII PREFACE .

PREFACE.

has a good one, but imitate the latter. Let him remember :

1st. That the dictionaries have been made by Europeans to whom Chinese was
not a native tongue, and that consequently they are not free from errors.

2nd. Also let him remember that at the best it is but a halting expedient this
attempting to represent Chinese sounds by the letters of an alphabet, which, as we
are accustomed to use them in our own language, are never in every case capable of
producing the identical Chinese sound.

3rd. Let him also remember that some of the Chinese assistants that Dictionary
makers have depended on for their pronunciations were not pure Cantonese speakers.

These several reasons will be sufficient to assure him of the necessity for
adhering to the above advice ; and when he becomes a proficient in the use of this
beautiful (when spoken in its 'purity) dialect he will see an additional reason in the
miserable pronunciation of some Europeans, who have considered their dictionaries
wiser then the Chinese themselves, and he may be gratified by being told by the
Chinese that his pronunciation is clearer and better in many respects than many
a native's.

In conclusion the author may express the hope-a hope that has actuated him
throughout the preparation, that this little book will prove a help in the study of
a tongue which he has known and spoken from his earliest infancy. Should it prove
of assistance to those who unlike him have not been able to avail themselves of the
easiest and best mode of learning it, he will be proud that these efforts have proved
capable of assisting those who desire to acquire a knowledge of this, one of the finest
and oldest dialects in China.

His thanks are again due to Mr. H. A. Giles of H. M.'s Consular Service for
again permitting him to make use of his arrangement of sentences and the plan of
his book, as far as the first part of it is concerned, which it will be seen he has con
siderably enlarged upon .

Mr. A. Falconer, of the Government Central School, Hongkong, has also kindly
assisted him in correcting proof sheets.

Should mistakes be discovered the author will be obliged by those using the
book informing him ofthem.

After having written out the whole of the lessons and while they were in the
press, the compiler's attention was called to Mr. Parker's orthography as applied to
the Cantonese ; and finding that in one instance it supplied a want that he had felt,
 PREFACE. IX

PREFACE.

and that in another instance it represented a sound which had not been brought
out clearly, his spelling in both these instances was modified in conformity with
Mr. Parker's system, though he cannot endorse Mr. Parker's attempts in their
entirety (his attempts to rid the orthography from diacritical marks do not always
appear to be the best) ; especially all the conclusions he arrives at as exemplified
by his orthography that is to say if he understands what the spelling always refers
to, but unfortunately his syllabary is printed without any Chinese characters, so
that one scarcely knows what word the new combination of letters always re
presents. Finding that in certain cases Mr. Parker's was an improvement on the
current orthography, other cases have also been referred to Mr. Parker's syllabary,
and the author must acknowledge occasional assistance he has derived from such a
reference while working by the guidance of his ear to free himself from the, in too
many cases, barbarous and incorrect spellings used by the dictionaries. He has
been pleased to find on reference to Mr. Parker's syllabary that he also had arrived
in the majority of instances at the same conclusions that the author had. This he
trusts will give more confidence in the accuracy of those sounds represented by
Mr. Parker and himself to those who may be inclined to look with suspicion upon
and doubt the propriety of any change, however simple, in the admirable adaptation
of Sir William Jones' system of spelling made in his younger days by that venerable
and learned sinologist, Dr. Williams.
J. DYER BALL .

HONGKONG, 1883.

PRARY
REESE DI
OF TH
UNIVER. 1
се
PREFACE

TO THE SECOND EDITION.

It is now rather more than four years since the first edition , of five hundred
copies, of this book was published. Uncertain of the success of the venture at the
time the book was but limited in its scope. The disposal of the first edition and
the approval the book has met with has led the author to now issue a second edition
of the same work, which, though running on the same lines as the first edition , has
been considerably enlarged. The first part of the book, that containing the fifteen
lessons, may at first sight appear to be the same in the two editions, but though
 X PREFACE .

PREFACE.

the same number of pages are occupied, it will be found that there are many more
sentences in this part of the book than formerly, great care has also been exercised
in a careful revision of the lessons, and here the author must acknowledge the great
assistance rendered to him by Mr. J. H. Stewart Lockhart, who kindly volunteered
to assist him.

In the second or Grammatical portion of the book it will be seen that thirty
six pages are added. A new table of the Classifiers has been drawn up from which
it has been attempted to exclude words not rightly entitled to the name of Classifiers,
though often so called, and these words have been placed in a list by themselves.
A better table of the Personal Pronouns has also been drawn out. An important
addition has likewise been the lists of the idiomatic uses of verbs, and other addi
tions it will be seen have been made, all of which the author trusts will make the
book more useful. The old matter has also been revised.

A new feature appears in the shape of an Index to the Second part, which
will no doubt render reference to passages sought for easier than with the help of
the table of contents alone, which is still retained. In the Introduction the tones
have been more fully treated.

It has been the author's endeavour in what may be called the Grammatical
portion of the book not so much to lay down Grammatical Rules describing the
structure of the language irrespective of its analogy to other languages ; but it has
been his aim so to word these rules as to show the learner the difference between
the learner's native language and that he is endeavouring to acquire, for in detecting
the points of resemblance and difference between his own language and one foreign
to him will the learner be the better able to appreciate the similarity and dis
similarity between the two languages . It is but a waste of time to draw up a
Chinese Grammar on the same lines as an English Grammar ; such Grammars are
useful to those who wish to learn the structure of their own language, but to those
who already know something of the Grammar of one language this knowledge is
best utilised by being used as a vantage ground. The knowledge already acquired
is compared with what it is desired to acquire. The mind instead of being burdened
with going over old ground has its powers left free to tabulate the new knowledge
under the two heads of "the same as I learnt before, I do not need to trouble
about that," and the other head of " this is different from what I learnt before, I
must try and remember this."

Any learner who desires to acquire a new language if he wishes to make any
progress must consciously or unconsciously thus tabulate his knowledge. If it is
not already done for him in the books he uses, his time is taken up with wading
 P
PREFACE . XI

PREFACE.

through a mass of rules and examples to pick out what is new to him. His time is
saved and the acquisition of the language rendered easier for him, if it is done
before-hand for him.
Exception has been taken by one or two to the use of the literal translation
of the Chinese into English on account of its barbarous nature, but its manifest
advantages to the beginner are so obvions, not only theoretically but in actual
practice in the use of this book, that the Author's predilections in its favour are con
firmed. As to its being barbarous, what does barbarous mean ? Simply that any
thing is outside of our pale of civilization and customary mode of expression, &c. A
literal translation of any language into English proves more or less barbarous : this
is even true with regard to the classic languages of ancient Greece and Rome.
As a hint to the use to which this literal translation may be put the following
passage given from an essay by Proctor with regard to the use of literal trans
lations such as the Hamiltonian method, the literal translation employed by the
author of the present work being very like that. Mr. Proctor says :-" Take then
first a passage and go carefully over it, word for word as it stands.

Next, read it over several words at a time. After this, read the English
through alone, and then turn to the original, and read that through . You will
find that by this time you can read the original understandingly. Take the
passage next * and turn it into English by a free translation- not too free,
but just free enough to be good English. Now follows what in practice I found
the most improving part of the whole work. Make a word-for-word translation in
the exact order of the words in the original, and note what this tells you of the
character of the idiom and also of the mental peculiarities of the nation who
own the language you are dealing with. " (Miscellaneous Essays, by R. A. Proctor).

J. DYER BALL.

HONGKONG, 1887.
1

3
 INTRODUCTION. XIII

Y
LIBRAR
REESE
OF THE
UNIVERSITY
OF
CALIFORNIA

INTRODUCTION.

THE CANTONESE DIALECT OR LANGUAGE.

An impression appears to have got abroad that Mandarin is the language

of China, and that Cantonese and the other languages spoken in China are but
dialects of it. The impression is an erroneous one. One might as well say that
Spanish was the language of the Iberian Peninsula and that Portuguese, as well
as the other Romanic languages spoken elsewhere, were dialects of it. There
is no doubt, that, as with Spanish in the Peninsula, Mandarin in some one or
other of its various dialects is the language of a large portion of China (say of
thirteen out of the eighteen provinces) , but no less is Cantonese in some one or
other of its numerous dialects the language of a great many of the inhabitants of
the two provinces of Kwangtung and Kwongsi, (which two provinces have a
population roughly stated equal to that of England). It is true that the Mandarin is
used as a lingua franca in all official courts and Government offices throughout the
whole of China, but though more than five hundred years ago for a considerable
time in English history French was the Court language of England, yet there was
an English language, though it may have been despised by those who knew nothing
but French.

One of the unfortunate things about terming these different languages in

China dialects is to lead those who know nothing of the subject to suppose
that Cantonese is merely a local patois differentiated from the Mandarin by
dialectic peculiarities, and that those who speak it differ as far from a correct
method of speaking their native tongue, as a Somerset man or Yorkshireman, who
speaks his native dialect does from an educated Englishman, who by virtue of his
education and culture has sunk all the peculiarities of pronunciation, which inevit
ably point out the illiterate countryman .

In fact the Cantonese is more nearly akin to the ancient language of China
spoken about 3,000 years ago than the speech of other parts of China . It is more
 XIV INTRODUCTION .

INTRODUCTION.

ancient itself than its younger brethren, the other so -called dialects of China, and to
prevent any false ideas of its importance the following extract is given from
the Preface to Douglas ' Dictionary of the Amoy language, the statements in which
are equally applicable to Cantonese. It is as follows, viz.:

"But such words as ' Dialect ' or ' Colloquial ' give an erroneous conception of
its nature. It is not a mere colloquial dialect or patois ; it is spoken by the highest
ranks just as by the common people, by the most learned just as by the most
ignorant ; learned men indeed add a few polite or pedantic phrases, but these are
mere excrescences, (and even they are pronounced according to the " Cantonese
sounds), " while the main body and staple of the spoken language of the most
refined and learned classes is the same as that of coolies, labourers, and boatmen.

"Nor does the term ' dialect ' convey anything like a correct idea of its distinc
tive character ; it is no mere dialectic variety of some other language ; it is a
distinct language, one of the many and widely differing languages which divide
among them the soil of China. *

" A very considerable number of the spoken languages of China have been
already more or less studied by European and American residents in the country,
such as the Mandarin, the Hakka, the vernaculars of Canton and Amoy, and several
others. These are not dialects of one language ; they are cognate languages, bear
ing to each other a relation similar to that which subsists between the Arabic, the
Hebrew, the Syriac, the Ethiopic, and the other members of the Semitic family ;
or again between English, German, Dutch, Danish, Swedish, & c.

" There is another serious objection to the use of the term ' dialect ' as
applied to these languages, namely that within each of them there exist real dialects.
For instance, the Mandarin, contains within itself three very marked ' dialects,'
the Northern, spoken at Peking; the Southern , spoken at Nanking and Soochow ;
and the Western, spoken in the Provinces of Szechuen, Hoopeh, & c."

It may be stated that it is as absurd for any one who intends

to reside in
Hongkong, Canton, or Macao, and who wishes to learn Chinese to take up the
study of Mandarin, as it would be for a German, who was about to settle in London
to learn French in order to be able to converse with the English.

Cantonese has its " real dialects " some of which are spoken by tens of thou
sands, or hundreds of thousands of natives, and which if they were spoken by the
inhabitants of some insignificant group of islands in the Pacific with only a tithe of
the population would be honoured by the name of languages. These " subordinate
dialects " of the Cantonese are again subdivided into many little divisions spoken in
 INTRODUCTION. XV

INTRODUCTION.

different cities or towns, or groups of cities, towns, and villages where peculiar
colloquialisms prevail. Some of these dialects of Cantonese are as follows, viz :
The San Wui Dialect.
"" San Ning 99
"" Hồng Shan 19
29 Shun Tak 99
" Tung Kwun ""

THE CORRECT PRONUNCIATION OF PURE CANTONESE .

So far is this minute sub-division carried that even in the city of Canton itself,
the seat and centre of pure Cantonese, more than one pronunciation of words is
used ; the standard , however, being the Sai Kwán wá, or West end speech, to which
the learner should endeavour to assimilate his talk. It has been the Author's
endeavour to give this pronunciation, or at all events the Cantonese, and the
students of this book may take it as a fact that it is Cantonese and pure Can
tonese that is given in this book ; and that where the author has corrected the
orthography of Williams and Eitel it is because this orthography in such cases
does not represent pure Cantonese, such for instance as in the spelling of the whole
series of words, such as nui, hui, &c. which these authors give most un
fortunately as nü, hü, &c. , such a sound as nü being abominable Cantonese- not
pure Cantonese at all, but Sai Chíú Dialect or some other wretched dialect, not
withstanding it has the sanction of-such sinologues as Williams, Eitel, and Chalmers ;
and those who know Chinese thoroughly will know that the author is throwing no
slur on the masterly scholarship displayed by these men when he says that their
pronunciation of Cantonese as shewn by their orthography in many instances is
neither pure nor correct.

It is a great pity that Dr. Eitel, in his new Dictionary, has not followed the
lead of good speakers of pure Cantonese instead of perpetuating the mistakes of
Dr. Williams- mistakes due partly to the implicit following of a Chinese author's
ideas of pronunciation and mistakes more excusable in the olden days than at the
present time.

To those who are inclined to be suspicious of any change in an established

orthography of Chinese by Europeans the fact that the author is not alone in
this changing of the mode of representing another class of sounds may give more
confidence to their acceptance of it, and to those who know Mr. Parker's wonderfully
acute ear for Chinese sounds the following extracts may help to confirm their
acceptance of such changes.
 XVI INTRODUCTION .

INTRODUCTION.

"The only place where a really short e comes in, is in the diphthong ei
(as in feint *). This, sound is * actually ignored by Williams in favour
of i, as in the English thee, a Cantonese sound which only exists in one or two
colloquial words such as mi, ni, &c. ," China Review, Vol. 8, p. 364.
And again, " but, unfortunately Williams uses i to represent both the ee and ei
as in feel and feint," China Review, Vol. 8, p. 365 .
He again says in a paper on "the Comparative study of Chinese dialects "
published in the transactions of the North China Branch of the Royal Asiatic 1
1
Society. " In Dr. Williams' dictionary again, several classes of vowels existing in
theory, according to the standard in nubibus encumber the work, when one vowel
would have stood in each case for them all. One of the nine regular tones, too, is
entirely ignored ; and the whole class of colloquial tones called the pin yam, which
form so striking an element of quasi-inflection in the pure Cantonese dialect, has
been completely overlooked. Dr. Eitel, in his corrected edition of the same Dic 4

tionary, has introduced the ninth regular tone, but he likewise, instead of adhering
steadfastly, (as did Mr. Wade in the case of the Metropolitan Pekingese) to the
Metropolitan Cantonese, has, by overlooking these colloquial tones, once more lost
the opportunity of firmly establishing another standard dialect."
The opinion of another enthusiastic student of Cantonese, than whom it is
difficult to find one showing greater zeal in all matters connected with the language,
(the author refers to Mr. J. H. Stewart-Lockhart) likewise says : -" It is much to
be regretted that Dr. Eitel's• . Dictionary, though excellent in many ways, has
not modified the spelling in Williams', " China Review, Vol . X. , p. 312.
The matter resolves itself into simply this, whether we are to go on perpetra
ting mistakes by accepting the orthography of Williams and Eitel in extenso- in
every minute particular, when it is a well-known fact by those who speak pure
Cantonese that this orthography in all its particulars is not pure Cantonese by a
long way, but is mixed up with local pronunciations, or whether we are to try to
get an English transliteration of Chinese sounds, which shall attempt to approach as
near as possible to the standard Cantonese, that spoken in the city of Canton itself.
That such attempts may be open to partial failures in some particulars none knows
better than the author himself, but because the matter is a difficult one to tackle
there is no reason why we should go on in the old ruts. They are getting rather
worn out now after half a century of use and it is time that better ways were
followed.

A curious argument is sometimes used as a support to a not conforming to a

standard,‚ —a real standard and a pure one -namely that it does not much matter as
long as they, the Europeans or Americans, who speak Chinese are understood. In
 INTRODUCTION. OF THE XVII
INT SITY
RSTA
INTRODUCTION.

this argument it is taken for granted that they must be understood, but they are
often not.

A good story is told of an Englishman in Russia coming across a Russian, who

accosted him in broad Yorkshire to the astonishment of the Britain, the Russian
being under the impression that he was conversing in good English, he having
availed himself of the services of an Englishman to learn his, the Englishman's,
native language, but unfortunately the teacher spoke a dialect, Yorkshire, which is
not now considered as pure English.

This is bad enough, but supposing the Russian instead of learning from an
Englishman had used books to acquire the language, and that these books had
taught him to invariably leave off the initial h, as cockneys do ; to pronounce
the s, as if it were a z, in imitation of the Somerset dialect ; to pronounce the
article the, as if it were a t alone, in imitation of Yorkshire ; and to pronounce every
word like bay, day, fay, gay, hay, jay, lay, may, nay, pay, ray, say, way, as if
they were speiled be, de, fee, gee, he, ge, lea , me, knee, pea, re , see, we, and
other mispronunciations of the same character. What a delightful hotch-potch this
would be ! This then may give an idea of what results ensue in Chinese from the
orthography of some of the books that are now in use by Europeans for learning
Chinese.

What would be thought of an argument to the effect that it mattered little to

the Russian, as many English dropped their h all through the length and breadth of
the land, that likewise numbers of genuine Englishmen pronounced the the as t
alone, and that there were not a few that pronounced the s as a z, and that the
other mispronunciations were also in use in English ?

And yet the same style of argument is used with regard to these dialectic
pronunciations of Cantonese by some book makers.

The following statement by Mr. Parker is conclusive on the point except to

those who are prejudiced against any conclusion except their own : -"The argument
so frequently used that, in the presence of so many conflicting forms of Cantonese
it is unwise to make a special study of one, ought to condemn itself without
demonstration to every logical student, apart from the obvious fact that the dialect
of a metropolis, as spoken by the most highly educated classes, is primâ facie more
likely to be a standard and to be more widely known than a dialect spoken by less
educated persons in the country, or in a town less thickly populated than the
metropolis," China Review, Vol. 8, p. 367.
 XVIII INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

THE TONES.

As the tones are the initial difficulty in learning Chinese it is well that the
beginner should have his attention drawn at the very first to them, Premare says,
" The mere sounds are, as it were, the body of the character, and the tones are in
like manner the spirit."* This description of the tones, at all events, contains a just
appreciation of their importance. And that learned sinalogue seems so thoroughly
to understand the subject that his further descriptions of the matter form very good
answers to the questions, What are the tones ; and are they of any importance ? To
answer these questions let us take, for instance, the word sín, before. The
sound is represented by the English spelling, sin (pronounced seen) and the tone by
that little semi-circle, but insignificant as that little semi-circle is, yet a right
understanding by a native of the word a European wishes to pronounce is as much
conveyed by that little semi-circle as it is by the English letters sín. Neglect
that little sign and ignore the tone which it stands for, and the native is at a loss to
know what the European means to say.

In other words, Chinese words may be compared to specimens, geological,

botanical, or what you like, in a museum, and in this museum, of Chinese ideas, it is
necessary not only that the words, the specimens, should be arranged in cases or
classes, similar in general characteristics, such as sound, but the differentiation of
one from the other, which is already an accomplished fact, shall be represented in a
manner to at once appeal to the ear. The methods of so distinguishing them is by
the tones . These are the labels to the words to point out clearly what they are.

Tones then are used in this language, so largely monosyllabic that confusion
would ensue but for their use. For example, let us take the sound sín (pro
nounced like the English word seen) again. That sound, amongst other ideas in
the book language, stands in the colloquial for the words, before, ringworm, and
thread, but with a separate tone for each word, and written differently in the
Chinese character. Now if the word sin, meaning before, is pronounced in the
same way as sin', meaning thread, it, of course, is no more the word before, but
becomes the word thread, and vice versa, or if it is pronounced 'sin, it means
ringworm, and no more thread or before, or suppose the word is pronounced in
some other tone, which does not belong to any word in that sound, no meaning
is conveyed, or to use an illustration try to write English without any regard
to spelling, and think that scene will do for seen, or vice versâ. It may be imagined
how confusing and ludicrous it would be to hear a man talk about ringworm

* " Meri soni sunt litterarum quasi corpus ; accentus autem sunt ipsis loco animæ."
Premare's Notitia Linguæ Sinicæ, p. 10.
 INTRODUCTION. XIX

INTRODUCTION.
when he meant to talk about thread. Most ludicrous mistakes are constantly

made by those who are just learning the tones, or who will not take the trouble
to learn them .

The learner will not have tried to speak Chinese long before he will find every
now and then that something he has said falls flat on the ears of his listener,
conveying no idea, as his blank or perplexed face will show, 'in such a case the
learner may think himself fortunate if some bystander, guessing at the idea, puts
the word or words into the right tone or tones and repeats them, intelligence will
now take the place of bewilderment on the listener's face. If the learner is deter
mined to learn the tones he may find, as time goes on, some criterion of his success
from noticing if such failures are decreasing.

There are other helps it may be noted here, such as some words being aspirated
and others not, and the context also helps to the understanding of the word, but
notwithstanding all other helps the tone is of the utmost importance. As Premare
rightly says : " But if the sound simply were pronounced, no regard being had to
the tone, or breathing " (the breathing being the aspirate) " it would be impossible
to determine its signification ; and indeed, it is the want of attention to this subject
which occasions Europeans, after protracted labours devoted to the acquisition of
this tongue, failing so often to be understood by the Chinese. They are learned,
talented and industrious, and yet can only stammer, through their whole lives,
while at the same time some stupid Caffrarian, in a very short period, learns to
91
speak as well as the Chinese themselves."

It is not learning nor talents that are a sure passport to an ability to acquire
the tones, but more an ear gifted with, or trained to, a power of distinguishing
between musical sounds, or a power of mimicry, a determination to succeed accom

* The quotation in full in Premare is as follows : -" Exemplo sit littera videre ; sonus
quem ipsi dant sinæ est k'án, spiritus est asper k'an, accentus est rectus k'án , et interdum acutus
k'án ; atque haec tria, scilicet sonus, spiritus et accentus sunt omnino necessaria. Cum vero
sint aliae litterae aliud plane significantes, quae debent eodem modo pronunciari, evidens est quod
etiamsi recte dicas k'án, tamen ex circumstantiis, hoc est, ex materia de qua sermo est, et ex his quae
præcedunt vel sequuntur, plerumque colligunt sinæ quod vox illa quam profers significat videre. Et
quid igitur esset, si duntaxat dicas k'an, nulla habitą ratione nec ad spiritum k'an, nec ad accentum
k'án atque haec est præcipua causa cur Europæi post tot labores in lingua sinica discenda
positos a sinis vix intelligantur. Docti sunt, ingeniosi sunt, attenti sunt, et tamen per totam vitam
plerique balbutiunt, interim dum stupidus aliquis cafer (sic) post tempus sat breve tam bene loquitur
quam ipsimet sinae."
Premare's Notitia Linguæ Sinicæ, p. 10.
 XX INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

panied with well-directed industrious efforts, which will generally assist a man
in his acquisition of the tones, but his success is more rapid and certain if he be
blessed with a musical ear and a power of mimicry. A man should not, however,
give up the attempt to learn the tones from an idea that he is not thus blessed.
It is but few men that have not some idea of musical pitch, or the ability,
if they will only try, to closely imitate what others say; and the continual
attempt to do the latter, or detect the differences between the tones, will materially
increase the ability to do both the one and the other, just as a man who exercises
the muscles of his arms and legs, &c. in a properly directed manner is able after
months of continual practice to pull an oar in a boat, in perfect time and
accord with other rowers, in a manner which would astonish those who do not
know what training will do . So training in the tones is bound to produce good
results. The pity is that people get it into their heads that they can speak Chinese
without knowing the tones. You might almost as well expect to be able to speak
French without learning the French pronunciation, though do not be led away
by the illustration to suppose that tones are pronunciation .
But still the question remains, What are tones? It is easy enough to say
what they are not, for instance they are not pronunciation, emphasis, or accent ;
but the difficulty consists in explaining to a European something which he knows
nothing about, something to which there is nothing akin in his own language, or in
the languages, which in the course of his education he has learned, be they dead,
Classical languages, or living modern languages, or , if there were, the knowledge of
them has been lost.
This being the case it would perhaps have been as well, as Dr. Williams says,
if the Chinese name for them, shing, had been adopted into our language instead of
using a word such, as, tone, which conveys other ideas to our minds.
It is very much as if a race of mankind, say in the centre of New Guinea, were
to be discovered, who had a new sense, that is to say, a sense which the rest of
mankind were not endowed with. It would be well nigh impossible to describe
this sense to the rest of mankind, who had not seen the effects it produced and what
it was, and any attempts at description would be in many cases misleading, for those
who heard the description would be inclined to follow the illustrations out in their
entirety, and thus misunderstand what was being attempted to be explained to them.
Tones then may be said to be certain positions or inflections of the voice which
are used for certain words, each word having its own tone, or in some cases two,
which are used at different times. These positions into which the voice is put for
words are various in their character. The position is for certain tones a level or
sustained modulation, the difference between the tones belonging to this class being
 INTRODUCTION. XXI

INTRODUCTION.

one of musical pitch. For others it is a rising modulation of the voice, as if when
a violin bow were being drawn across a string of the violin the finger of the player
should slide from a lower note to a higher ; -the difference between the tones
belonging to this class being in the amount of rising modulation the voice under
goes. Another class, a diminishing, receding modulation of the voice, the difference
between the tones comprised in this class being, as in some of the others, a high or
low one. And there is yet another class which has been described as an evanescent

modulation, the tones in this class being distinguished from each other by the
musical pitch .
If the beginner could only put himself into the same position that a child
appears to be in when learning Chinese, there doubtless would be no difficulty at
all in the tones. A European child in infancy, given equal facilities, learns Chinese,

bristling with difficulties, as it appears to adults, more readily, and , if anything, more
correctly than his or her mother tongue. What is the reason of this ? The language
is, as a general rule, more natural and logical in its construction, or rather the
Chinese mind is more natural and logical in its sequence of ideas, and consequently
the Chinese language is more logical in the manner of putting ideas ; furthermore a
monosyllabic language, or at all events with regard to Chinese, one which is to a
great extent monosyllabic, it is natural to suppose would be more readily appre
hended by a child's mind. Besides these two great advantages there is the further
advantage of tone, to which a child is naturally inclined, and it is only by educa
tion that an infant learns that tone is unnecessary in a European language.
A Chinese child never learns this, and, having originally, in common with its
European cousin, copied the exact tone in which it hears a word first pronounced,
adheres to this original pronunciation of the tone, assisted materially by the fact
that it hears this word pronounced in no other way, or tone, while its cousin, the
European child, while acquiring its own language, at first adheres to the original
tone in which a word has been first pronounced, and persists in this adherence for
some time, as a general rule, till it gets confused by hearing a multiplicity of tones
given to the same word and eventually finds it is useless to battle for a language in
its infant state when his superiors have long ago decided that the language has out
grown its infantile state, and eventually yields to the force of circumstances and
copying the example of his elders forgets that there is such a thing as tone at all.
How is it possible for a European adult to place himself in the same position
as regards tones as a child would be in ? Clearly he cannot place himself in
precisely the same position, as he has already the experience of his own and pro
bably other languages, which at the present day are wanting in tones, to mislead
him. Let him however try and get as near the child's position, in this respect, at
 XXII INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

least, as he can. Listen acutely to the tone that his teacher pronounces a word in,
repeat it after him and re-repeat it and go on a hundred times-a thousand if
necessary, till the exact tone has been got, and do this with every new word. More
pains are necessary for the adult than for the child, as to the child the tone is
everything while to the adult it is nothing. Repeat the same plan with every new
word learned, and surely such infinite pains will not have been spent in vain .
Being unfortunately an adult the learner ought also to use his superior abilities
and previous knowledge as a vantage ground for further attainments by, for one
thing, having a formula, shall we call it ? such , for instance as, sín sín sín' sit,,
sín sín sín² sit , and with each new word finding from enquiry, or better still

from the dictionary, the correct tone, then try to say it in exactly the same
tone as the same toned word in the formula, but do not be content with supposing
that you have it correct, test it with your teacher and bother him with questions as

to whether you are perfectly correct or not, and do not be content with anything
short of perfectness. You may think it is not of much importance and he will
probably think that you being a European cannot ever learn Chinese perfectly
correctly, especially if after several attempts at a word you make very bad shots at
it, but other Europeans have learned to speak Chinese, and amongst them have been
some, who have approximated very closely to the Chinese in their tones, so close
that much of what they said might be supposed to be uttered by Chinese. If others
have attained to such an excellence, why should not you ? At all events you will
not unless you try. And it is well worth the trial, as you will know when you
have attained to this excellence.
All this trouble and painstaking when you are in your study, and on the
learning of every new word, but when you go out to exercise your hard- acquired
knowledge do not cramp yourself by constant thoughts as to the tone of every word
in the sentence you utter, any more than you would bend your head down and
watch every step you take when walking. Speech must come freely from your
mouth, and you must not hesitate over and examine every word mentally before it
issues from your lips, or you will never speak freely. A general and his officers do
not minutely inspect each soldier to see as they issue out for the attack whether
their uniform and accoutrements are all right, that has to be done at drill. Never
cease to drill yourself in tones for many a long day after your first start.

METHODS OF DESCRIBING TONES.

Different methods have been used to try and convey to the foreign mind
unacquainted with tones an idea of what they are. To depend only upon these
descriptions to acquire a knowledge of the tones would be but of little use, as tones
 INTRODUCTION. XXIII

INTRODUCTION.

in their correctness are only to be learned from the native pronunciation of them,
but these descriptions may assist the learner, supplemented by hearing them pro
nounced, to a correct knowledge of what they are, imperfect though such methods
may be by themselves alone for conveying a perfectly correct idea of the tones to one
who is previously unacquainted with them. One way of describing the tones has
been to compare them to the inflections of voice, which are used in certain passages
properly read and emphasised, or in speech properly inflected in its utterance.
When this explanation is given it must not be supposed that the same words, as
a rule, are capable of having different tones applied to them just as in English
different words may have a different emphasis, owing simply to the position of
the word in the sentence, or the exigencies of the case, such as the emotions the
speaker desires to give expression to, by the inflexion of his voice- such are
intonation and expression-not Chinese Tones ; for Chinese words are capable of
intonation of voice and emphasis, which can be thrown into the voice without,
though it may seem strange to those unacquainted with the fact, interfering with
the pitch of the tone, and this brings us to another way in which it has been
attempted to make the tonic system intelligible to the foreigner, viz : -by comparing
the tones to musical notes.

Ses
LIST OF TONES.
I
The following is a list of the 12 tones in Cantonese, which are all that the
beginner need trouble himself about, as the others that may exist in Cantonese are
G
not sufficiently verified yet.

Upper Series. Middle tones. Lower Series.

10Chung ping. *
Shong ping. 下平 Haping.
2 Shongshöng. ~上聲 變 音 Shöng? Ha² shöng. !
>
stShing hui. shing pin yam ." 下去 H² huai². 7

4 上 入 Shöng² yapy. Chung yap 卞 入 H² yapy.

下入
"The degree in which these two series " (that is the upper and lower series)
"vary from each other is not the same in all the tones ; the upper and lower
p'ing shing being distinctly marked while there is very little perceptible difference
between the upper and lower shöng shing.”
Williams' Easy Lessons in Chinese, p. 49.

* This is scarcely a correct name for this tone. It is really a pín' yam for the T
há² p'ing, Thá² bui' and any other of the tones which occasionally rise into it.
 XXIV INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

DIVISION OF THE TONES.

These tones are classed together in different ways, such as, those of the Upper
and Lower Series, which together make the 8 tones into which the Cantonese as
a rule say the words in their language are divided, and which are the only tones
appearing in the majority of dictionaries.
These eight tones are divided by the Chinese again into correct and deflected, or
ping and chak,, the first of each series belonging to the former and the
others being classed under the deflected, just as in Latin with the nominative and
other cases . Of course the three medial tones, if coming under these two divisions,

would resolve themselves in the same way, viz :-The chung ping would
belong likewise to the correct, while the other two would come under the category
of deflected tones.

These eight tones are further divided into the :

p'ing, or Even tones.
shöng , or Upper tones .
hui', or Receding tones.
yap,, or Entering tones .

This classification is so simple that there is no need for offering any remarks
on it, of course the three other tones can also come under this classification.

DESCRIPTION OF THE TONES.

No better definition can perhaps be given of the ping shing than is

contained in the following words : -" The ping shing is precisely the musical
monotone, pronounced without elevation or depression, being the natural uncon
strained expression of the voice. Thus in the sentences :
I am going to town ; I hope it will not rain ; You must look and see ;

if the last word in each is sounded in somewhat of a dissatisfied or commanding

tone, higher than the other words, the previous part of the sentence will naturally
fall in the ping shing, In questions, uttered in a pleasant inviting tone, the words
preceding the last naturally fall in the upper p'ing shing, as,
Willyou let me see it ? Will you come too ?

"The negative answer to such questions (spoken by the same voice) would
naturally fall into the lower ping shing as :—
When I asked him, ' Will you let me see it ? ' he said, ' No, I'll do no such thing.'
"Here the different cadence of the question and reply illustrate the upper and

lower ping shing." -Williams' Easy, Lessons in Chinese, p . 49 .

 INTRODUCTION. XXV

INTRODUCTION.

There is however a second Upper Even Tone into which some words are put.
This second , or chung ping, Medial Upper Even Tone, is found in the
following words, for example :

Hi máu, a cat, and Osong, a gun.

"It partakes of the nature of a slight shriek," differing not only in musical
pitch (being nearer to the shöng p'ing, Upper Even Tone, in that respect
than to the Thú ping, Lower Even Tone, ) from the other two Even Tones,
but also in the manner of its pronunciation, it having " a certain quickness or
jerkiness of pronunciation. "-Parker in Overland China Mail.
There is an octave's difference between the two Even Tones. That is to say if
you pronounce the shong ping, Upper Even Tone, as the C which is placed
in the third space in the lines in music, you must pronounce the Thaping,
Lower Even Tone, as the C which appears in the first leger line below in the treble.

These Lower Even Toned words seem to give a stability and character to the
Cantonese ; they are full and rich , and a European who has a full toned voice gene
rally speaks Cantonese better than one with a weak piping voice, at all events
Cantonese from his lips sounds better than from those of the other man .
There is no doubt this tone, the chung p'ing , Medial Even Tone, does
exist, and the Beginner will do well to keep his ears open for it, though to the
average European ear it is so subtle as not to be distinguished, obtuse in this sense
as most Europeans have become from speaking a language in which tone is of no
account. And here consists the fallacy of learning Chinese by simply learning
what the tones of a word are, that is to say learning that a certain word is in the
shöng² ping, or Upper Even Tone, for example, instead of first learning to
pronounce the word properly, and then bracing yourself up to that pronunciation
by comparing it with other words in that same tone and then finally fixing in
your memory that it belongs to that tone, the shongping, Upper Even
Tone, for supposing you learn first that it belongs to this tone class instead of
making a point of pronouncing it properly first, you run away at once with the
idea that it is a 上 平 shöng ping, Upper Even Tene, and it is possible
that it is a chung ping, Medial Even Tone, word. If you have a
good ear and good powers of minicry, great points of advantage in learning
Chinese, you run a good chance of learning the word in the right tone, then
it is possible you may detect the difference on coming to compare it with other
words that are really of the shöng² p'ing, Upper Even Tone . At all
events keep your ear open for these distinctions between the shöng
sping, Upper Even, and chung ping, Medial Even Tones, for no dic

E
REES
C
I
UN
 XXVI INTRODUCTION .

INTRODUCTION.

tionary yet published gives all the words which should be in the chung
ping, Medial Even Tone, in that Tone. Dr. Eitel puts a few of them into his
dictionary. Do not consider such distinctions hypercritical, or a waste of time.
The disposition to do so makes some learned Sinalogues commit such egregious
errors as to entirely ignore a well marked Tone the chung yap, the Medial
Entering Tone, of which we shall speak presently. These distinctions do exist,
subtle as they may seem to you, and while not distressing yourself with them too
much, at the same time try to train your ear into distinguishing them. There is
no reason why you should not try to speak Chinese properly, and if you make the
effort you may find that you will succeed better than you thought for at first, and
it is possible that eventually you may be able, after a sufficient lengthened course
of study, to distinguish some more of these subtle distinctions which are still
believed to be lurking about in Cantonese, but which have not yet been brought to
book, more's the pity.
"The shongshing," ( Rising Tone, ) " is a rising inflection of the voice
ending higher than it began, such as is heard in the direct question, pronounced
in somewhat of a high, shrill tone ; -it loudly calls, vehement ardent, strong.' It is
also heard in exclamatory words, as, ah! Can it be ! The last word of the
preceding sentences are in the shongshing," ( Rising Tone) .— Williams'
Easy Lessons in Chinese, p. 50 .
With regard to the difference between the Eshongshong, Upper Rising
Tone, and hashöng, Lower Rising Tone, the following statement will
7
give an idea : -"the Upper Rising Tone gradually ascends, altering its pitch about
half a tone while the syllable is being uttered with a steadily waxing intensity of
*
effort, the Lower Rising Tone starts from a lower pitch, does not ascend so
high as the other and suddenly breaks off with a sort of jerk or circumflex."
Eitel's Chinese Dictionary in the Cantonese Dialect, Introduction , p. xxix.
The Third Rising Tone differs from all the other tones in this that every word
that is used in this tone belongs originally to another tone and is generally likewise
used in this other tone as well . Nearly all the tones contribute words which are
occasionally, or often, as the case may be, used in this Third Rising Tone. The
words most generally put into this tone are Nouns, " familiar words in Lower
Departing Tone (or ha hui'). It often happens also that words in the
Lower Even Tone, or Thaping, are put into this Third Rising Tone.
Occasionally words in the Upper Departing Tone, or shöng² hui' are like
wise put into this Toner It is seldom that words in the two Rising Tones,
shongshing, are put into this Tone, but it does happen sometimes. The Upper
Even Tone, shong' p'ing, however, never contributes words to this Third
 INTRODUCTION. XXVII

INTRODUCTION.

Rising Tone. It must be remembered that in reading this changing from the
other Tones into this Third Rising Tone never happens , it is only in conversation .
It is a little misleading to say, that this Third Rising Tone is adopted when a word
ends a sentence . It does undoubtedly do so at times, but the following rules will
generally describe their use.
The Third Rising Tone is used when the word stands alone, but when it is used
in combination it takes its original tone, as :-
:-) 'tò ( original tone t²) but when

used with shün, a boat, it reverts to its original tone, as :-ƒ}

} tò²¸shün,
a passage bout.
The third rising tone is also used as a sign of past time-of an action being
accomplished, as:

呌 佢 嚟 kiú ‘k‘ui ¿ļai, tell him to come. ' lai* lok , he has come.
1 kui 'lai * lo' me ? He has come has he ? µZ 'lai* lok。 , yes .

“The hushing, Departing Tone, is a prolonged tone, diminishing while

it is uttered, just as a diminuendo, or an inverted swell, does in music, and sounded
somewhat gruffly. The Chinese say that it is clear, distinct, its dull, low path is
long ;' and they call it the departing tone, because it goes away like flowing water
never to return. It is the converse of the shongshing, ending lower than it

began. The Tha hui', Lower Departing Tone, is nearer a monotone, not so
gruff as the shong? hui', Upper Departing Tone. The drawling tone of re
pressed discontent, as when one calls, but is still afraid of offending and ekes out the
sound, may perhaps illustrate this tone." -Williams' Easy Lessons in Chinese, p . 50 .

There is no difficulty in knowing what words belong to the fourth Tone Class,
as all words that end in k, p, and t belong to this class. " They further differ
from all the other tones by a peculiar abruptness of enunciation . " -Eitel's Chinese
Dictionary in the Cantonese Dialect, Introduction , p. xxix. There are three well
defined tones belonging to this class the shong , chung, and ha' ,
Upper, Middle, and Lower, yap,, or Entering Tones. There is also some
assistance to be derived from the fact that most of the words having long vowels
belong to the chung yap,, Middle Entering Tone . The others as well as
some words with long vowels belong to the Ashöng' yap , Upper Entering
Tone, or 下 入 h ? yapı Lower Entering Tone.

"The correct application of the tones to every word in speaking or reading

is the principal difficulty with which the beginner has to contend. In English
they are all heard in conversation every day, according to the different humours of
people, or their peculiar mode of enunciation ; but in that language, tones of words
never affect the meaning of the speaker, except so far as they indicate his feelings ;
Bu
XXVIII INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

and moreover they are applied to sentences rather than to isolated words. In
Chinese, on the contrary, the tones are applied to every word, and have nothing to
do either with accent or emphasis ; in asking or answering, intreating or refusing,
railing or flattering, soothing or recriminating, they remain ever the same. The
*
unlettered native knows almost nothing of the learned distinctions into * tones,
but he attends to them closely himself, and detects a mispronunciation as soon as
the learned man, while he is much less likely to catch a foreigner's meaning."

MARKS TO DESIGNATE THE TONES.

It must be remembered that Chinese books are not marked with the tones,
an educated native knows the right tones of the words, as they occur in the
books. It is only when a word is in a tone which is not the common tone
of the word that it is marked, and the method by which this is done is to
make a little circle at one of the four corners of the character. Each corner
has its appropriate tones assigned to it . The left hand lower corner being ap
propriated to the ping, or even tones, the left hand upper to the E
shöng , or rising tones, the right hand upper to the hui' , or receding tones,
and the right hand lower corner to the yap , or entering tones. These are
the only signs that the Chinese use, and this only when it is absolutely necessary
that they should be used. It will be seen that there is no distinction in the native
signs employed between the different tones which belong to the same class, that
is to say ashöng p'ing, Upper Even, and há ping, Lower Even,
are both represented by the same tonal mark. No difficulty, however, arises from
this paucity of tone marks, as far as the Chinese are themselves concerned, for as has
been already stated these tonic marks are but seldom used, only occurring a few
times, if as often as that, in the course of as many pages, and furthermore if those
few words which are occasionally used in another tone, it is, as a rule, but one other
tone that they are used in, therefore no ambiguity is likely to arise. The case is,

however, very different when we come to deal with foreigners, such as Europeans,
learning the Chinese language, for here we have those who do not know by con
versational practice from infancy upwards, and from an educational course extend
ing over many years the correct tones for each word, and yet again as an addi
tional reason when a foreigner desires to write out the sounds of the Chinese words,
transliterating them into his own alphabet, as he best can, he has a number of
Chinese words, groups of which are represented by the same spelling in a foreign
language ; so many words belonging to each group that the foreigner is confused,
more especially at the beginning of his course of study, as to which Chinese word

1
 INTRODUCTION. XXIX

INTRODUCTION.

a combination of English letters is intended to represent. The context will show

what many of the words so spelled represent, but in some cases this requires
thought, and it is therefore, taking the whole subject into consideration, best that
each word so written should be accompanied by a tonal mark, which shall represent
accurately, intelligibly and in a manner easily to be apprehended the tone which
the word possesses . The above remarks will show the reasons for books prepared
for those who wish to learn Chinese bristling with tonic marks, and the man who
wishes to learn Chinese thoroughly and properly will find that in the long run he
gets on better with such a book, and makes more real progress than he does with
another, though the other may be more useful if rightly used to the tourist or to
the man who has not the time nor the inclination to learn more than a smattering
of Chinese.

We come now to the methods used by foreigners to represent the tones. Some
have endeavoured to shew tones by " marking the vowels with different accents."
This is a confusing method except to those intimately acquainted with it, as it is the
most natural course to utilise such marks to represent the value of the vowels,
as is done in our English dictionaries, and use extraordinary signs to represent
what is an extraordinary incident of words- to use signs not used by us in English
to represent tones which are unknown to us in English,-and moreover such a
method of representing the tones has not been employed by foreigners writing
books in Cantonese, no types are in existence and if there were it is better to stick
to the established usage when that established usage is the better plan. The effect
of using the contrary plan is that an awkward arrangement is arrived at of marking
over the vowels their quantities or powers as well as the tone of the word, or else
nearly all " prosodical marks affecting the vowels " have to be left out and the next
step arrived at is to leave out the tonic marks entirely-a process of evolution, or
rather of retrogression, eminently unsatisfactory. Another objection is that it would
lead beginners to suppose that the tone was connected with the vowel. The vowel
no doubt has sometimes something to do with the tone, but not to such an extent as
one would naturally infer from such a method of distinguishing the tones.

Another method is that of marking the tones by figures. We have already

said that though pretty well adapted for Pekingese with its paucity of tones it would
be inconvenient for Cantonese with its twelve or possibly more tones.

Marks of apostrophy have also been used in some of the dialects, but it will be
readily seen that there is not sufficient material to use for such a purpose.

In the Hakka as written by the German missionaries there is also another

system employed, which consists in putting acute and grave accents at different
 XXX INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

corners ofthe words, in some cases with a straight short dash underneath the accent
as well. Again in Hakka the tones are but few in number, and such arrangements
are more easily used than they would be in Cantonese, besides which these marks
have never been used in Cantonese, and there is no type available even supposing
it were a good plan for Cantonese.
There is yet again another method, which has been employed in Cantonese by
Dr. Chalmers, which consists of a combination of one of the above modes with a
new plan of using different type, and a leaving out of the tonic marks when the
word ends in those consonants which show that it belongs to a certain tone class.
This method has not been adopted by anyone else. This method is no doubt
very convenient considered from a typograpical point of view, but it seems a more
regular and systematic way to give every word its tonic mark.
And lastly there is the modification of the native method of representing the
tones, which was first used in Bridgman's Chrestomathy, and has continued to be
used up to the present day by nearly all who have written books dealing with the
Cantonese dialect, amongst whom may be mentioned Williams, Lobschied, Kerr,
and Eitel. It is the system adopted in this book. This method has several
advantages over the others. All the other methods are strange and unknown to
the Chinese. The learner would, in using the others, require to tell his teacher
what tone such and such things were meant to represent, and such telling would be
of little use with regard to some of the marks that are used in some of the modes
employed to represent the tones in Chinese. Of course in the majority of cases
the teacher can tell the tone from the character, but in some cases it is well
that the teacher should be able to see himself how the tone is marked. In

this system likewise every word is marked with its tone, and it occasionally
happens that some of the words which by Dr. Chalmers' system are left un
marked go in Colloquial into a rising tone. These marks in this method are
as applicable to the Chinese character as to the English spelled word, which
represents that character, but figures and accents cannot well be printed along
with the Chinese characters. This method is applicable to any dialect in China,
and it is a thousand pities that when such an admirable system is in use it
has not been availed of by foreigners for all the Chinese dialects, which have been
treated of in books instead of different systems being in use for different dialects,
thus increasing the difficulty of learning them when the difficulties are sufficiently
great without being added to. It unfortunately even happens that in some dialects
even more than one system is in use.
This system as has already been stated is an adaptation of the native system,
the semi-circle being used for the upper series of tones, and the semi-circle with a
 INTRODUCTION. XXXI

INTRODUCTION. +Imp

short dash underneath it to represent the lower series, as for example.

上 平 shóng㎡
shöng²ping, Upper Even, as -sia. Thaping, Lower Even, as :—¿lín .
shongshong, Upper Rising, as :-' sin. Thá² shöng , Lower Rising, as :—³lin .
shöng hui' , Upper Retreating, as : -sin'. Tha hui', Lower Retreating, as :—lín².
Ashoug' yap , Upper Entering, as :-sit,.
上入 A há² yap, Lower Entering, as : —lit .

There now remain the three other tones to be dealt with, viz : —the
¿chung p‘ing, Medial Even Tone, the chung yap , Medial Departing Tone,
and the Third Rising Tone. The chung ping, Medial Even Tone, is
represented by Parker and Eitel by a circle in the p'ing position as máu,
being an adoption of a Siamese tone mark, and it is the plan likewise adopted
in this book.

The same plan is likewise used for the chung yap , Medial Departing
Tone, viz : —a circle, but of course at the Ayap, position, as : —pok¸·

There now remains the Third Rising Tone. This has been represented by the
Upper Rising Tone mark, and an asterisk at the Rising Tone position placed at
the right hand upper corner of the word.

In this book this asterisk is retained, as it is useful in showing that the word is
in a different tone in the colloquial to what it is in the book language. In the first
edition of the present work the same mark was likewise used for this Third Rising
Tone as for the first, or Upper Rising Tone. This method is unsatisfactory, how
ever, as should by any mishap this asterisk be omitted the word then appears to
be in a wrong tone and even without chance of the asterisk being omitted it is
apt to be confusing to beginners and for this reason amongst others it is undoubted
ly better that each word should have its own tonic mark. It is better that the
Tonic Mark should show distinctly the tone of the word, and the asterisk be
reserved alone to show that the tone is a different one to the original tone, and
not to show what the tone is. Mr. Pearce of Canton recommended to the author
the advisability of having a distinctive tonic mark, the trouble was however to
know what to have ; but at last the author devised the following as a sign of
this tone, viz., ' lai and resolved to adopt it. It has several recommendations.
1st. It is in harmonoy with those already in use. The only difference being that
instead of being a semi-circle it has corners. 2nd. It is a mnemonic sign, as being
a trifle longer than the semi-circle it helps to fix in the learner's mind the know
ledge that this Rising Tone is a longer tone than the other two Rising Tones,
beginning lower and ascending higher than either of them. 3rd. It is a distinctive
sign and as such attracts attention, preventing the beginner from thinking the
 XXXII INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

tone is the same as another tone, and 4th. It is a mark easily procurable in a
printing office.

TONIC EXERCISES .

Go through the following Tonic Exercises, taken with slight alterations from
Bridgman's Chrestomathy, every day regularly for three months at least.
Let your teacher read each set to you and then repeat them after him . He
will read the first line in the First Series to you and then the first line in the Second
Series. The meanings of the words are simply given to satisfy any laudable curiosity
the learner may have as to the meanings of the words he is repeating so often. In
this way it often happens that the meaning of many words are learned without the
learner actually setting himself down to learn them.

This drudgery must be gone through most conscientiously and thoroughly, not
considering that you have done your duty until you have gone through each set
dozens or scores of times every day ; for these voice and ear exercises are as
important as finger exercises are to the learner on the piano.

"It cannot, however, be too strongly impressed upon learners from the outset
that both aspirates and tones are of the utmost importance to one who would learn
to speak Chinese intelligibly.
The distinction of tones in Chinese often appears to beginners to make
the acquisition of the spoken language almost hopelessly difficult, but this difficulty
like many others, is found to yield to persevering effort, and by constantly reading
aloud after a teacher, the ear becomes familiar with the difference in the tones of
the words pronounced. At the same time it is not desirable to trust to the ear
alone in trying to remember what is the tone of a particular word. A child will
unconsciously acquire the right tones in speaking, as the Chinese themselves do
without any effort of memory, but with the rarest possible exceptions adults, if
they wish to speak correctly, will find it necessary to learn what the proper tone of
each character is, together with its sound and meaning. Both tones and aspirates
are chiefly important in the spoken language, but even in studying the written
language, it is necessary to notice that a character often has two sounds, one
aspirated and the other unaspirated , or one of one tone and another of another, and
its shade of meaning varies accordingly ; thus, the word ' the middle ' is differ
ently pronounced when it means ' to hit the centre.' "-Foster's Elementary Lessons
in Chinese.
 INTRODUCTION. XXXIII

INTRODUCTION.

TONIC EXERCISE IN THE 平 PING TONES.

Shông” Chung Hư
1 2 3 Meaning of the Words.
ping. ¿ping. ping.

1. chong ch'ong Sch'ong To wound, tetter, ¹ bed.

2. 鄉香 honghong gyöng A village, clove, to splash.

3. 岸 燶 農 hung chung hung Empty, to scorch, to cultivate the ground.

4. 加 假 ka ká To add, false.3

5. 高 膏 蠔 20 .kd slhò
ia High, a plaster (for the stomach), an oyster.
。lán glán To crawl, a market, to prevent.
6. 躝 欄 欄 Ján
.
7.膠 貓 菜 . mau
mu O
máu máu To squat down, a cat, reeds.

8. 尸 詩 匙 i oslí shi A corpse, a hymn, a spoon.

9. 猩星 形 Sing 。sengying An ape, a star, form.
1
10. Tteng teng ting A nail, a tetter sore, a court.
5
11.teng Оteng ting To hear, a court," a road-side inn.
2
12. TT ting ting Alone, clove, to cease.
ting
13. 丁玎婷 ting Оting ting A nail, jingling, handsome.
6
14. 當 tong Otong tong Proper, a hawker's hand gong, a hall.
7
。tsin tsin To fry, note paper, a surname.
15. 煎 箋 錢 tsin
16.tsing tsinging Pure, the colour of nature, legal punishments.
17. song ts'ong tsong A granary, a hold, to store away.

18. ĐÊ ĐÊ Hill tưởng tưởng tưởng Aspear, a gun , a wall.

19.tsz 。tsz t'z 8
Wealth, postage, spring sacrifice.
3
20. 依 意 兒 三 oyi syi Depend on, will, an infant.

21. ying ying ying Superior, the hawk, to receive a guest.

22. ying ying ying Suitable, a salad, according to .
Other examples might be given, but these will be sufficient for giving the
learner a knowledge of these tones.

1. Info teng cliong, tetter.

2. In Ta ting chơing, cloves.
3. As in the phrase Echa'ká yf. This phrase is also pronounced chá kú yr,
and also cha ka yí.
4. In nünts'z kò, a certain kind of plaster.
5. Inkwúnténg, a court, and in other connections.
6. In Eting tong, a hawker's hand gong .
7. In several phrases, the names of different kinds of paper.
>
ons.
8. In 信資 sun tsz, postage, and in other connecti
 XXXIV INTRODUCTION .

INTRODUCTION.

FIRST SERIES, COMPRISING THE UPPER TONES.

‫ܐ‬ › Shing
Shong Shöng Shong
1 2 3 4 & Chung Meaning of the Words.
ping. shöng. hui'.
yap
'siu sín sit Before, moss, thread, bits.
1. 先 蘚線 骨 800
wai 'wai wai
' Dignity, great, awe.
2. 威 偉畏
ké i 'kéi kéi Several, to record, to remember.
3. 幾
4. 諸 主 著 chü 'chü chü' All, master, to publish.
C
sau sau sau' Adorn, venerable man, elegant.
5. 修 與 秀
6. 東 董 凍 篤 tung tung tung tuk, East, to rule, cold, real ,

7. 英 影 應益 jing ying ying yik Excellent, shadow, answer, beneficial.

pan pan pan' pat, Guest, petition, court lady, ended.
8. 賓 稟
9. CE thể đi chóng chống chống chi To draw out, to rule, curtain, to order.

10. kong kong kong' kok¸ Strong, to speak, to descend, horn.

11. 朝 沼照 chii chiti chíú Morning, pool, to illumine.
kwú 'kwi '
kwu Alone, ancient, old.
12. 孤 古 故
13. 鴛 婉 怨 乙 yin yün yün yüt Drake, yielding, animosity, curved.
kái 'kái kaii All, to open, firm or uncorrupted.
14. 皆 解 介
,
15. ·凳 德 tang tang tang tak, Ascend, sort, stool, virtue.
C
16. 師 史 四 SZ ᏚᏃ SZ Master, history, four.
'kam kam' kap, Metal, embroidery, prohibit, hasty.
17. 金銘 急 kam
káu ku káu'
变絞
18. 交 Intercourse, to strangle, to teach.
19. 找宰載 tsoi 'tsoi tsoi To plant, to rule, to contain.
sui 'sui sui Although, marrow, year.
20. 雖 髓 歲
'kim kím kip Joined, to examine, sword, to rob.
21. 兼檢劍 刧 kim
tsun 'tsun tsun tsut, A ford, presents, to enter, soldiers.
22. 津 賺 進卒
23. 科 火 貨 fo fo fo Order or sort, fire, cargo.
, kápo
24. 減減鹽 甲 kám
kim kám kám To bind, to diminish, mirror, armour.
fán fán' fat To fly, to rebel, to float, to issue.
25. 翻 反 泛 發 fán
ká ká ká> Family, price, to marry (a husband) .
26. 家 假 嫁
27. kwún kwún kwún' kwút. Officer, tube, to connect, to inclose.
28. 魁 賄 fui Srui fúi IIeadmost, a bribe, to teach.
che 'che che' Screen, this, sugar cane.
29. 遮 者 蔗
kon kòn' kot A shield, to pursue, business, to cut.
30. 干 超 幹割 kòn
31. 甘敢 紺 蛤 kòm kòm kòm² kop。 Sweet, daring, purple, a clam.
32 .
In these two orders no words occur in this series.
33. S
 INTRODUCTION. XXXV

INTRODUCTION.

SECOND SERIES, COMPRISING THE LOWER TONES.

Ha² HA² Ha² Há²

1 2 3 4 Meaning of the Words.
¿ping. shöng² . hui². yap,.

$lin lin² To unite, gem, chain, to separate.

1. 連璉鍊列 lít₂
mai mai mai To deceive, rice, cuff of the sleeve.
2. 迷 米 袂
3. 宜 議 貳 531 Syí yi Right, deliberate, the second.
4. 如 語 寓 yü Syü yu² As, to converse, to lodge.
lau Slau lau² To detain, willow, base or mean,
5. 留 柳 陋
Manner, brave, use, to wish.
6. 容 勇 用 欲 yung Syung yung² yuky
Spiritual, the neck, to order, strength.
7. 靈 領 合力 Ling Ying ling lik
8. 文 敏 問 勿 man man
man man' Letters, celerity, to ask, do not.
mat
9. 陽 仰 樣 yöngyöngyöng? yök Light, to look up, pattern, physic.
2
10. 王 往 旺 鑊 wong wong wong wok2 King, to go, abundance, a pan,
Fliúi lii2 A window, finished, to estimate.
11. 寮 了 料 slíú
12. 無 母 務 mò mo mò² Without, mother, business.

13. A yün yün yün² yüt Origin, flexible, desire, moon.

14. 鞋 蟹懈 hái Shái hai² Shoes, crab, lazy.
2
15. 盟
U 猛孟
Min Ha Ho mang ‘ nàng mảng mak To swear, fierce, first, ink.

sts'z Sts'z tsz² Sentence, like, self.

16. 詞 似 自
Ay
17. 吟 社 任 入 am Syam yam yap₂ To chant, lappet, to sustain, enter.
18. 茅卯貌 máu miumiu Rushes, luxuriant, countenance.
19. st'oi St'oi toi Terrace, dangerous, instead of.
20. Severe, to dye, to examine, occupation.
yim Syim yim² yip₂
Jun lun² lut, Relation, egg, discourse, law.
21. 倫 卵 論 律 !
Flui Slui lui² Thunder, to involve, species.
22. 雷 彚 類
23. 鵝 我 臥 ngo ngo ngo Goose, I or we, to sleep.
Slám lam2 Blue, to look, rope, wax.
24. 藍 欖纜 蠟 Jim lip,
$lan lán² látz
Fading, lazy, broken , pungent.
25. 蘭 懶 爛 辣 làn
26. 牙 雅 迓 ngá $ ngá nga Teeth, elegant, to receive.
múa múa mut Door, full, grief, the end.
27. 門 滿 悶末 min
múí múf Plum, each, obscure.
28. 梅 每 味 smit
she Shie she² Snake, local deities, to shoot.
29. 蛇社射
hòn hòn² hòt₂ Cold, drought, peucil, hempen cloth.
30. 寒 旱 翰 渴 zhòn
Ân hòm
31. 含 Bộ thu A hòm hòm hop , To endure, jaws, indignation, to unite.
32. Abundant, a mace, stiff, forehead,
Hii I phảng pùng ngáng ngủi ,
ng Eng ng² My or our, five, to perceive.
33. 吾五 悟
စင်
 XXXVI INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

In the following exercise care must he taken that the teacher who reads over
the exercise understands that the third word in each series is in the Third Rising

Tone and not in its original tone, which may be a Thá² hui' or 下平 ht
p'ing, & c., as the case may be. The same may be said to a certain extent of the
exercise on the ping tones (on page 33) where the word given in the
chung ping is in certain connections pronounced in the shöng² pʻing.

TONIC EXERCISE IN THE SHÖNGTONES.

Shöng Há Third
Meaning of the Words,
Sshöng, shöng. Rising.

Sau 'lau* To fight, a bamboo hamper, dropped.

1. 毆簍 漏 Hu
Sfan 'fan* Flour of any grain, auger, gone to sleep.
2. 粉忿瞓 fan
3. fong long 'fong To inquire, lustrous, a room.
Sfú * A tiger, lady, a vase or pot.
4. 虎婦壺 Ha
$hái 'kai* To be at, a crab, a plan.
5. 喺 蟹計 hat
'káí káí 'páí* To explain, to pass anything along, register.
6. 解械牌 kdat
k'éi 'kéi* Annals, to stand, chess.
7. 企碁 kd
8. 矯 舀轎 'kíú
kid kíú 'kíú* Straight, to bale water, a sedan.
Sk'ui 'kui*2 To elevate, he or she, the posts of a certain frame.
9. 舉佢簿 kui
10. kwa kwa 'kwá* Widow, a jacket, hung.
11. 果 莫過 kw Smo 'kwo* Fruit, stop ! passed.
$lai 'lai* To turn, propriety, has come.
12. 禮禮 嚟 ai
lám 'lám* Olive, to grasp , rope.
13. 欖 攬纜 im
10
$ 18 A fellow, old, furnace.
14. 老老 爐 10
15. löng löng löng Tael, two, bridge (of the nose).¹
oi t'oi 't'oi* Foggy dangerous, table.
16. 靄殆 檯 o
17. 眼銀 pan ngán 'ngan* To petition, eye, money.
péi léi 'lei* To give, a mile, a small fox-like animal.
18. 俾 里 狸 pin
líú lu To manifest, finished, a shanty.
19. 表 了 寮 pit
20. 保 抱 部 10 Spò pò* To protect, to carry in the arms, a manuscript book.
21. 使 舐 曬 'shai
Shai shái
Sabái ' shái* To use, to lick, dried in the sun.
'táí St'áí 't'áí* Bad, rudder, great.
22. 皮带太 tit
lím 'lim* A dot, to harvest, bamboo blinds.
23. 點斂 慊 tim

1. In the phrase man 'kui*.

2. In p'éi' 'long* , bridge of the nose, and in some combinations,
1

INTRODUCTION. XXXVII

INTRODUCTION.

Shong? Há Third
1 2 3 Meaning of the Words.
shöng. shöng. Rising.

24. ting ting ting Summit, to pull up, an ingot .

25.1't
仔鱭齊 sai ts'ai 'ts'ai* Son, a mullet, together.
'ts'z 'ts'z* A son, similar, persimmon.
26. 于 似 柿 tsz
'wan wan ' wan* To look for, correct, rhyme.
27. 搵 尹 韻 ‘wan
wún mún [
wún * A bowl, full, changed.
28. 碗 滿換 win
29. 隱 引入 yan yan
Syan 'yan Small, to entice, man.

30. 朽 有 由 yau Syau yau* Rotten wood, to have, allow.

yí
31. 倚 耳 姨 '
yt Syí 'y To rely on, ear, sister-in-law.
32.yim yim 'yim To close, to dye, examined, (very seldom used in
this tone).

33.yu Syíú 'yíú* Shortlived, to give trouble, a kite.

34.yöngyöngyöng* To shake (as a cloth) , to rear, pattern .
35. 'yung yung 'yung Bubbling, brave, commission.¹
36. yün yün ' yün* yielding, distant, a college .

The list of yap tones, should be studied in the same way as the above.

TONIC EXERCISE IN THE THREE YAPĮ TONES.

Shông ” Chung Ha
1 2 3 Meaning of the Words.
yap yar yap
ák。
1. 握 鈪 哒 k ngák To grasp, a bangle, contrary to.
áp。 háp₂ To soak, a duck, a straight passage.
2. 洽 鴨 陜 ap,
3. 核 at, áto hat To thrust in, to press down, the kernel of fruits.
4.chák, chák chák A small boat, to reprove, a mansion.

5. #tfH! chap , chúp To pick up, to write out, a barrier.

chúp,
6. 郅 扎 窒 chat, chit。 clunty To ascend, a bundle, to stop up the mouth of.
7. 職 隻 chik, chek 。 chiky To govern, one of a pair, straightforward.
8. Bamboo, to seize, turbid .
chuk, chuk chuk,
fát
o To dip up, law, to punish.
9. 楤 法 罰 fat5 fat₂
10. 刻摑 嚇 hak, kwák hák, To carve, to slap the face with the hand, to threaten.
11. 急 甲 及 kap, káp k'apy Hasty, the plumula, and.
真
12. kwat, kwát kwat, Bone, to scrape, to dig.

1. In 'yung* tsín, commission.

 XXXVIII INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

Shing Chung Hỉ
1 2 3 Meaning of the Words.
yap . yap . yap
lák。 To bind, the ribs, the ribs.
13. 扐 肋 肋 luk lák lák₂
14. Alap, lápo láp₂ A hamper, to lump, wax.
15. 哩 劣律 Lut lüt lut Out of order, infirm , a statute.

mat, mit
mát mat What ? to wipe, stockings.
16. 也抹 mat
yit
A
17. 搣 咽杲 mít,
mit yit z To break off, to choke, the judge or ruler of a city.
18. nat, nát . nát , Joyful, to smooth, a dash to the right in writing.
19. gap, ngap。 ngap To talk at random, to tuck in, to beckon.
20. pak, * pák pák North, hundred, white.
21. 不八 魃 pat, pát pát Not, eight, the god of draught.
22. 必 鼈 別 pit pit pitz Must, a species of pheasant, to separate.
23. 薄 pok, pok pok Name of a District, spacious, jungle.

24. 濕 恰 · shap, shap, shap, Wet, to boil , ten.

25. shat, shát shat2 To lose, to behead, firm.
26. 恤 雪 月 sut, süt yüt To compassionate, snow, the moon or a month.

27. 嗒 答踏tap, tápo tap, To lick, to answer, to step on.

tri
28. 吧笪 凸 tats, tát tz Dab, a spot, projecting.
t'ek tik, Clear, to kick, an opponant.
29. 的 踢 敵 tik,
30. 琢 脚 岩 tok, kök lök₂ To pound on wood, the foot, a little.
' 31. 則册tsak, ch'ák ts'ák, Precept, a register, a thief.
32. Wifi di đf tap , chíp , tráp, A heap, to insert, mixed.
33.tsat, ts'át tsát, Seven, to brush, a cockroach, as :-|
-由 曱
kát, tsát
34. 即 療 tsik tsik tsekz Immediately, lean, mat.
35.w 挖滑at, wat wat Bent, to scoop out, smooth.

yip₂ Provision for journeys, to salt flesh, a leaf.

36. 腌 葉 yín, yíP。

ASPIRATED AND NON-ASPIRATED WORDS.

Another distinction which calls for the special attention of the learner is the
difference between aspirated and non-aspirated words. "It is a very important
part of pronunciation, as much so in every respect as the tones, and should be
particularly attended to. "-Williams' Easy Leasons in Chinese, p. 55. " It cannot
* be too strongly impressed upon learners from the outset that * as
*
pirates are of the utmost importance to one who would learn Chinese
intelligibly. Carelessness about the difference between aspirated and unaspirated
 A

INTRODUCTION. XXXIX

INTRODUCTION.

words in Chinese, will often render a speaker as absolutely unintelligible in China,

as a foreigner in England would be if he should substitute d for t or t for d, saying
for instance, ' too dry ' for ' do try,' or if he should substitute b for p or p for b,
speaking of ' bears ' when he means ' pears ' and of ' pears ' when he means ' bears.'
It is not intended here to assert that the difference between aspirated and un
aspirated words is exactly the same as the difference between the English d and t or
b and p sounds, etc., but the difference is quite as distinct and great as this, and it is
even more important in speaking Chinese to observe these differences than it is in
speaking English . " -Foster's Elementary Lessons in Chinese, pp . 29 and 30. And yet
it is one of the features of Chinese pronunciation which is, one might almost say,
systematically ignored by many foreigners learning Chinese, either from a failure
to see the distinction, from not understanding the definitions explaining the differ
ence, or from an idea that it can be of no importance. This last idea being probably
fostered by the feeling that there is nothing of the kind in English, or in other
words instead of the voice passing quietly from the initial consonant to the vowel
and the final consonant, a strong breathing out often takes place in English im
mediately after the initial consonant. To explain the difference between the
T
aspirated and unaspirated pronunciation let us take, for example, the word tín. To
pronounce this word the following actions take place. First place the tip of the
tongue on the palate immediately behind the front teeth, then let it quietly drop
while the voice pronounces a something between an English t and an English d,
that is, it has the sound of the English t but unaccompanied with any forcible
emission of the voice, which generally does accompany the pronunciation of the t in
English, then after this initial consonant immediately follows the in pronounced like
een in English . Next take an aspirated word spelled in the same way, but with
an inverted comma to represent the aspirate in Chinese, as :-t'in. Here begin as
before by placing the tip of the tongue on the palate behind the front teeth,
but immediately the tongue falls and the t is pronounced, it is followed by a strong
breathing out of the voice, this being the way in which many pronounce the t
in English. There is, however, some difference amongst different speakers of
English as to the way in which they pronounce their consonants : that is to say that
there is a dual method of pronouncing two precisely similar combinations of letters
of the alphabet by different individuals in English . Some pronouncing them with
a more forcible emission of voice, while others let them, as it were, simply fall
quietly out of their mouths without any or but slight propulsion . It therefore
follows that the usual directions given as to the pronunciation of the aspirated
and unaspirated consonants as pronounced in Chinese are misleading to many
persons. To many persons the directions should be given to pronounce the
qu
XL INTRODUCTION .

INTRODUCTION.

aspirated consonants in the same way that they do these consonants in English
while the unaspirated ones are to be pronounced flatter and more like the other
consonants, such as d and b, which they pronounce without any explosive force of
the voice in English .

Now in Chinese it must be distinctly understood it is different. The same

consonants are pronounced by the same individuals in two ways, thus manifestly
increasing the number of words while economising the spelling according to our
English ideas of orthography, or in other words the consonants in Chinese which
are pronounced quietly are also pronounced with a forcible emission of the voice
immediately following them which is represented by the inverted comma. Thus

chá, the ch being pronounced quietly means, to hold, while the same sound, but
intensified by an explosive force, as, ch'á means, fork. Just as in English there
are two ways of pronouncing the th (as for example, thy and thigh, where the only
difference in the sound of the two words consists in the difference between the
pronunciation of the first and second th) ; so in Chinese the same English consonants
in many cases are used in two different ways, one aspirated and the other followed
by the aspirated.

The consonants which have the aspirate after them are the following, viz :

Ch, k, kw, p, t, and ts.

The learner will find it a good practice to go through the following exercise
daily at first, till he finds no difficulty at all with the unaspirated and aspirated
words.

chá refuse ; chá, error. che, an umbrella ; ¿ch'e, a carriage.

# chái, ( tá chái, mass) ; ch'ai, police.chek, (a Classifier), ch'ek afoot.
chak, slanting ; ch'ak , to fathom. *Hill chí, to kno ; chi, late.
chák , to reprove ; ch'ák , a register. chím, to divine ; ch'ím, toflatter (book).
cham, a needle ; ¿ch'am, to sink. HEYT chín, felt; Schín, to tread, (book).
chám, to chop off; ch'ám³, pine. ¿ching, thefirst ; ¿chʻing, to style.
chan, true ; ch'an, dust. chit , to snap in two ; chít , to establish .
= PE chún , ( tang chan , a lamp saucer ;) # # chíu, morning; chú, the Court,
'ch'án, to produce.
BEcho, to hinder ; ch'o, the beginning.
Hân để chúng, heel ; chúng, to pole. chök , right ; ch‘ök , a table, (book).
E đôi chúp , a gate ; chúPor to insert, If a ching, a chapter ; Cchöng , a window .
, chát , a bundle ; ch'át , to examine. chong' , robust ; ¿ch'ong, a boil,
chau, a district ; ch'au², a bad smell. chu, a pig ; Sch'ü, a pillar.
J ko cháu, claus , chau , to fry in fat. chui, to pursue ; ¿ch'ui, to blow.
Lay

INTRODUCTION. XLI

INTRODUCTION.

chuk,, bamboo ; ch'uk,, domestic animals. pan, a petition ; p'an, poor.

'chun, to allow ; ch'un, spring. pán, a grade ; p'an, to drag.
chün, a brick ; ch'ün, a hill spring. pang, a fracture ; ¿p'ang, a friend.
chung, middle ; ch‘ung, to fill. páng², bang !; p´úng, a land crub.
chut,, to blame (book) ; ch'ut,, to go out. pat,, not; p'at,, a piece (of cloth) .
¿kai, a foul ; k'ai, a clear hill stream. the púu, to wrap up ; ¿p'áu, to cast (anchor).
kái, a street; 'k‘ái, a pattern (book) . 1péi, to give ; ¿p'éi, leather.
kam, gold; k'am, a corerlet. t pik,, to urge ; p'ek , to throw away.
ĦĦkan, roots ; k‘an, parsley. pín, the side ; p‘ín', slip (slice) .
kang, soup ; 'k'ang, to oppress. ping, a soldier ; ¿pʻing, even.
kap,, husty ; k‘ap,, to inhale. pít,, must ; p'ít , a down stroke.
kat, lucky ; k'at,, to cough. ¿píú, a banner ; p'íú', a summons.
kau, a pigeon ; ¿k'au, to mix. po, a wave ; p'o, a classifier of trees, &c.
kán, to unite : k'áu, to rely on. pò, to boil; pò, to spread out.
kéi, afew ; k¹éi, chess. fill pok , intelligent ; p‘ok,, to flap.
kik , very ; k‘ek₂, clogs, pong, to help ; p'ong, side.
〔鉗 kim, moreover ; ¿k'ím, tongs. ¿púí, a cup ; ¿p‘úíí, to indemnify.
盤 篷 潑 他梯太

Ekin, firm ; kín, to liſt up (a cover). ¿púín, to remove ; ¿p‘ún, a basin.

king, capital city ; k'ing, a whale. pung' , to run against ; ¿p'ung, a sail.
kit , clear; k'it , to borrow. púít , a coarse dish ; p'út , to dash water.
'kiú , a sedan ; ¿k'íú, a bridge. tá, to strike ; ¿tá, another.
koi, to change ; k'oï', a cover. tai, to bend down ; ¿t'ni, a ladder.
kok , each ; k‘ok , really. tái , a girdle ; t'ai' , excessive.
kök , fuot ; kök , to stop (book) . 'tam, to hammer ; t'am, a cess-pool.
貪

kong, just ; k'ong', a sofa. tám, to carry ; t'ám, to covet.

ith ¿köng, ginger ; “kröng, byforce. tan, a heap; t'an, to swallow.
kui, to dwell ; k'uií, a drain. Htán, alone ; t'án, to spread open.
kün, to squeeze through ; k'ün, the fist.tang, a lamp ; tang, rattan.
kung, public ; k'ung, poor. Đã táp ,, to anster ; táp ; aa pagoda ,
küt, deficient; kut,, united strength. tát, to pervade; t'át , a dead loss.
kwa, a melon ; k‘wá, to brag. tau a dry measure ; ¿tau, to steal,
kwai, home ; kw‘ai, a custom. tek, to buy rice : t'ek , to kick.
kwan, ruler ; kw'an, a skirt. Eteng, a nail; t'eng, a boat.
kwong, light ; ¿kwʻong, mad. tik,, clear ; t‘ik,, to scrape off.
pá, to seize ; ¿p¹á, a guitar. 'tím, a spot ; t'ím, to increase.
pai, lame; p'ai, to pure. ¿tín, crazy; t'm , the sky.
Hpái, to spread out ; ¿p‘ai, a shield. FJting, ajingling sound; ¿ting, apavilion .
Épák , hundred ; p'ák , to clap. THE OG tír, a plate; t'ip a card,
 XLII INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

tit , to fall; t'it , iron. tsit , averse ; ts'it , to cat (in slices) .
thi, to throw away; ti , a classifier. ME tsíú, pepper ; ts'íú, scattered wood.
to, many; to, to lead by the hand).tso, the left ; ts'o', wrong.

刀 桃 to, a knife; ' t'ò, or t'ò, peach. Altsò, rent; ts'd, coarse.
tor, a generation ; 't'oi*, a tuble. tsoi', again; ts'oi ! pshaw !
tok to measure ; t'ok , to carry.
皮托 2' 1 tsok, to make ; tsʻok, to tattoo.
tong, proper ; ،t'ong, soup. tsong' , to bury; tsʻong, a granary.
Etsai, a dose ; ¿ts‘ai, a wife. M ĐẤT trong , shall song , a gun.
tsam' , to soak ; ¿ts‘am, to look for. tsui² , to assemble ; ' ts‘ui, to take.

虫 tsam, a hairpin ; ts'ám, a silkworm. tsuk,, the foot ; tsuk,, hurried.

tsán , to praise ; ts'án, a meal. tsun, a bottle ; tsun, to cruise.
tsang, to hate; ts‘ang, a layer. Сtsun, honourable ; ¿ts'ün, a village.
itsar,, a handful ; ts'ap,, to join. tsung, coir; ts'ung, the pine tree.
疾 七 tsat2) disease ; ts'at,, seven. 絕撮 tsüt
tsity, to sunder ; ts'üit , a pinch.
tsau, to run ; ts‘au, antumn. tsz, a son ; ts'z, mercy.
姐邪 tse, an elder sister ; S s'e, depraved. Etui, a heap ; t'ui, to push away.
tsik,, a foot-mark ; tsʻik,, related to. tuk , to lead; t'uk,, a Buddhist priest.
尖煎晶接

tsím, sharp ; ¿ts‘ím, to subscribe. tun, angry; t'un, a rapid current.

tsin, tofry ; ¿ts'ín, a thousand. ‘tün, short ; t‘ün, a globular mass.
tsing, crystal ; ¿ts'ing, pure. 通 tung, east ; t'ung, to go through.
tsíp , to receive ; ts'íp , a concubine. tut, to take by force; t'üt , to strip.

LONG AND SHORT VOWELS.

Another most important feature in Cantonese is the long and short vowels and
diphthongs. The beginner must drill himself in these daily, and make sure that
he is pronouncing a word containing a long vowel with the vowel long and one
with a short vowel with the vowel short. Dr. Eitel rightly says about these :
'Another characteristic feature of the Cantonese dialect is the distinction of long and
short vowels and diphthongs, which should be specially studied from the beginning,
to accustom the ear to the discrimination of these shades, which is indispensable for
a ready and correct understanding of the spoken language.'-Introduction to Can
tonese Dictionary, p . xiii.

To enable the learner to " specially study " these distinctions, tables of many
of them are here appended ; and the learner should go through them with s
 INTRODUCTION. XLIII

INTRODUCTION.

teacher day by day till perfect, and even then a run through them occasionally will
do him good .

tab, to grasp ; ák , a bangle. nan, to handle ; ¿nán, difficult.

酒菌 am, to cover ; ʻam, an unopenedflower. 7 nap,, a grain ; 'náp *, or náp¸, quilted.
鶯 Đa sang, the nightingale ; ang , ak jar. nat,, joyful; mát , to smooth,
ap,, to cover over ; áp , a duck. ngak , to swindle ; ngak , front.
[ Hj¡ at,, to thrust in ; át , to pawn for a time. ngám, precipice.
ngam, foolish ; ¿
A chak,, slanting ; chák , to reprove. 銀 眼 ¿ngan, money ; ʻngán, eye.
cham, a needle ; chúm, to cut in too. ngap,, to talk wildly ; ngáp , to tuck in.
chan, true ; chán, a shallow cvp for oil. 超 ngatz to sucay ; ngắt , a rank smell ,

chung, a harpsichord; chúng, to wrangle.pak,, north ; pák , one hundred.

chap,, to pick up ; cháp , a barrier, pan, poor; pán, to lead.
chat, substance ; chuit , a bundle. 崩 蜂 (Pang, an emperor's death ; pang',
凡 fan, to divide; Sfán, all. bang!
fat,, to brush away ; fat , usage, Apat,, not ; pát , eight.
hak,, black; hák , a guest. sam, theheart ; súm, three.
han, a mark; hún, leisure. ¿san, new , sán , to scatter.
hang, to knock against ; háng, to walk, sap,, to enter the mouth ; súp , suddenly.
BA Hi har, sleepy : húp , to galp . sat,, the knee ; sát , to disperse.
MIT hau, the throat; háu, skilful, sham, deep ; sham, clothes.
kam, metal; kám, a gaul. shan, body ; shán, mountain.
BHJ kan, root ; kún, an interval. shang, to produce ; sháng, to scour.
kang, a thick soup ; káng' , a by-path.shap,, wet ; shap , to proroke.
kap,, hasty; kap , armour for the body.shat,, to lose ; shát , to kill.
kwan, the prince ; kwán, to bar atam, to pound; tám, to carry from a
door. pole.
Ekwang, rumbling; kwáng , to ramble. tan, a heap: tán, single.
kwat,, bone ; kwát , to scrape. tap₂ to be rained on ; táp , to answer.
lam, a grove ; 'lám*, a basket. 凸達 tat , a tenon ; tát , intelligent.
lang, a jingle ; láng, cold, 鯽賊 tsak,, bream ; ts'ák₂, a thief.
1 lap,, a pottle , láp,, to establish. tsam', to soak ; tsám, a hairpin.
lat,, to let go ; lát¸, pungent. ts'an, related to ; ¿ts'án, a meal.
mak , wheat ; mák , to break in two. tsap,, a handful ; tsúp¸, mixed.
Bac dan man , mosquito ; máu , to pull. ts'at , seven ; ts'át , to brush.

HE L mang, an alliance ; mang , blind , wan, cloud ; ¿wán , to return.

ttt mat , chat; mút , to voipe. wat , the stony seeds of fruit ; wát,
nam, mellow ; nám, male. smooth.
 XLIV INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

THE LONG AND SHORT DIPHTHONGS AI AND ÁI.

Nó thai, heo , gai, to lean upon . W shai, sieve ; shúi”, to dry in the sun.
chai, to place ; chái, to abstain. 1 h ctai, to bend doen ; tái , a ribbon.
fai' , to spend ; fái' , quick. wai, dignity ; wái , to spoil.
kai, a fowl ; kái, a street. Enai, clay; nái, lady.
kwai, home; kwái, good (as a child) . Engai, to importune ; ¿ngái, bench.
lai, to come ; Jái, to pule. ¿pai, lame ; pái' , to worship.
mai, todeceive ; mái, to hide away.

EXERCISES ON THE LONG AND SHORT DIPHTHONGS AI ÉI ÁI.

1. far, the lungs ; féí, not ; fàí³, a lump.

2. hai², to be ; héi, happy ; ¿hái, a shoe.
3. kai, coiffure; ¿kéi, subtle ; ¿kái, a street.
4. 2 trẻ lui, to come ; Îlei , a plum ; chi, to pillo
5. mai, rice ; méi, minute ; mai², to sell.
6. Hui, mire ; ³néi, you ; Fnai , but ,
7. 14 pai' , sad ; 'péí, to give ; pai, to spread out.
8. 弟 地 大 tai , a younger brother ; téi, earth ; tăi², great.

THE LONG AND SHORT DIPHTHOUGS AU AND ÁU.

a surname ; Cáu , to snap in two. MA
區 拗 au, mau, to squat down ; ¿máu, reeds.
J # chau , universal ; “cháu, to erchenge. 'nau, to twist ; náu², to scold.
Thau, the throat ; háu, skilful, ¿ngau, an ox ; ʻngáu, to bite.
kau, nine; káu, to twist. p'au, to divide ; ¿pan, to wrap around.
lau, to flow ; Jau, to dragfor in water.shau, to receive ; slán, a basket.

EXERCISE ON E AND Í ( EE ).

cle, a carriage ; ¿chí, to know. Epge, whine ; pgí, hesitating.

he, holloa ! hín, manifest. #pe, beer ; più², convenient.
先善天

ke'; sign ofpossessive ; kín' , to see. ' se, to write; sin, first.
le, a final particle ; lín, the lotus. she, on credit ; shín², virtuous.
爹借

'me, awry; min² , theface. te, dad ; tin , the sky.

phi 4 ne, there ! nín , year. tse " to borrow ; tsin' , an arrow.
 INTRODUCTION. XLV

INTRODUCTION.

EXERCISE ON SHORT AND LONG Í, VIZ., I ANd í.

chik,,, to weare ; ¿chí, to know. ping, a soldier ; pín , to alter.

fing' , to swing ; '
hín, manifest. sing, a star ; sín, genii.

5th king, a capital ; kit , pure. shing, a sound ; ،shí, a hymn.

kwik,, a crack ; kwit , shrill. RỄ HII sting, to fi ; tín , a caron.
Ming, tinkling ; lín, commiserate. tsing' , pure ; tsin , to fry .
¿ming, clear ; mín, to force. wing, to throw ; wít,, creaking.
ning, to take ; nín, a slice.

Whenever o is only used with an initial consonant or consonants, and with

out a final consonant both the open o, and close sound ò of the o are used in the
Cantonese.

Exceptions :-cho, fo, kwo, and wo, there being no chò, fo, kwò, or wò.

Whenever the o is followed by the final consonants k, n , and ng, then the o is
: —ok, on, and ong.
an open one, as :

Whenever the o is followed by the final consonant m, then it has the close
sound of ò, as, òm.

EXERCISE ON LONG AND SHORT O, VIZ. , O and ò.

BH'cho, to hinder ; ʻtsò, early. ngo, a goose ; ngò, to shake.

ho, what ? hò, down (hair). po, a wave ; pò, to boil.
ko, a song ; kò, high. sho, wide apart ; shò', an account.
lo, to fetch ; lò, a fellow. so, a lock ; sò, a beard.
毛 mo, to rub; mò, hair. tso, left ; tso , to do.

There are other combinations in which the o both long and short are used ; but
in these other combinations only one kind of o is used with each combination ;
they do not therefore come into such striking contrast. as when appearing simply
with initial consonants, and, moreover, the above Exercise is sufficient to give the
learner a knowledge of the difference between the two pronunciations .

EXERCISE ON u, ú and v.

chun, to permit ; fún, to relax ; chün, single .

Jun, constant ; ¿mún, door ; lün², confused.
shun², compliant ; pún, the origin ; shün, a ship.
These will be sufficient to show the difference between these sounds.
 XLVI INTRODUCTION .

INTRODUCTION.

EXERCISE ON UI AND ÚÍ.

chui, to pursue ; fúí, ashes.

shui, water; púí, a cup.
Etsui', to assemble ; ¿wúí, a time.
These few examples will show the difference between these two sounds ; but
the learner must note that the English Dictionaries of Cantonese, which are nearly
all based on the fan wan, are not to be trusted for giving these sounds ; some that
should be under ui are classed with those under úí, and again others belonging to
these classes are spelled with the ü.

The Chinese, not having an alphabetical language and therefore not being
accustomed to such a mode of representing the sounds, have not their ears so
acutely trained to distinguish between slight distinctions and differences in sounds
as represented by letters of the alphabet, as they are to distinguish differences in
the tones, and are consequently not altogether to be trusted in their classifications
of sounds. Dictionary makers should take the correct pronunciation of good
speakers of a standard dialect ( such for example as Canton-city Cantonese, instead
of blindly following the guidance of native compilations, which mislead.

PRONUNCIATION.

a like u, e.g.:-san, as sun. ái like i in high, e.g.:-fai, as fie.

á "" ah, eg :-pá, as pa. au 19 ow in low, e.g.:-hau, as how.
e 99 e in men, e.g.:-meng. áu 29 aaow, e.g. hau.
i 99 i in pin, e.g.:-king, as king. éi "" ey in they, e.g.:-p'éí, as pay.
í "" í in machine, e.g.:-kín, as keen. 29 ew in few, e.g. —shíú.
E

O "" o in order, e.g.:-ho , as haw. oi "" oy in boy, e.g.:-k'oi, as coy.

‫ ة‬.. ò in so, c.g.:-mò, as (to) mow. ui nearly as in louis, e.g. shui,
ö nearly like er in her, e.g.:-hö, as he (r). úí like ooee, e.g.:-múi.
u "" u in hur, e.g. shun. sz, run the sounds of the letters s and 2 together.
ú like u in fool, e.g.:-wú, as woo. m is the sound of the letter m alone without any 1
ü 29 French u in l'une, e.g.:-süt, vowel and formed with the lips closed.
6
a ai 29 i in while, e.g.:-fai, ng like ng in sing.

There is no b, d, g alone, j, q, v, x or z sounds in Cantonese. The nearest

approach to r is in the word for boot, which sounds very much like her, as an
Englishman who scarcely pronounces his r would sound it, not as a Scotchman
would pronounce it.
 INTRODUCTION. XLVII

INTRODUCTION.

The rest of the letters are pronounced as in English. The only difficulty the
learner will find will be in pronouncing them soft enough when unaspirated, (es
pecially is this true with the letters p, k and t,) as we generally pronounce those
consonants in English, which are sometimes followed by aspirates in Chinese with
sufficient force to render them aspirated, though in some parts of England they are
always pronounced unaspirated.
Be very careful about the distinction between the short a and the long á.
Men that have lived many years in China are often so oblivious of the living
pronunciation as not to notice that they are led away by the peculiar use of this
short a to represent a u-and in fact pronounce San Ning as spelled, and not as
Sun Ning, the correct sound. This is a most common mistake with Europeans,
and it is extremely disagreeable and pitiable to hear the persistence with which
they will adhere to this egregious mistake, for there is no such sound in Chinese as
"san " in sandy.
To correct such and similar tendencies a syllabary is here appended in which,
whenever possible to do so , the Chinese sounds have been represented by sounds of
the English letters, or by words in English & c., so that between the list given
above and this that follows the learner ought, especially with the assistance of his
teacher, to arrive at the correct pronunciation.
Let the learner remember that this is of great importance.

SYLLABARY OF CANTONESE .

THE ORTHOGRAPHY ADOPTED IN THIS BOOK REPRESENTED BY SIMILAR SOUNDS IN

ENGLISH, & C., WHEN SUCH SOUNDS EXIST, OR BY COMBINATIONS OF
THE LETTERS OF THE ENGLISH ALPHABET.

Only the letters not bracketed are to be imitated in sound, but with the
sound that they have when in union with those in brackets.
If blanks are left in the syllabary it is in consequence of no equivalent
sounds appearing in English, or under such circumstances it is stated that the sound
is nearly, or somewhat like such and such a combination of English letters. In
such cases the former list and a careful imitation of the Chinese voice ought to
assist the beginner, especially with perseverance, to attain to what at first may seem
to him almost to necessitate an impossible contortion of his vocal organs.
Even when tolerably sure of his pronunciation the beginner will find it of
advantage to check it by this syllabary, as mistakes at first generally result in a
tendency to a permanent vicious pronunciation , which when once fixed will be very
difficult to change .
 XLVIII INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

The unaspirated words the learner will notice, by listening to his teacher, are
pronounced much softer and without the explodent force which the aspirated words.
have. The sounds of the consonants when unaspirated must be particularly

noticed. They sound much flatter than the English consonants, which are used to
represent the nearest approach to their sound. Remember that ch unaspirated
is much flatter than ch in English, almost reaching the dj, but never actually that.
In order to draw particular attention to this sound of some of the consonants the
aspirated ones are followed by an h in the English spelling in this syllabary, though
it must be remembered, as said before, that the aspirated consonants often approach
nearer to the English sound of the consonants than the unaspirated ones in Chinese.

ch unaspirated sounds almost midway between the English sounds of dj and ch.
k "" 99 ,, "" 9 19 k.
kw 23 "" 99 99 gw " kw.
P 29 19 27 19 b " p.
t "" 29 77 d 99 t.
13

ts 99 "" 29 97 ds 99 ts.

These are the only consonants and combinations of consonants which are
followed by the aspirate.

A
Á as ah! 7 Ám as a(r)m, 13 At as (h)ut.
z Ai as i(dle). 8 An as A(h)n (hold). Át as (h)a(r)t.
› Ái as eye, or aye. 9 Ang as (h)ung. 15 Au as (h)ow.
Ak as Ux (bridge). * / Áng as aling. 16 Áu as a(h)oo.
5 Ák as a(r)k. Ap as up.
6 Am as (h)um. 12 Áp as (h)a(r)p.

C
Chá as cha(rm). 24 Chák as chahk. 3/ Ch'an as chhun.
/ Ch'á as chha(rm). 25 Ch'ák as chhahk. 3* Chán as chahn .
Chai as chi(ld). 2 Cham as chum. Ch'án as chhahn ,
Lo Chái as Chi(na). 27 Ch'am as chhum. 37 Chang as ch(h )ung.†
* Chái as Chhi(na ). 28 Chám as cha(r)m. l Chúng as (h )chahng .
Chak as chuck. 21 Ch'ám as chha(r)m. 36
Cháng as chhahng .
Ch'ak as chhuck. 30 Chan as chun. 47 Chap as chup.

* Like Uk, that is to say the s in the x not being sounded.

Not choong, but the word is pronounced as if the h of hung were changed into ch.
క
 INTRODUCTION. XLIX

INTRODUCTION.

3s Cháp as chahp . Ch'im as chheem. Chü as chue.

39 Ch'áp as chhahp. Chín as cheen . Ch'ü as chhue.

Chat as chut(ney). Ch'in as chheen. Chui something like chooee.
* Chát as chát. Ching as ching. Ch'ui something like chhooee.
* Chhat as chhaht. Ch'ing as chhing. Chuk something like chook.
43Chau as chow. Chíp as cheep . Ch'uk something like chhook.
Ch'au as chhow. Chit as cheat. Chun as chu(r)n.
4 Cháu as chahow . Ch'it as chhee(tah). Ch'un as chhu(r)n.
Ch'áu as chhahoo. Chíú as cheeoo. Chün as chune.
Che as cherry). Ch'in as chheeoo. Ch'ün as chhune, combination
Ch'e as chile(rry). Cho as chaw. of ch and French une.
Chek as chek. Ch'o as chhaw. Chung as choong.
Ch'ek as chhek. Chok as chalk. Ch'ung as chhoong.
Cheng as cheng. Chök as Ch( h)u (r)k. * Chut as ch(b)u (r)t.
Chí as cheese. Ch'ök as Chh(h)u(r)k.* Ch'ut somewhat like chut(ney),
Ch'i as chhee(se). Chong as chong. but purse the lips together.
Chik as chick. Ch'ong as chhong. Chüt as Chuet.
Ch'ik as chhick. Chöng as Ch (l ) (r )ng .*
Chím as cheem. Ch'öng as Chl (h)u(r)ug.*

E
E as e(dible).

F
Fá as Fa(ther). Fát as falit. Fong as fong.
Fai as fi(ne). Fau as fow. Fú as foo(1).
Fái as fi(delity). Féi as fay. Fui as fooee.
Fák as Fa(r)q(uhar). Fik as fick(le). Fuk as fook.
Fan as fun. Fing as fing(er). Fún as foon.
Fán as fahn. Fit as feet. Fung as fung.
Fang as f(h)ung. Fo as fo(rtune). Fút as foot.
Fat as fut. Fok as fok.

H
Há as Ha! Hak as huck(ster). Hám as ha(r)m.
Hai as hi(de). Hárk as ha(r)k. Han as hun.
Hái as high. Ham as hum. Hán as hahn.

* This u to be pronounced like the German ö.

L INTRODUCTION .

INTRODUCTION.

Hang as hung. Hing as hing. a Hòn as ho( r )n .

Háng as hahng Hip as heep. Hong as hong.
Hap as hup. Hít as heat. Hong as he(r )ng .
Háp as ha (r)p . Híú as hew, or heeoo. Hòp something between ho(r)p
Hat as hut. Ho as haw. and hut.
Hau as how. Hò as Ho! Hot as ho(r)t (iculture).
Háu as ha(h) ow. Hö as he(r). Hui nearly hooee.
Hé as hey. Hoi as (ship a) hoy ! Huk as hook.
Héi as hay. Hok as hock. Hün as huen.
Hím as heem. Hòm something between ho(r)m Hung as hung.
Hín as heen. and hum. Hüt as huet.

Ká as ca(r). Kau as cow. Kíú as keeoo.

Khá as khá . K'au as khow. K'íú as khecoo.
Kai as ki(te). Kau as ka(h)ow. Ko as co(r)e.
Kai as khi(te ). K'áu as kha(h)ow. Kò as co(de).
Kái as c(r)y. Ke as ca(re). Koi as coy.
Khái as ch(r)y. K'e as ca(re). K'oi as khoy.
K'ak as k(h)uck(old). Kéi as kay. Kok as cock.
Kák as kahk. Kéi as khay. K'ok as khock.
Kam as come. Kek as keck. Kòm as co(r)m.
K'am as chome. K'ek as kheck. Kon as co(r)n.
Kám as Ca(r)m( el). Keng as keng. Kong as kong.
Kan as kun. K'eng as kheng. Kong as khong
K'an as khun. Kik as kick. Kòp as co'r)p(se).
Kán as khan. K'ik as khick. Kot as con(r)t.
Kang as k(h)ung. Kím as keem, Kök as ke(r)k.
K'ang as khung. K'im as kheem. K'ök as khe(r)k.
Káng as cangue. Kín as keen. Köng as ku(r)ng.
Kap as cup. K'in as kheen. Köng a8 khu(r)ng.
K'ap as khup. King as king. Kúí nearly like kooee.
Káp as ca(r)p. K'ing as khing. K'úí nearly like khooee. -
Kat as cut. Kíp as keep . Kuk as cook.
K'at as khut. Kit as keet. K'uk as khook.
Kát as ca(r)t. K'it as kheet. Kün as kune.*

This has the sound ofthe French word une with a k prefixed.
 INTRODUCTION. LI

INTRODUCTION.

K'ün as khune.* Kwan as kwun. Kwo as kwoh.

Kung as koong. K'wan as khwun. Kwok as kwok.
K'ung as khoong. Kwán as kwahn. Kwong as kwong.
Küt as kuet. Kwang as kwung. -K'wong as khwong.
-K'üt as khu(e)t. Kwéng as kwahng. Kwú as kwoo.
Kwa as qua(lm). -K'wáng as khwang. K'wú as khwoo.
1
-K'wa as qhua(lm). Kwat as kwut. Kwui as kwooee.
Kwai as kwiee. Kwát as kwaht. Kwún as kwoon.
K'wai as khwice. Kwik as quick. Kwút as kwoot.
Kwai as qui(etus). Kwing as kwing.
Kwák as kwahk. Kwit as kweet.

L
Lá as La ! Lát as laht Lò as Lo!
Lai as (g)li(de) . Lau as 1(h)ow. Lö as ler.t
Lái as lie. Láu a8 la (h )oo. Loi as (al)loy.
Lak as luck. Le as 1(th)e(re). Lok as lock.
Lák as la(r)k. Léi as lay. Long as long.
Lam as Lum (ley). Leng as leng. Lök as le(r)k.
Lám as Lahm. Lik as lick. Löng as le(r)ng.
Lan as Lun(dy). Lím as leem. Lúí somewhat like looee.
})
Lán as lahn. Lín as leau. Luk as look.
Lang as lung. Ling as ling. Lun as lea(r)n.
Láng as ] hahng. Lip as leap. Lün as l'une.
Lap as lup. Lít as lit(re). Lung as lung.
Láp as lahp. Líú as leeoo. Lut as 1(b)u(r)t.
Lat as Lut(ton). Lo as law. Lüt something like looeet.

M 0

M as m(a). Man as mun(dane). Mau as mow.

Má as ma. Mán as mahn . Máu as ma(l )oo .
Mai as mi(ne). Mang as mung . Me as me(ddle).
Mái as my. ‡ Máng as mahng . Meng as meng.
Mak as muck. Mat as mut(ter). Méi as may.
Mák as malik. Mát as maht. Mik as mick.

* This has the sound of the French word une with a k prefixed.
Only give the faintest ghost of a sound to the er.
An open full sound.
LII INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.
Mín as mean. Mò as mo(de ). Mún as moon.
Ming as ming. Mok as mawk. Mung as moong.
Mít as meat. Mong as mong. Mút as moot.
Míú as mew. Múí as mooee.
Mo as maw. Muk as mook.

Ná as nah. Ngam as (si)ng-um, Nik as nick.

Nai as ni(ne). Ngam as (si)ng-ahm. Ním as neem.
Nái as nigh. Ngan as (si)ng-un. Nín as neen .
Nak as nuk. Ngán as (si )ng-ahn . Ning as ning.
Nam as numb. Ngang as (si )ug -ung . Nip as neap.
Nám as nahm. Ngáng as (si)ng -ahng. Nit as neat.
Nan as nun. Ngap as (si)ng-up. Níú as neeoo .
Nán as nahn. Ngáp as (si )ng-ahp . No as no(r).
Nang as nung. , Ngat as (si)ng-ut. No as no. I
Nap as nup. Ngát as (si )ng-alt Noi as (au)noy.
Náp as nabp. Ngau as (si)ng-(h)ow. Nok as knock.
Nat as nut. Ngáu as (si)ng-a(h)ow. Nong as nong.
Nát as naht . Nge as (si)ng-(th)e(re). Nöng as nu(rr)ng.
Nau as now. Ngí as (si)ng-ee. Nui somewhat like nooee.
Náu as naaow. Ngít as (si)ng-eat. Nuk as nook.
Ne as Ne(d). Ngo as (si)ng-awe. Nün as nune.'*
I
Neng as neng. Nung as noong. I
Ngò as (si)ng-oh !
Ng as (si)ng. Ngoi as (si)ng-(ah)oi. Nut as nu(r)t(ure)
Ngá as (si)ng-ah ! Ngok us (si )ng-(s)ock .
Ngai as (si)ng-i(dle) . Ngon as (si )ug- (h) on ( g).
Ngái as (si) ng-I. Ngong as (si) ng-(h)ong.
Ngak as (si)ng-uk, Ni, or Ní as nih, or nee.
Ngák as (si)ng-ahk. Néi as ney.

0 .

O as awe. Ok as awk(ward). Ong as (8)ong.

Ò as oh! Om as u(r)m.
Oi as (h)oy. On as o(r)n(ament).

* French une .

1
 INTRODUCTION. LIII

INTRODUCTION.
P
Pá as pa. Pau as pow. Pò as Po.
P'á as p(b)a. P'an as p(h)ow. P'ò as P(h)o.
Pai as pi(ne). Páu as pa(h)ow. Pok as pawk.
P'ai as p(h)i(ne). P'áu as p(h)a(h)oo. P'ok as p(h)awk.
Pai as pie. Péi as pay. Pòm as pom.
1ải as p (l )ie. P'éi as p(h)ay. Pong as pong .
Pak as Puck. Peng as peng. P'ong as p(h)ong.
Pák as pa(r)k. P'eng as p(h)eng. Pop nearly as Pu(r)p.
P'ák os p(h)a(r)k. Pik as pick. P'op nearly as p(h)u(r)p.
Pan as pun. Prik as p(h)ick. Pui as pooee.
P'an as p(h)un. Pín as peen. P'úi as p(h)ooee.
Pán as pahn. P'ín as p(h)een. Puk as pook.
Pán as p(h )alin. Ping as ping. P'uk as p(b)ook.
Pang as 1 (b)ung. P'ing as p(h)ing. Pún as poon.
Pang as p(b)ung. * Pít as peat. P'un as p(h)oon.
Páng as pahng. P'it as p(h)eat. Pung as poong.
P'áng as p(h) aling. Píú as pecoo. P'ung as p(h)oong.
Pat as put, Píú as p(l )ecoo. Pút as put.
P'at as p(h)ut. Po as paw. P'út as p(h)oot.
Pát as paht. P'o as p(h)aw.

Sa as sali. Sát as saht. Shang as sh(h )ung.

Sai as cy(der). Sau as sow. Sháng as shaling.
Sái as sigh. Se as Se(ttle). Shap as shup.
Sak as suck. Seng as seng. Sháp as sha(r)p.
Sam as some. Sha as Shah. Shat as shut.
Sám as salm . Shai as shi(ne). Shát as shaht.
San as sun. Shái as shy. Shau as sh(b)ow.
Sán as sahn. Shák as sha(r)k. Sháu as sha(h)00.
Sang as (1)sung. Sham as shum. Shé as sche(dule).
Sap as sup. Shám as shalım. Sheng as sheng.
Sáp as salip. Shan as shun. Shí as she.
Sat as sut. Shán as shalin. Shik as shik.

* That is to say pronounce hung, then put a p in the place of h, retaining the same pronuncia
tion to the rest of the letters as before.

for
LIV INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.

Shim as sheem. Shün as shune. Sok as sawk.

Shín as sheen. Shun as shu(r)n. Sök as se(r)k.
Shing as shing. Shung as shoong. Song as song.
Ship as sheep. Shut as shi(r)t. Söng as su(r) ng.
Shit as sheet. Shüt nearly shuet. Sui nearlylike sooee.
Shíú as sheeoo. Sik as sick. Suk as sook.
Sho as Shaw. Sín as seen. Sun as (con)ce(r)n.
Shò as show. Sing as sing. Sün as sooeene.
Shok as shock. Síp as s(1 )eep. Sung as soong.
Shong as shong. Sit as seat. Sut as (con)ce'r)t.
Shök as shi(r)k. Siú as seeoo. Süt as suet ; pronounce the
Shöng as she(r)ng. So as swo(rd). word quickly and run the
Shu as chu(t). Sò as so. vowels together.
Shui nearly like shooee. Sö as si(r). Sz join s and z and sound
Shuk as shook. Soi as soy. together.

T
Tá as tah. Tat as tut. Tíú as tecoo .
T'á as t(h)ah. Tát as taht. T'in as t(h)eeoo.
Tai as ti(dy). T'át as t(h)aht. To as to(re).
T'aí as t(h)i(dy). Tau as t(h)ow. T'o as T(h)o(re).
Tái as tie. T'au as t(h) (h)ow. Tò as toe.
T'ái as t(h)ie. Te as tea(r). T'ò as t(h)oe.
Tak as tuck. Téi as t(h)ey. Toi as toy .
Tam as tum. Teng as teng. T'oi as t(h)oy.
T'am as t(h)um. T'eng as t(h)eng. Tok as talk.
Tám as tahm . Ti, or tí as tih, or tea. T'ok as t(h)alk. J

T'ám as t(h)alm. Tik as tick. Tök as te(r)k.

Tan as tun. T'ik as t(h)ick. Tong as Tong(a).
T'an as t(h )un. Tím as team. T'ong as T(h)ong(a).
Tán as tahn. Tím as t(h)eam. Tö as t(h)u(r). 1
T'án as t(b)ahn. Tín as teen. Töng as te(r)ng.
Tang as tong(ue). T'in as t(h)een. Tsá as tsah.

T'ang as t(h)ong(ue). T'ing as t(h)ing. Tsai as tsie.

Tap as tup. Tip as teep. Ts'ai as tshie.

T'ap as t(h)up. Tip as t(h)eep. Tsak as tsuk.

Táp as tahp . Tit as teet. Tsák as tshahk. I

Táp as t(h )ahp. T'it as t(h)eet. Tsam as tsum .
 ကြိုး
INTRODUCTION. LV

INTRODUCTION.

Ts'am as ts(h)um. Ts'in as tsheen. Tsun as tsu(r)n.

Tsam as tsahm. Tsing as tsing. Ts'un as tshu (r)n.
Ts'ám as tshahm . Ts'ing as tshing. Tsün as tsooeene.
Ts'an as tsun. Tsip as tseep. Ts'ün as ts(h)ooeene.
Tsán as tsahn. Ts'ip as tsheep. Tsung as tsoong.
Ts'án as tshahn. Tsit as tseet. Ts'ung as tshoong.
Tsang as ts(h) ung. Ts'it as tsheet . Tsut as ts(h)u(r)t.
Ts'ang as ts(h)(h)ung. Tsíú as tseeoo. Tsüt as tsooeet.
Tsap as tsup. Ts'iú as tshecoo. Ts'üt as ts(h)ooeet.
Ts'ap as tshup. Tso as tsawe. Tsz as tsz.
Tsap as tsahp. Ts'o as tshawe. Ts'z as tshz. ts.
Tsat as tsut. Tsò as tso. Tui nearly like tooee.
Ts'at as tslut. Ts'ò as tsho. T'ui nearly like t(h)ooee.
Tsát as tsalt. Tsoi as tsoy. Tuk as took.
Ts'at as tshalt. Ts'oi as tshoy. T'uk as t(h)ook.
Tsau as ts(h)ow. Tsok as tsawk. Tun as tu(r)n.
Ts'au as tshow. Ts'ok as tshawk. T'ún as t(b)u (r)n.
Tse as ts(t ) e(re). Tsong as tsawng. Tün as tune.
Ts'e as tsh(th) e (re). Ts'ong as tshawng. T'ün as t(h)une. *
Tseng as tseng. Tsong as tsu(rr)ng. Túng as toong.
Tsik as tsik. Tsing as ts(h )u (rr )ng . T'ung as t(h)oong.
Ts'ik as tshik. Tsui nearly like tsooee . Tüt nearly like tooeet.
Tsím as tseem. Ts'ui nearly like tshooee. T'üt nearly like t(1 ) ooeet.
Ts'im as tsheem. Tsuk as tsook.
Tsín as tseen. Ts'uk as tshook.

U
Uk something between uk and Ung as ooong.
ook.
W
Wá as wah. Wáng as wahng. Wo as wa(r).
Wai as wei, Wat as wut. Wok as walk.
Wái as Wye. Wát as waht. Wong as wong.
Wák as walk. We as we(ar). Wú as woo.
Wan as one. Wik as wick. Wui as wooee.
Wán as wahn. Wing as wing. Wún as woon .
Wang as wung. Wit as weet . Wut as woot.

French une .
 LVI INTRODUCTION.

INTRODUCTION.
Y
Yá as yah. Ye as y(th)e(re). Yök as yu(r)k.
Yai as xi(dle). Yi as ye. Yöng as yu(r)ng. *
Yák as yahk. Yik as yik. Yü as yue.
Yam as yum. Yim as yeem. Yui as nearly yooce.
Yan as yun, Yín as yeen. Yuk as yook.
Yap as yup. Ying as ying. Yun as yu(r)n.*
Yáp as yahp. Yip as yeep. Yün as yune.
Yat as yut. Yit as yeet. Yung as yoong.
Yau as y(h)ow. Yiú as yeeoo. Yüt as yuect.

* It is well nigh impossible to represent the difference between this ō and u ; but it may be of
some assistance to know that the former is pronounced with the lips open, while the lips require to be
pursed together in pronouncing the latter.
 RY
LITRA
REESE
OF THE
UNIVERSITY ,
OF
CALIFORNIA

ABBREVIATIONS USED IN THIS BOOK.

[C. ] = Classifier.

[S. of p. t. ] = Sign of past time.

Lit. Literally.
* Indicates that the tone the word is marked in is different from the tone in the book

language.

+ Indicates that the pronunciation of the word as given in this book is different from that given
to it in the book language.

The figures at the end of phrases and sentences denote the Final Particle which is used in the

Chinese. The numbers correspond with the numbers of the list of Final Particles towards the
end ofthe book.
 2 THE NUMERALS.

THE NUMERALS .

Complicated form. Simple form. Running hand.

壹 貳 叁 肆伍 陸柒
1.

一二 三四五 六 七八 九十 十 十 十二 二 二三 三四 七八 九 一

==
2. 3. 4. 5.6

2
3

X 工
4

6
7. 7
捌

8. 8

ㄆ
9.
9 玖
10. 10
壹貳

11. 11
一二 三十十十十十十十十十百百 一百百 百千 萬萬 百

早早
12. 12
13. 13
14. 20 GY* '
卄
111.

15. 21 αγ 艹 早叶┻★学举笮 百媚
16. 22 or
貳拾 貳 十二 艹
呀

17. 30
叁拾 三十 or 卅 呀
18. 31
叁拾 壹 +- Or 卅 呀 一
19. 40
肆拾 四十 · 四 呀
20. 79
柒拾 玖 七 十九 or 七 呀 九
21.
84 捌拾 肆 , 十四, · 八 呀 四
22. 96
玖拾 陸 六 ○ 九 呀六
·
23. 100
壹佰
101
一百 一 二三 一

24.
壹佰 零壹 百零 一
25. 110 佰
景

26. 111 壹佰壹拾壹 一 十一

27. 200
順仟万历b

28. 300
29. 1,000 壹
30. 10,000 壹萬
十]

31. 100,000 拾萬
32. 1,000,000 一百萬
壹佰 萬 颐
1. Note these contracted forms for the tens are not used alone in colloquial, but precede
some other word, as, 卅 呀錢 Sá- ㎡ tstin,* thirty cnsh , When nothing follows thirty, 三十
Sám shapy should be used -
 LIBRARY
URE
NI ESE
VOE
FRTHS
EI
TY

LESSON I. 5

LESSON I. - Domestic.

1. Ning pui-ch'a lai. Bring cup tea come.

2
2. “Hei -tsán lá . Get-up meal.
3. Kiu' 'kún-tim' (or ' tím *) lai. Call house-coolie (or shop-coolie) come.
32
4. Ngo yiu' ' sai-shan lok0° I want wash body."
60
5. ‘Mò ‘shuipo . [lok . No water."
32 32
6. Shik fáum tsang '?I M- koi lok , shik Ate rice not yet eh ? Beg-pardon, eaten.
7. Yau ngau-yuk, mò ¿ni ? Have beef (lit. ox, or cow's meat) not eh ?53
32
8. Mò ngau-yuk, lok。 No beef.

9. Yau yöng-yuk á'. Have mutton (lit. sheep meat).2

10. Mín²- páu sün lok。 Bread sour.32
39
11. O! Hai ¿me? Ah! 'tis is-it."
12. Ning ti vít, shui lai. Bring some hot water come.
13, $Ngo m oi' 'tsau a'. I not want wine.2
2
14. Tech'ü méits‘ang fán lai á'. Cook not yet back come."
15 . Yaungau-nái mò á? Have cow's milk not eh ?¹
16. Yau ti lok
Ya Have little.32
<
17. 'Hò m ao so Good not good eh ?2
18.
¿M hai² shap₂fan (or chi' ) hò ; m hai Not is ten parts (or very) good (or best) ; not is
'kéi hò ; chung- chung-' téi * chek,. very good ; middling only.
32
19. Chai (or fong tsoi") "ko-shü' lok . Place (or place on) that place."
2
2. Koti hai kai-'tán* á' . Those are fowls' eggs."
32 15
Mhò lok ; hai ch'au' ke'. Not good ; are stinking.
22. 15 32
Tim kai ni ? Hò ch'ut, k'éi ke' lok . How explain eh 253 Very extraordinary."
35
23. Hò shik, má ? Hò shik2 ×á. M koi á'. Good eat isn't- it ??? Good eat. Not proper.2
24. Yau kai mò ¿ni? Yau sín' kai, 'yan Have fowls not eh ?53 Have capons, have hens,32
kai 'ná lok .
21
25. Ni- ti hai² mi²- ye ui ? Péi ti ngo Clá, This is what thing eh ?53 Give some me."
26. 32 More have
To tse nei lok . Chung yau mò ni ? Many thanks to-you." no eh ?53
Besides have some."32 Cook come . 32
27. Chung' yau ti. Fo-' t'au* lai lok .
28. Kui hai mi- 'yan?* SK'ui shik,-yin me? He is what man ? He smokes eh ?³9
32
29. Mchi-tak, shat, lok . P'á' hai² ³yau. Not know certainly. Fear (it) is (that he) does.
30. s tsai chính, kúi mái sung á. Boy gone-out street buy viands.2
15
31. Ăn ‘ni hai mái chủ yuk ,, péi toi ni ? He has bought pork, or vegetables eh 253 [come."
32. Kui hai² T'ong yan ; hai Fat, shán lai ke'. He is T'ong man ; (i.e. Chinese) from Fat shan

1. This word is uniformly spelled i in this book, but it must be remembered that it is often
pronounced i as well.
2. This is a very common contraction of mat,, in colloquial .
 6 LESSON II.

LESSON II.-General.

1. Come here. Why don't you come ? 嚟 呢 處 呀 做乜 你 唔 嚟 呢

2. Who has come ? Who is it ?
乜 人 嚟 吖 , 也 誰吖 , 邊個心
3. No one has come.
冇人 嚟 (or 冇 人 呀 or 冇 邊
4. Who is that ?
嗰個係乜 人呢 [180'S.
5. I don't know. How should I know ?
唔知 呀 我 點 知 呀
6.
He is not a good man.. He is a very bad man. 佢係唔好人 呀 佢係好惡人駕
7. Tell him to go away.
呌佢扯 咯
8. He has gone. He went long ago. 佢去 咯, 去 好耐 咯
9. Close the door, don't fasten it.
掩埋 門 咪 門 吖
10. Open the door. Why did you lock it ? 開門 呀 做乜 你 呢
11. Tell the Amah to come to me.
呌 亞 媽 嚟 見我 喇
12. Come quickly : the quicker the better. 快 啲 嚟 越快 越好 咯
13. Where's the coolie ; has he come ?
管店 呢 嚟 未會 呀
14.
Come to-morrow, or it will do to come the 聽 日 “ 嚟 喇
, 後 日 嚟 都 好吖 (or
day after to-morrow. 都 做得 吖 ).
15. There is only a very little.
有 少少 啫
16. It's good is it ? He says so.
好嗎 佢係 噉話
17. What does he say ? Tell me.
佢 話 乜野 講過 我 聽 喇
18. He says he doesn't wish to come. [with me. 佢 話 唔想 嚟 咯
19. Explain to him that he must certainly go 解 明 過 佢 聽 是必要 同 我 去
20. How many persons are there old and young ? 唔 論大 細
, 有 幾多 人 呢
21. More than ten.
有 十 幾個 o 有 十 零 個 咯 。
十個 有多
22. Altogether there are sixty men.
喊 唪 哈有 六十 人 咯
23. Are there any children ? 有細 仔冇 呢
24. There is a boy.
有 個 (or 壹 個 仔 咯
25. Is that a boy, or a girl ? 個個 係 仔女 呢
26. He is in my employ. 佢 喺 我 處 打工嘅
27. Who is your master? 邊個係你事 頭 呢
28.
He is a native of the place , that is a Cantonese. 佢係 本地人, 即 係 城 人 咯
29. He is not a fellow-villager of yours.
佢唔 係 同 你 同鄉嘅
30. Where does he live?
佢喺 邊 處 住 呢
31 . A long way from here. 離 呢 處有好 遠 咯
32. Do you go by land , or by water ? 打路 去 嘷 搭船 去呢
1. Or as in No. 2.

2. 聽 日 ting yaty very often also means auy indefinite time in the future .
&
LESSON II. 7

LESSON II.-General.

2
1. Lai ¸ni-shü'á' . Tsò²-mat, Suéim lai ni ? | Come this place. Why you not come eh ?53
2. Mi- 'yan* laiá? Mi- 'shui* á ? Pín ko' á? What man come eh ? Who eh ? ¹ Which one eh ?¹
2
3. ‘Mò gan lai
lai a,
á, or
or simply‘Mo
simply“Mò¿yán á, or Mò No man come, ¹ or no man, or no which one.²
4. 'Ko-ko' hai² mi- 'yan* ni ? [ pín koá. That is what man eh ?53
5. M chưa , ‘Ngo tím chí a ? Not know. 2 I how know eh ?2
2 14
6. K‘ui lai m -Hò yan a . “K‘uihai hò ok. He is not goodman. He is very wicked man.
39
[ yan ká'. Tell him to-be-off."
7. Kíú'k'ui ' ch'e lok。.
8. ‘K‘ui hui- ‘ cho lok Hui bò noi lok He gone [s. of p . t .] .32 Gone very long. 32
9. ím mái mún, mai ¿sláná.
'‘YYim 1
Close to door, don't fasten it.¹
2
10. Hoi mún . Trở -mat, néi ‘so ni? Open door. Why you lock eh ?53
11. 21
Kíú Á’--Má þai kíu³ ³ngo lá. Call Amali come see me."
12. Fáï³- ti lai : yüt¸ fáï³ yüt bò lok Quickly come : still quicker still better.32
53
13. “Kun-tim ni ; lai mới-tsang a ? House (or shop) coolie eh ;" come not yet eh ??
hò 21
14 . Ting-yat , lai lá, hau yat, clai tò ' á, To-morrow come. Day after to-morrow also
1
(or to tsò tak, á). good, (or also do can) .¹
15. Yau shiú shíú che. Have little little only.7
16. 'Hò la ma??
má Kui hai kòm wa [lá. Go od 22233 37 He does so say .
21
17. K'ui wa²mi- ye ? 'Kong kwo' ngo t'engt He says what thing ? Tell over to-me to-hear.
32
18. Kuiwam
m song lai lok He says not wish come."
19. 'Kai ming kwo' 'k'ui t'engt shi²-pit, yíú' Explain clearly to him to-hear certainly must with
t‘ung ngo hui . me go. [eh253
20.
SM lun tái sai yau kéi to yan ni ? No matter (whether) big small bave how many men
21. 33 or
“Yau shap‘kéi ko' , or ‘yau shap, lengt Have ten odd ones, or have ten plus others,
ko' lok , or shap, ko' 'yau to. ten ones have more.
32
22. Hám²-páng¹¹ -láng²yau luk -shap yan lok . In-all have sixty men.
(
23. 'Yau sai' (or more often sam) man- 'tsai mò Have children not eh ?53
32
24. Yau ko' (or yat, ho' ) ' tsai lok . [ ni ? Have one boy.
25. 'Ko-ko' hai' 'tsai, péi² nui ni ? That is boy, or girl eh 253
15
26. Kui ‘hai ʻngo shü' “tá- kung ke’. He at my place works."

27. ¿Pín-ko' hai² ³néi sz² - 't'au* ui? [ yan lok . Which one is your master eh ?¹³
32
28. K'ui hai² púín téi² yan, tsik, hai² 'sheng* † He is native soil man, that is city man.
15
29. K'uimem hai t'ung nói trung phòng -ko .
hai² trung He not is with you same villager."
30. “K‘ui hai pin shi chữ nỉ ? He at what place lives eh 253
32
31. Lới
“ nishi yau hò yün lok . Separated-from this place have very far.
32. lỗ huỉ , phi táp, shūn buini ?
“Tá lò hui By road go, or on ship go eh ?53

1. This word is pronounced på² when spoken rapidly.

 8 LESSON III.

LESSON III .-General.

1. What o'clock is it ?
幾點 鐘 呢
2. O ! it's half- past ten.
啊 十點半 咯
3. Come back at four o'clock .
四 點 翻 嚟喇
4. Tell him to wait. Wait.
叫佢等 吓 等 一 吓喇
5. Come by and bye. 等吓 嚟
6. He says you must wait. 佢話你 要等呀
7. When are you going out?
你 幾時 出 街 呢
8. It's very hot to-day. 今日 好 熱 啊
9. It's not very hot . 唔係 十分熱 嘱
10. It was rather hot yesterday as well . 昨日 都 係 幾 熱 .
11. To -day is hotter than yesterday. 今日 熱 過 昨日 咯
12. Next month will be cold.
第 二個月 (係 冷羅
13. To-morrow is the end of the month.
聽 日月 尾罅
14. It was very cold last night. 昨晚 眞 正 冷囉
15. Is this a long, or short month ? 呢 個 月 大鼻 月 小 呢
16. There was a typhoon some days ago. 先 幾 日 打 風颶
17. Is there any wind now ? 而 家 有冇 呢
18. It's raining now. It's only a slight shower. 呢 陣 落雨 囉 落雨 微 哄
19. Bring me an umbrella. There is no need. 把 遮 俾 我 唔使 呀
It rains heavily in summer (or hot weather). 天 熱 落大雨 咯
21. I want to go out in the afternoon.
我 下書 要 出街
22.
Call the coolies to come and carry the chair. 呌 抬轎 佬 ( 轎夫) 嚟 抬轎
23. Are there any horses here ? 處 有馬 冇 呢
24. I think they are not particularly good. I 我估 唔多 好 啩,都幾好啩
fancy they are pretty good.
25. The sun is intensely hot to-day. There are 熱 頭 今日 好猛 冇 雲 遮住 咯
no clouds hiding it.
26. It's too hot . I dare not go out in the day- 熱 過頭 我 日頭 唔 噉行街
·
time.
27. Call some one to pull the punkah.
呌 人 嚟 扯 (r ) 風扇 呀
28.
You needn't pull it. You have no strength. 你唔使 扯 吖, 你 有力
29. It's only a trifling matter. It's no matter. 閒事 冇 相干 咯
30.
I'm afraid I shall catch cold. I feel very cold. 我 慌 冷 親 呀 我 見 好冷 呀
31.
I am in a perspiration . It's very hard work , 咁 熱 行 街 見好 辛
出汗 咯
to take a walk when it is so hot. 苦咯
32. The climate does not suit me.
呢 處 水土 唔 合 我 咯
f
 LESSON III. 9

LESSON III.- General.

1. Kéi tím chung ni ? What stroke clock eli 253

2. O, shap, tím pún' lok . Ah ! Ten stroke half.32

21
3. Sz' tím fáu lai сlá. [ Já . Four o'clock back come.´
21
4. Kíu' kui tang há. 'Tang yat, há (or 'há*) Tell him wait little. Wait a little.
5. “ Tang phá* lại. Wait a-bit come.
K'ui wa néi yii' 'tang á'. 2
6. He says you must wait."
7. Néi kei- shí ch'ut, ¿kái ¿ni? You what time go-out street eh ?53

8. Kam -yat, hò yít o'. To-day very hot.56

9. M bai² shap₂ ‹fan yit ká'. 14
Not is ten parts hot."
Yesterday also was somewhat hot.¹
10. Tsok -yattò hai “kéi yít¸ ¿á.
32
11. ¿Kam yat (often pronounced mat ) yit kwo? To-day hotter than yesterday.
tsok, yat (orts'am-mat₂) lok¸.
31
Next (or another) month (will be) cold.31
12. Tai yi -ko yüt (hai) láng lo . 22
13. Ting-yat yüt méi la' . [ ching' láng lo' . To-morrow month end.

1
14, Tsok (often pronounced tsam) mán chan Last night truly really cold.31
15. Ni-ko' yüt tái , pei yit, síu ni? This month large, or month small eh ?53
16. Sín kéi yat, tá fung-kau . Before several days strike typhoon.
17. Yí-ká ³yau fung mò ¿ui? Now have wind not eh ?53
31
18. Ni ' chan* lok, yü lo' . Lok, Syü mei che. This time fall rain. Fall rain fine only.7
19. ¿Ning på ¿che ‘péi ‘ugo . M‘shai á' . Bring [ C ] umbrella give me. Not need.?
32
C Weather hot falls great rain."
20. Tín yít lok , tái yi lok •
21. Ngo hả -chau yu ch‘ut , kái. I afternoon want go-out street. [ry chair.
22. Kíú't'oi 'kíú* lò (or 'kíú* fúí) lai t'oi 'kíú* .
Call carry chair fellows (or chair bearers) come car
18
23, Ni shi yau má mà ni ? This place have horse not eh ?53 [I-think.
18
24. Ngo 'kum to 'hòkwa' . Tò kéi hò kwá'. I think not very good probably. Also pretty good
32
25. Yít -'tau* kam yat, hò máng ả, mò Swan Sun to-day very fierce. No clouds hide.
che chu² lok [ háng kái.
Hot over-much I daytime not dare walk streets.
26. Yit, 'kwo*tau ngo yat- tau m 'kòm
27. Kíú'
¸yan lai ‘ch´e (or mang) fung-shin' ' . Call man come pull punkah.2
Ne i 1
28. Néi m ‘shai ch'e á. “Néi mò lik¸ á. You not need pull.¹ You no strength.¹
29. 32
Hán sz² che ; mò söng- kòn lok [a' . Trifling matter only ; no importance.
30. Ngo fong láng ts'an à . Ngo kin' 'hò láng I fear cold catch. I feel very cold, 2
31. Chut -hon lok , kòm' yít, háng4 kái kín ” | Perspire .32 So hot walk streets feel very dis
'hò san- fú lok . 32
tressing.
32
32. Ni shu' 'shui 't'ò m hòp, ngo lo'. This place water soil not agree me.

1. Let the learner remember that this final k is scarcely heard.

2. The verb may, or may not be used, and so in similar sentences throughout the book.
 10 LESSON IV.

LESSON IV. -General.

1. What is this ?
呢 啲 係 乜野 呢
2. This is butter.
呢 啲 係 牛油蟠
3. Is there any fruit ? 有菓子冇 呀
4. There are only two kinds.
有 兩樣 遮
5. Are there not several kinds ?
唔係 有 幾樣咩
6. No : there are plantains and pine-apples.
冇 有 蕉 有 波羅
7. Are there no other kinds ?
有第二 樣 咩
8. There are no other kinds. 冇 第二 樣 略
9. Bring a light . I'll trouble you for a light 梅 火 嚟 唔該 你 借 個 火 我
(for my cigar or pipe).
10. Where did this letter come from?
呢 封信 喺 邊 處嚟 呢
11. From the Tak kee hong.
喺 德記 行 嚟 嘅
12. Is there any answer ? 有 回音 冇 呀
13. There is no answer.
冇 回音
14. Bring me a chair. 張椅俾 我
15. Put it on the table.
擠 在 檯面 [啲衰樣┛
16. Nonsense ! Why are you so silly ?
啋; 做乜 你 咁 衰 吖, 嘍, 整成 個
17. I am onlyjesting. Do you think it strange ? 講 笑話 啫 你 見怪 咩
18. Bring me a pen and ink . 筆墨 嚟 俾 我 喇
19. I think there is a pencil up stairs. 【see. 樓上 (or 樓)有 支筆啩

20. Is there anyone down stairs ? Go down and 樓下 有人 冇 呢 落 去睇 吓

21. This house has seven rooms.
呢 間屋有 七 間 房 呀
22. Has it a garden ? Where is the gardener ? 有 花園 冇 呢 花王 喺 邊 處
23. It has a small garden. 有 個 細 花園 呀
24. Where is your master ? He is out. 事 頭 呢 出 街囉
25. How long has he been gone ? 佢 出 街有 幾 耐 呢
26. When will he be back? 幾時 翻 嚟 呢
27. He didn't say. 佢又冇話幾時翻嚟啊 (or 冇話)
28. Is your mistress at home ? 事 頭 婆 (or 東家 婆 喺 處 唔 喺
處呢
29. She is not here ; she went out with my master. 唔 喺 處 佢 同事 頭 出 街 咯
30. Go with me to find him. I can't go. 孖我 去搵佢 喇 我 唔 去得
31. I can't . I'm busy. I have no time. 唔得 呀 有事 , 唔得 閒
32.
Come again to night . Don't come so late. 今晚 又 嚟喇 咪 咁 夜 嚟 呀
1. The first of these sentences is what a woman would say ; the second, what a man would say.
2. The second is a more polite form, though the first is most commonly used.
 LESSON IV . 11

LESSON IV. - General.

1. Ni- ti hai mi- ye ni ? This is what thing eh 253

60
2. Ni- ti hai "gau- yau po'. This is butter (lit. cow's oil)."
3. Yau 'kwo-tsz mò a' ? Have fruit not eh ??
7
4. 'Yau löng yöng che. Have two kinds only." [that there are several kinds?
5. „M hai² ‘yau ‘kéi yöng² Cme ? Not is have several kinds is-it-not 239 or Is it not

6. Mò : yau thíu , yau po - lo * ( or lo ). No, have plantains, have pineapples.

7. ‘Mò tai - yi ying me ? No second kind eh ?39
8. Mò tai -yỉ yöng lok . No second kind."32

9. Ning fo lai. M- koi 'néi tse' ko' 'foʻngo. Bring fire come. Trouble you lend a light to-me.

19. Ni fung sun' 'hai pín shu' laini ? This [ C. ] letter from what place come eh ?53
11. 'Hai Tak¸-kéi' 'hong* lai ke'. From Tak-kéi hong come."15
12. Yauwúi- yam mo a ? Have answer not eh ?2
13. Mà wi- yam lo'. No answer.31

14. Ning chồng yí péingo. Bring [ C. ] chair give me.

15. CChai troi troi (or ' U'oi*) 'mín*. Place on table face.
16. сTsoi ! Tso -mat, néi kòm shui á? Nonsense ! Why you so silly eh ?¹
Ts'ai 'ching sheng† ko' ti shui ' yöng. * Nonsense ! Act in that silly way ! [strange eh ?39
8
17. Ngo '
kong síu'-wa' che' . Néi kín' kwái' I speak laughing words only. You perceive
18. Ning pat,, mak, lai péi ngo lá. [ me ? Bring pencil, ink come give me.21
19. Lau-shöng' (or 'lau*) ‘yau chí pat, kwá'. Upstairs have [ C. ] pencil I-think.18
Lau-há² Syau mò
20. syan ni ? Lok, hui" t'ai Downstairs have man not eh ? Down go see a-bit.
há.
2
21. Ni kán uk, yau ts'at, ¿kán 'fong* á' . This [C. ] house has seven [ C. ] rooms. [place ?
22. Yau fá-'yün* 'mò ni ? Fá wong hai Have flower garden not eh ?53 Flower king at what
pin -shi ?
2
23. 'Yau ko' sai' fá-'yün* á'. Have a small flower garden."
24. Sz²- 't'au ni ? Ch'ut, ¿kái lo' . Master eh ?53 Gone-out street, 31
25. Kui ch'ut, kái ‘yau ‘kéi 'noi* ¿ni? He go-out street have how long eh ?53
26. Kéi shí fán lai ni? [ mò wa²) . What time back come eh ?53
27. ³K'ui yau² ³mò wá kéi shí fán lai o² (or He even not say what time back come (or not say).57
t'au- p'o (or tung- ka- 'po") 'hai shu' Mistress at place, not at place eh ?53
m 'hai shu' cui ?
[ hái lok
29. M 'hai shu' ; Sk'ui t'ung sz²- 't'au* ch'ut, Not at place ; she with master go-out street."53
30. ¿Má ³ngo hui” “ wan ³k'ui „lá. Ngo m hui' tak, With me go find (or look for) him, 2¹ I not go can.
2 1
31. M tak, á'. 'Yau sz²á. Mtak, hán . á. [ á. Not can. Have business. Not have leisure.¹
21 Don't so late come.
32. Kam-'mán* yau²lai lá. Mai kòm' ye²lai á' . To night again come." "
 12 LESSON V.

LESSON V.- General.

1. What does he sny ?

[up for money. 佢 話 乜野 呢
2. He says he has no money. He says he is hard 冇 銀 嘛, 銀 両 緊和
3. Did he say that ? Give him some. 佢係 咁 話 咩 俾 啲 佢 喇
4. Can you read ? 你識字 唔 識
5. I can't read. Neither can I write.
唔識 咯
, 我 又唔 寫字 添
6. Ask the teacher to come.
請 先生 嚟 喇
7.
What is your surname ? ( To an inferior) 高姓 呀 你姓乜 呢
What is your surname ?
8. My surname is Wong. 小 姓 黄 or 姓 黃
9. Can you speak Chinese ? 你 噲 講唐話唔 噲 呢
10. I can . What's your name ? 噲 · 你 呌 (做) 也 名 呢
11. My name is A Luk. 我名 呌(做)亞六 or我 叫做 阿六
12. He is an Englishman. 佢係 英國人 呀
13. You are a native of the place. 你 係 本地人 咯 [旗人
14. He is an American,
佢係 美國人, or (more commonly )花
15. How many Chinese are there ? 有幾多 唐人 呀
16. Do you like this ? 你 中意 呢 啲 唔 中意 呀
17. Do you like being here ?
你 中意 喺 呢 處 唔 中意 呢
18. I do. It would be well to be here always. 中意 : 時時 處 都好呀
19. Tell him to go back. He cannot come. 呌佢 去 佢唔 做得 嚟
20.
Seize that man . If you don't, be will run off. 拉 嗰 個人吖 唔係 佢 就走 咯
21. What has he been doing ? or What does he do ? 佢 做 乜野 叫
22. He is a thief.
佢 做賊 咯 ( 佢係 咯)
23. What has he stolen ? Is it of value ? 但偷乜野 呢 値錢嘅唔値呢
24. He has not stolen anything yet. [strike with? 唔 會 偷 倒 (到)‘ 野 呀 (打 呢
25.
Has he struck anybody ? What did he 有 打人 冇 呢 係 使 乜野 嚟
26. With his hand ; he is a very dangerous man. 使 手 咯 佢好勢兒嘅
27.
He wanted to snatch that pair of bracelets. 佢 想搶 個 對 鈪 咯
28. Take him to prison. [tan. 拉 佢 去 坐監 喇
29. Afterwards give him twentyblows with a rat- 後來 打 佢 二十 籐
30.
Only let him go when he has been beaten. 打咀 啫 好 放佢 出去 咯
He ought to be sentenced to two weeks' 應該 辦佢 坐 兩個 禮拜監 呀
imprisonment .
32.
Warn him not to do it again . If he does he 警戒 佢 咪 製 過 ( 咪 再 製 若
will be more severely punished. 係 再 製 就加重 嚴辦 咯
1. This is the correct character, but the first represents the correct tone .
 iv

LESSON V. 13

LESSON V. - General.

1. K'ui wa² mi- ye ni? He says what thing eh 253

65 65
2. Mò 'ngan wo², Ngan- löng kan wo². No money he says. Money pressing he-says."
3. Kui hai kòm wa' me ? 'Pei ti k'ui lá. He did so say eh ?39 Give some him.21
4. Nei shik, tsz m slik, á? You know characters not know eh ?1
5. Mshik, lo'. Ngo yaum 'híú 'se tsz tím. Not know. 31 I besides not understand to-write
6. “Ts'eng† ¿Sín- sháng† lai Invite Teacher come. 21 [character moreover.
7. Kò sing' a' ? Néi sing' hat, ni? Exalted surname eh ?? Your surname what eh ?53
8. Síù sing SWong, or Sing Wong. Diminutive surname Wong, or Surname Wong.
9. · Néi wúi kong T'ong-' wá* m Swui pi? You can speak Chinese words not cau eh 253
10. Wui cá ; nói kiu (ts ) mat, ' meng* † ni ? Can ;¹ you called what name eh ?53
11. Ngo 'meng * † kíní' tsò² Á' Luk¸ , or 'Ngo kiu' My name is-called A Luk, or I am- called A Luk.
2
12. Kui hai ¿YYing k w o k
ing kwok O yan á³ . [tsò² Á' Luk. He is English nation man .
13. You are native soil man." 32
‘Néi hai² ‘pún-téï² ¸yan lok
14. Kui hai Mei KwokO yan, or Fák
‘éi ¿yan. He is American man, or Flowery Flag man.
15. Yani to Tong- yan á' ? Have how many Chinese eh ?2
16 . Nei chung-yui-sim chung-yi a ? You like this not-like eh ?2
17. Néichung-yì hai ni shùm chung- yi ni ? You like being at this place not like eh ?53
18. Chung-yí á. Slf- shi hai shu (tò hò a'. Like . Always in (this) place also good.²
19. 22 He not do can come.
Kíu khui fán hui lả . K‘ui_mtso tak, lai. | Call him back go.
20. Lai 'ko-ko' 1 32
< yau á. ¿M hai² k'ui tsau Arrest that man. If not he will-just run.'
21. Kui tsomi- ye á? ['tsau lok . He does what thing eh ?1
32
22. “K'ui tsò³ ts¹ák, lok¸ . ‘K'ui hai² tsák lok¸· He is thief. [worth eh ?53

23. K'ui t'au mi-³ye_ni ? Hai' chik, ' ts'in ke' He steal what thing eh 253 Is worth money -not
24. M-t'sang tau 'tò ye a'. [ m chik ni ? Not-yet stolen anything.2
25. Yau 'tá syan mò ni? Hai shai mat
Yau mat,, ye Have strike man not ch 258 Have use what thing
glai táni ? in-order-to strike eh ?53
32
26. “Shai shan lok . ‘Kui hò shai-hung ke'. Use hands.3 He very violent one.
27. Kui ‘söng 'ts'öng ko' tui' ák¸ lok¸. He wished suatch that pair bracelets.21
21
28. Lái khui hui 't'so* 4 kém lá. Pull him away sit prison ."
29. Hau²- loi tá 'k'ui yr² shap, ¿tang. Afterwards beat him twenty rattans.
30. 32
Tá cho [s. of p. t. ] che' 'hò fong' k'ui Beat finished only good loose him out go.
ch'ut, hui' lok . [pái kám á'.
2
31. сYing- koi pán² k'ui 'ts'o*t löng ko'lai Ought sentenced him sit two [ C. ] weeks prison
32. 'King-kái' 'k'ui mai chai' kwo', (or mai Warn him not do again (or not again do) . If does
32
tsoi' chai'). Yök, hai tsoi' chai' tsau again do then add more severely punish ."
ká 'ch'ung*+ ¿yím pán² lok.
 14 LESSON VI.

LESSON VI.-Relationships .

1. Who are you ? 你係 乜 人 呢

2. He is my father. 佢係 我 老 啞 咯
3. Have you a mother ? 你 有 老母 冇 呢
4. When did you marry ?
你 幾時娶親 呢·
5. More than ten years ago. 0.
十 幾年 十年 有多 囉
6. Have you any children ? 有 仔女 冇 呀
7. I have several daughters, but no sons. 有 幾個 女 冇 仔
8. How old is the eldest ?
至大 (ur 至大 個, or 嘅 有幾大呢
9. She is between ten and twenty .
今年 有 十 幾歲
10. Is she married ?
嫁哩 (or嫁) 唔會 , 出門 未 呢
11. How many brothers have you ? 你 有 幾多 兄弟 呢
12. One elder brother, one younger.
一個 大佬 一個 細 佬
13. Have you any sisters ? 有 姊妹 冇 呢
14. I have one elder sister and one younger. 個 亞 姐 一個 亞 妹
15. Are you married ? 你 娶 老婆 未 會 呢
16. Not yet.
未會 (
or 唔 會) 娶 咯
17.
I cannot say certainly when I shall marry. 我 唔 話 得 定 幾時 娶親
18. My wife is in the house. 我 女人 喺 屋趾
19. I think you will get married next year. 你 出 年 娶 老婆啩
20. Why is your child crying ? 做乜 你 個 細 仔喊 呢
21. Heishungry. Perhaps he is thirsty as well. 佢肚餓 囉 ; 或者又係頸渴添
22. Give him something to eat, and to drink. 俾 野 佢食 俾 野佢 飲囉
23. Call the nurse to carry him. Take him out 呌奶媽嚟抱佢 去同佢行 街
for a walk.
24.
He is unwilling to come、 Never mind whe- 佢唔肯 嚟 唔打理佢肯 唔肯·
ther he is willing or not.
|寫 母 婆
25. She has no husband ; she is a widow. 佢 冇 老公 (or 男人) 喺 佢係
26.
A grandson and granddaughter live with her. 一個孫, 一個孫女 同佢住‧
27. This is my neplrew. 呢 個 係 我 姪 吖.
28. Is he a native of the place? 佢係 本地人 唔係 呢
29. Why does he come here ? 佢 做乜 嚟 呢 處 呢
30.
He has come to buy things for his grand- 佢 嚟 同 亞 公 買 野
father.
31 . When is he going back ? Do you know ? 佢幾時 翻去呢, 你知唔知呀
32. In two or three days with his cousin. 三兩 日 同 表兄翻 去
 LESSON VI. 15

LESSON VI. - Relationships .

1. Néi hai² mi 'yan* ¸ni ? You are what man eh ?53

39
2. Kui hai ngo lò-tau lok . He is my father.
3. ‘Néi “yau Slo-mò mò ni ? You have mother not eh ?53
4. Néi 'kéi- shí 'ts'ui*-_ts'an ni ? You what time marry eh ?53
Shap₂ 'kéi nín, or shap, nin yau to lo' . 31
5. Ten odd years, or ten years have more."
6. Yau 'tsai nui ‘mò á' ? Have sons daughters not eh ?2
\ 7. Yau 'kéi- ko'nui, ‘mò ‘tsai. [ 'tái* ni ? Have several [ C. ] daughters, no sons.
8. Chi -tái (or chí tái ko' , or ke' ) 'yau 'kéi Greatest (or greatest one) [or C. ] have how big eh ?53

9. Kam nin yau shap, kéi sui . This year have ten odd years.
\ 10. Ka' ' cho (or 'ká* ) mts'angú ? Ch'ut, min Married not yet el ?1 Gone-out of doors not-yet
11. Néi yau 'kéi to hing-taimi ? [méini ? You have how many brothers 253 [el 253
sai'- 'lò. One [ C. ] elder brother, one [ C ] younger brother.
12. Yat, ko tái lò, yat, ko sui- lo.
13. Yau 'tsz-mmò ¸ni ? Have sisters not eh 253

14. Yat, ko'Á'- 'tse , yat, ko' Á' -'múi* . One [C. ] elder-sister, one [ C. ] younger-sister.
15. Nei 'ts'ui* lò-¸p'o méi²- tsang ni ? [ lok . You married wife not yet eh 253
39
16. Mei²- tsang, (or m-ts'ang, or meng) ' ts'ui* Not yet, (or not yet, or not -yet) married.³
17. Ngom wa tak, ting² 'kéi- shi 'ts'ui* -_ts'an.¹ I not say can certain what time marry.
18. Ngo -nui - 'yan * 'hai uk,- 'k'éi . [ lò- p'o kwá'. My wife (lit. woman) in house.
19. Nei ch'ut, nín 'ts ui* (often pronounced 'ts'ò) You coming year marry wife probably ?18
20. ko' sai’
Tso -mat, néi ko' sai'- man- tsai hám ni ? Why your [ C. ] child cries eh ?53
31
21. K'ui t'o-ngo lo'. Wak - che yau hai He hungry." Perhaps also is thirsty besides.
kengf -hotO tím.
'
22. 'Péi ‘ye 'k'ui shik,. 'Pći 'ye k'ui 'yam lo. Give things him eat. Give thing him drink.30
23. Khí núi- má lai phò* kui. Hai trung Call nurse come carry him . Go with him walk

khui báng hải . [ m 'hang. streets.

24. K'ui
K'ui m'hang lai. M 'tá- lei 'k'ui 'hang He not willing come. Not mind he willing not
25. Kui ³mò ³lò- kung (or nám ' yan* ) ke', She no husband (or man) ; she is widow . [willing.
Sk'ui hai² kwá-³mò - ¸po .
26. Yat, ko' sun, yat, ko' sün- nui t'ung 'k'ui
One [ C. ] grandson, one [ C. ] granddaughter with
27. Ni-ko hai ngo chat, gá [chu ke'. This is my nephew.1 [her live.
28. m hai² pi?
Kui hai' pin -téi- yan ¿ He is native not is eh ?53
29. Kui tso²-mat, lai ui-shini ? He why comes this place eh 253

30, Kui lai trung Á - kung mai ye. He comes for grandfather buy things.
31. Kui ʻkéi- shí fán hui ni ? Néi chí m He what time back go el 253 You know not
know eh ?2 31
chí ứ ? [back go.
32. Sám löng yatt'ung 'píú- hing, fán hui' lo'. Three two days with cousin ( of different surname)
1. This is a more polite form than the above.
 16 LESSON VII.

LESSON VII.- Opposites .

1. This man is very tall and large. 呢 個人 好 高大 幡

2. I am shorter than he.
我 矮過佢 咯
3. That cow is fat.
嗰隻牛肥
4. This sheep is thin. 呢 隻 綿羊瘦
5. This string is too long.
呢 條 繩 長 過頭
6. The thread is too short ; it is not enough.
長條 線短得 齊 唔 够使 咯
7. This is a very large house. 呢 間屋 好 大 間 個
8.
The road is so narrow you cannot walk on it. 呢 條路 咁 唔行 得 咯
9. This chair is strong.
「呢 張 椅 堅固
10. This table is very shaky.
呢 張 檯 好浮
11. He is very strong.
佢 身子 好 壯健
12. I am weaker than he.
我 軟弱 過 佢
13. This table-cloth is wet.
呢 張 檯布 濕
14. Dry it in the sun , and bring it back.
晒乾 寜 翻 嚟 喇
15. This rock is very hard.
呢 石好硬
16. You must boil this meat till it is soft.
你要 恰到 呢 的 肉 腍 呢啲
肉你要 恰到腍
17. Your hands are dirty.
你 對手 污 糟 囉播
18. It would be best for you to wash then clean. 你 去 洗 乾淨 至 好 咯
19. I want hot water.
我 要 熱水
20. I do not want cold water.
唔 要凍水
21. The sea is very deep .
大海好 深 呀
22. Rivers are more shallow than seas.
河淺過海
23. It is very far by water. 水路 好遠 咯
24. By land it is not as far by half.
打 路 去 有 一半 咁 遠
25. Those plantains are not ripe yet.
個 啲 蕉 未熟 咯
26. These coolie orauges are too unripe.
呢 啲 橙 生 過頭
27. I don't want those eggs boiled so hard.
個 啲 蛋 唔好 恰 得 咁 老
28. I want to eat the oysters raw.
我 愛 生食
29. There are a great many water-buffaloes. 有好多 水牛.
30. There are very few goats.
有 好 少 草羊
31 . He is a very clever man.
佢係 好 聰明 嘅 人
32. You are very stupid.
你 十分 愚蠢 咯

1. This word may be omitted or not.

 LESSON VII . 17

LESSON VII.- Opposites.

60
1. Ni-ko' yan hò kò táľ po'. This man very tall large."
2. Ngo ai kwo' 'k'ui lok¸• I shorter than he."53
3. 'Ko* chekO ngau féi. That [C.] cow fat.
4. Ni chek mín- yöng shau'. This [C. ] sheep thin.
5. This piece string too-long.
Ni thu shing chong- kwo* thau.
53
6. Ni t'i sin' 'tün-tak,-tsai² ; m kau' 'shai This piece thread too-short ; not enough use.
lok。.
7. kán ko .
Ni kán uk , hò tải ,kin This [C ] house very large one [or C.116 .
53
8. Nithi lò² kòm chák ¿m háng tak, lok . This length road so narrow not walk can.
9. Ni chồng yí kín kể . This [C. ] chair strong.
10. Ni chống 'toi* hò fau . This [C ] table very weak.
11. “Kui shan -tsz hò chong -kín . His body very strong.
12. Ngo Syün-yök, kwo³ ³k'ui. I weaker than he.

13. Ni chồng 'toi* pro shap,. This [C ] table-cloth wet.

21
14. Shái kon ning fún lai lá. Sun dry bring back come."
15. Ni kau shek hò ngáng . This piece rock very hard.
16. “Néi yíú' sháp, tò'ni- ti yuk nam, or Ni You must boil until this meat tender, or This meat
ti yuk , néi giữ sháp, tổ nam . you must boil till tender.
i
31 21
17. Nei tui' shau o¹-tsò lo' po . Your pair-of hands dirty.*
53
18. “Néi hui sai kon -tseng | chỉ hò lok You go wash clean best."
19. Ngo yiu yít, shui. I want hot water.

20. • Myíu tung shui. Not want cold water.

Tải hoi hò slam á
21. Tai '. Great occan very deep.2
22. ¿Ho ‘ts'ín kwo' hoi. Rivers shallower than seas.
53
23. Shui lò lò yin lok Water road very far."
24. “Tá lò² hui mò yat, pún' kòm' yün. By road going not one half so far.
53
25. Ko'-ti tsíú méi shuk, lok . Those plantains not-yet ripe."
26. Ni- ti choáng * shángkwo . t'au. These coolie-oranges unripe too over much (lit.
head).
27. Ko'- ti tán* m hò sháp, (tak,) kòm o. Those eggs not good boil (can) so old.
28. Ho, ngo of sháng | shik Oysters, I want raw eat.
29. “Yau hò to shui ngau . Have great many water cows (or oxen).
30. SYan hò shú tròn vông. Have very few goats.
31. K‘ai hai hò tsung- ming kẻ gan . He is very clever man.
32. 53
Néi shap, fan yü- ch'un lok . You ten parts stupid ."

1. Sometimes pronounced ú.
 18 LESSON VIII.

LESSON VIII.— Monetary.

1. One dollar.
一個 銀錢 一 文
2. A dollar and a half.
個 半 銀錢
3. Half a dollar. Over a dollar. [nounce.
半個 銀錢 (or) 半文
, 個幾 銀錢
4. This word‘ngan’is very difficult to pro 呢 個 銀 字 好難 講 呀
5.
Do you say so ? Do you pronounce it so ? 你係咁 話 咩 你 係 咁講咩
6. That is easier to pronounce.
嗰 個 易啲講 囉
7. A dollar is divided into ten ‘ ho,' (ten-cent -
個 銀錢 分 十 毫
8. One ‘ ho , is divided into ten cents . [pieces) . ―
一毫 子 分 十 仙 [
毫六
9. Ten dollars and sixty-six cents.
十個 銀錢零六 毫六十個 六
10.
Can you change accounts in taels into dollars ? 両數 你 噲 伸 元 數 唔 噲 呀
11. One tael is equal to a dollar and forty cents. ―
· 両 銀 值得 個 四 銀錢
12. Nine mace. Nine cash. [dollars to me. 九 錢 銀 九個 錢
13. You agroed to hand over eighteen hundred 你 應承 交 千八 銀 過 我
14. One tael, seven mace, six caudareens, six léi.
両 七 錢 六 分六
15. What is a dollar worth in cash ?
· 個 銀錢 找 得 幾多 錢
16. It is worth one thousand and forty cash.
找 得 一千 零 四十錢
17. How much wages do you want a month ? 「你 一個月 要 幾多 人工 呢
18.
I want eight dollars a month . This is too much.. 要 八個 銀錢 個 月 多過頭吖
19. Your expenses are few ; you do not need so 你 使 費 少 唔使 要 咁 多 .
20.
If I find my own food, it is not much. [much. 係 食 自己 唔係 多 .
21. 唔係 食 事 頭 係 食 自己 嘅
The master does not provide you with food,
ofcourse you find yourself. 定喇
22. I can't reduce my terms.
唔 減得 咯
藤
23. Do you know how to do the work ? I have 你 做唔 呀 我 做過 咯
24. You must not spend this money. [done it. 你 唔好使 呢 啲錢
25. & You ought to send it home.
你 應該 寄 翻 去歸
26. Does he gamble ? I think he does . 佢 賭錢 咩 我 估 係 吖 !
27.
Does he play at cards , or dominoes ? [dice. 佢打乜野牌 紙牌鼻骨 牌 呢·
28. Both ; he also fongs-at, fán tán, pò tsz and with 兩樣 都有: 又揸 攤 打 寶 字
29. If he gambles, I shall not employ him. 佢係賭錢, 我 唔請佢: [擲色
30. You tell him what I say. I have. 你 話 佢 聽話 咯
31. He says he won't dare do so .
佢話 唔敢 做 咯
32.
I take it he is acquainted with his work. 我睇得佢係熟手 咯, 大概係呀
Probably he is.

1. The銀 in such a phrase is ambiguous : it may mean dollars, or taels.

 LESSON VIII. 19

LESSON VIII .— Monetary.

1. Yat, ko' ngan ' ts'in,* or yat, ¿man*. One [C ] silver cash, or one dollar.
*
2. Ko' pún' ngan-'ts'in. * [ ngan- ' ts'in. One (and a) half dollar.
3. Pún' ko'ngan-' ts'ín*, or pún' man. Ko''kéi | Half a dollar, or half dollar. One (and) odd dollar.
4. Ni-ko' "gau tsz² ho
hò ¿nán 'kong á' . This ngan character very difficult to-speak.
5. Néi hai kòm wáme ? Néi hai kòm kong You do so say do-you?39 You do so pronounce eh.39
81
6. ‘Ko-ko' y²- ti ‘kong lo' . [ me ? That easier to pronounce.
7. Yat, ko'ngan - ts'in* fan shap, phòn One [C ] dollar divided ten dimes.
One dime divided ten cents.
8. Yat, ho- tsz fan shap¿ ¿sín*.
9. Shap -ko'ngan -'ts in lengt luk, hò luk , or Ten dollars and six dimes six (cents) or ten [ C. ]
shap, ko' luk, hò luk . [á'? six dimes six, [counts not can eh ?2
10. 'Löng sho' néi wúi shan yün sho' Sm Swúi Tael accounts you can carry-out-into dollar ac
11. Yat, ʻlöng ' ngau* chik -tak, ko' ᏚᏃ› ngan One tael silver worth one four dollar.
12. 'Kau ts'ín-'ngau.** ' Kau ko''ts'ín*.[ ' ts'in* . Nine mace silver. Nine [ C. ] cash.
13. Néi ying- shing¸káu¸ts'íu pátO ngan* 'kwo* You agreed hand-over thousand eiglit money to me.
14. Yat, löng ts at, ts'ín Juk fan Juk¿. ['ngo. One tael seven mace six candareens six (léi) .
15. Yat, ko'ngan- ts'in cháu tak, 'kéi to ' ts'in* ? One [ C ] dollar change can how many cash ?
16. Cháu tak, yat, ¿ts'in leng† sz' shap, 'ts'ín* . Change can one thousand and forty cash.

17. “Néi yat, ko'yüt¸ yíú kéi to yan Сkung ni? You one [C. ] month want how much wages eh ?53
18. Yin' pát ko' ¿ngan-"-'ts'ín* ko' yüt . To Want eight [ C. ] dollars a month. Much too.¹

kwo* tàu cá.

19. Néi shai fai' 'shíú, m 'shai yíú' kòm❜ to. Your expenses little not need want so much.
20. Hai' shik, tsz²- kói ¸m hai² to á. Do eat self not is much.1
21. 21
M hai² shik sz²- 't'au, * hai² shik, tsz²-'kéi Not do eat master's, do eat self— certainly.
M
32
22. M 'kám tak, lok . [ke' ' ting* lá. Not reduce can.
32
23. Nei híú tsòm 'híú á'? Ngo tso² kwo'lok . You know do not know eh ? I done already.
24. Nei m hò shai_ni- titsín .* You not good use this money .
25. Néi ying- koi kéi fán bui' kwai. You ought send back go home.
26. 'K'ui 'tò-'is'in me ? Ngo 'kú hai á. He gamble eh ?39 I think does.¹
27. Kui tá mat, 'ye 'p'ái ", 'chí p'ai péi' kwat, He play-at what, dominoes-or-cards, paper cards,
Phái ni ? or bone tablets eh ?53

28. Löng yong tò yau ; yau² chá t'án, 'ta 'pò Two kinds also have ; further play-at fán-tan, play
'tsz*, chák , shik,. at pò-tsz, throw dice.
29. K'ui hai' ' to - ' ts in* Engom ' ts'engt k'ui. He does gamble, I not engage him.
30. Néi wa ' k'ui t'eng. *+ ' Wa* lok . You tell him to-hear. Told.332
31. K'ui wa m'kom tso' lok . [ k'o 32
<m a He says not dare do."
,31 2
32. Ngo t'ai-tak, kui hai shuk,shau lo . I see-can he is acquainted 'hand." Probably is.
 20 LESSON IX.

LESSON IX.-Commercial.

1. How much is this?

呢啲 幾多 銀 (or錢 呢
2. What is the price ofthat ?
個 啲 幾多 價錢 呢
3. It is too dear.
貴過頭 貴得啐咯⋅
4. I shall not buy it . I don't want it. 我唔買 呀 唔要咯
5. Have you any cheaper ones ? 有 平 啲嘅 冇 呀
6. This is cheaper. 呢個平啲啊
7. How do you sell this rice ? 呢 的米 點 賣 呢
8. Oh ! don't stand out so . Reduce your price. 唉 吔 麻麻 哋 減價 喇
9. Increase your offer. You are dear.
|你 添 啲 喇 你貴
10. No. They are first quality of goods.
唔係 貴 吖 係 第一 好 貨 咯
11. Is it good ? Mine are the best.
「好 唔好 吖 , 我 嘅至好咯
12. I have seen better ones before.
我 舊時 見過 好 啲 嘅
13. Have you any better ones ? 重有好 啲嘅 冇 呢
14. Bring them for me to see.
掙 嚟 俾我 睇
15 . If suitable I shall certainly buy.
合使 我 是 必 買
16. It does not matter if they are dearer. 貴 的 都唔 計 帶
17.
There are none as good as these throughout 通香港 都 冇 呢 啲 咁 好 嘅
Hongkong .
18. It is imitation . No ; it is genuine .
係假 嘅 唔係; 係 真 嘅
19. You don't know good from bad .
你 都唔 識 好醜 嘅 咯
20. I do. I have been in that business .
識 吖, 我 都做過 個 的 生意咯
21. I am afraid it is old , is it not ? No it is new.
係 舊 嘅 罅啩 唔係 係新嘅
22. This is no use . It is useless.
呢 個 有用 咯 , 唔 中用 咯
23. He wants too high a price.
佢 要得 價錢 多 咯
24. You offer too little. Don't be so stingy.
「你 俾 得 少 吖 唔好咁 慳
25. It will not pay cost price.
唔 够 本 (or 本錢)吖
26. How long will it last ?
使得 幾 耐 呢
27. Iguarantee it will last four years.
我 包 用 四年 咯
28. That is a promissory note is it?
個 張係 揭單咩
29. How much is the capital and interest ?
本銀利息 (or simply 本利, or 本息)
幾多 呀
30. The interest is only three dollars per mensem. 每月 三個 銀錢 利息 啫
31 .
That's very heavy interest. No, it is rather 好重利 呀
! 唔係吖 , 幾平利呀
little interest.
32.
The capital is one hundred dollars payable 本 銀 一 百元 隨時 取回
on demand.
 LESSON IX . 21

LESSON IX. -Commercial.

1
1. Ni- ti kéi to 'ngan* (or 'ts'in*) ¹ ¿ni ? This how much money (or cash) eh 258
2. ká- tsín ni?
Ko'- ti kéi to ka That how much price eh ?53
3. Kwai' 'kwo* t'au, or kwai' tak,-tsai² lo'. Dear over much , or dear much too.
2 32
4. Ngo m‘mái . M yí yi ú lok I not buy. Not want.
5. Yau Pieng4- ti kẻ ‘mô a Have cheaper ones not eh ??
56
6. Ni-ko'p'eng- ti o' ? This cheaper.

Ni- ti mai tím mai ni ? This rice how sell eh p53

7.
21
8. Ai vá , má- má -'téi ", ham kẻ lá . Oh ! Let-it-pass. Reduce price.
9. Néi tím ti lá. Néi kwai a. You increase little.21 You dear.1
lini tai yat, 'hò fo' lok . 1 32
10. M hai? kwai' á, hai Not is dear, are No. 1 good articles."
S
'Hò in
m 'ho cá ? “Ngo -ke chỉ lò long 32
11. Good not good eh ?¹ Mine best.
12. Ngo kaushi kin' kwo' hò ti ke'. I old time (formerly) seen have better ones.
25 Besides have better ones not eh ?53
13. Chung yau hò- ti ke' inò ni ?
14. Ning lai ʻpéi ʻngo t'ai. Bring come give me see.
1
15. Hòn , shai ngo sh -pit, mái . Suitable for-use I certainly buy.¹
16. Kwai - ti to m kai tái ¿á. [ke' . Dearer even not reckon (it) great (cost) .1
15
17. Tung* Hong- kong tò mò ni tikèm lò Throughout Hongkong even not these so good .
15
18. Hai² ká ke'. M hai² ; hai² chan ke'. Is false. Not is ; is true."15
31
19. “Nói tò m ahik, hò chau kẻ lol You even not know good bad ones.
- I also done over that business.-
20. Shik, á. Ngo to tso² kwo (ko ti shángt Know
yi' lok
21
21. Hai kau kela' kwa'. M hai² , hai² san ke'. Is old one probably-'tis-isn't-it ?18 Not is, is
32 32
22. Ni-ko' mò yung lok . M chung yung This no use. Useless. [new. 15
23. K'ui yíu' -tak, ka - ts'ín to lok . [ lok . He wants price much.32
24. Néi péi-tak, shíú á. Mhò kòm hán á. You offer little. Not good so stingy.¹
25. Not enough (to equal) cost-price¹ , (or original cost
ŠM kau' 'pún (or pún ¸ts'ín ) á.
26. 'Shai tak, kéi noi ni? Use can how long eli 253 [money).
> 32
27. Ngo páu yung² szshín lok . I guarantee use four years."
28. Ko chống hai kít, tán me ? That [C. ] is promissary note is-it 239
29. Tùu 'ngan* léi²-sik, (or simply ʻpúín léi² , or Capital money interest, (or principal interest) how
pún sik,) kei to a' ? much eh ?¹
8
30. Múi yüt, sám-ko'ngan -' ts'in * léi' sik, che' . Each month three dollars interest only.
2
31. ' Ho'ch'ung* leia . Mhai² á; kéi peng† Very heavy interest. Not is ; ¹ rather cheap in
lé á '. terest .2 [back.
[ wúi .
32. 'Pún 'ngan* yat, pák¸ ¸ÿün, ts'ui shí 'ts'ui Capital money one hundred dollars, any time take

1 Use the former if it the price is likely to be given in silver, and the latter if in cash.
 22 LESSON X.

LESSON X.-Commercial.

1. What business is he in?

佢 做 乜野 生意 呢
2. I am a general merchant. 我 做 南北 行 嘅
3. Where is your hong ? 你 間行喺邊處呀
4. What is it called (ils style) ? 乜野 字號 呢
5. How long have you been in business ? 你 做生意 有 幾 耐 呀
6. Call the compradore.
呌 買辦 嚟 啦
7. Have you made up your accounts ?
你 計數 唔 會 呀
8. I have not made them up completely yet.
會計 清楚 咯
9. Compare accounts with me. 同 我 對 數喇
10. Wait a bit, this item is wrong.
等吓 咋 呢 條錯咯
11. It must be gone over again. That will do. 要計 過 咯
, 做得 囉
12. Has that money been shroffed ? 睇過 個啲銀 唔會呀
13. Call the shroff to shroff it.
呌 睇 銀 嘅 嚟 睇喇
14. Ifthere are any bad ones, go and change them. 有 唔好 嘅 要換 蟠
15. Weigh these dollars. 兌 呢啲 喇
16. Ten ofthem are not full weight ; they are 十個 唔 够重 呀 , 輕吖.
17. Who is the accountant here ?
[light. 呢 處 邊 個 做 掌櫃 呢
18. My friend . This is the manager. 我 朋友 呢 個係 做司 事人咯
19. Has he a share in the business ?
生意 佢 有份 冇 呀
20. What goods are these ? 呢 啲 係 乜野 貨 呢
21. All miscellaneous goods.
喴 蜯 嗯都係 雜貨 咯
22. Have they passed the Customs ? .稅 唔 會 呢
23. They have passed. Where is the Bill of 過 咀 咯. 攬 載 紙 呢
24. He wants to open a shop.
[Lading ? 佢 想 開間 舖
25. I am afraid he will lose his money (lit. capital). 我 慌 佢 話 本 呀
26. Where is his shop ?
[dall. 佢 個 間 舖 喺 邊 處 呢
27. There is not much business here. It is very 呢 處 冇 乜 生意 呀 好 淡
28.
What were the good-will, stock-in-trade and 招牌 舖底 傢 生項得幾多 銀呢
fittings sold for ? [him, was it ?
29.
Then it was you that sold that business to 噉 個啲 生意係你 頂過佢咩
30.
Call men te carry the goods , into the go-down. 呌 人 抬 貨 落 貨倉 喇 聽 日
I will not come to- morrow, as it is Sunday. 禮拜 我 唔 嚟 咯
31. When does the steamer leave ? There are a 火 船 幾時 開 身 呢 有 大多
great many passengers. 搭客 咯
32. I want to send some letters (or a letter) home 我 要 寄信 翻 歸鄉 下
to the country.
 LESSON X. 23

LESSON X.-Commercial.

1. Kui tso² mi- ye shángt-yui? He does what thing business el 253

2. Ngo tsò nám - pak, 'hong* -ke'. I do south-north hong's.
3. Nei kán ' hong hai pin-shü' á' ? Your [C ] hong at what place eh ? 2
4. Mi-(Eye) tsz²-ho² ni ? What (thing) style eh 253
5. Nei tso shángt -yí' “yau 'kéi 'noi * á?? You do business have how long eh ?2
6. Kíu mai- pán * lại chá Call compradore come first.
7. Nei 'kai* sho' m- ts'ang ' ? You reckon accounts not yet eh ?2
32
8. M- ts ang kai tsing- ch'o lok . Not yet reckoned clearly."
9. Tung 'ngo tui' sho' lá. 21
With me compare accounts."
10. Tang há chá , ni St'íú ts'o' lok . Wait bit first,6 this item wrong."32
11. Yíú' kai' kwo' lok . Tso' tak, lo' . Must reckon again."32 Do can.31
12. Tai kwo' ko'- ti 'ugau* m- ts'ang á?? Looked over that money not yet eh ?2
13. Kiứ tai-ngan ke lai tai lá. Call shroffing one come look.2
> 60
14. Yau m lò kẻ giữ wún po . Have not good ones must change."
‫ܨ‬
Turniti ngan- lá. 21
15. Weigh these dollars."
16. Shap -ko' m kau' 'ch'ung* † á' . Heng† á. Ten not enough heavy.² Light.¹
17. Ni-shi' pin-ko' tsò chong- ' kwai* ni? This place who [ C.] is accountant eh ?53
32
18 . Ngo ¸p'ang- ¾yau. Ni-ko ' hai tso² sz-sz² My friend. This [ C ] is being manager.
yan lok .
19. Business he has share not eh ?²
с Sháng -yỉ kui yau 'fan * mòn ?
20. Ni-ti hai² mi-³ye fo’ni ?
¿ These are what goods eh ?53
32
21 . Hám -pa -láng tỏ hai trip -fo lok All even are miscellaneous goods."
22. 'Kwo* shui'm -ts‘ang ni ? Passed customs not yet eh 253
23. Kwo cho lok • Lim toi chi ni ? Passed [ s . of p. t. ] .32 Bill-of- Lading eh ?53
24. ‘K'ui sống hoi kín phở . He wishes open [ C. ] shop.

23. Ngo fong ‘k'ui shit, pin á.a. I fear he lose capital.2 [eh 253
26. Khui ko kán phở hai pin-shini ? His that [C. ] shop (that shop of his) at what place
hü 2 1
27. Ni sshữ” “mò mat, ¿sháng†-y ' a' ; 'hò tám² á.
¿ This place not much business ; very duil¸¹
28. ¿Chíú ¿p'ái, p'ò' 'tai, kú'- sháng† tíng tak, Sign board, shop residue, furniture, sold able how
kei to ' ngan* ni ? ['k'ui me? much money eh ?53 [it 239
29. Kòm, ko-ti sháng†-yí' hai² nei ting kwo' Then that business ' twas you sold (it) to him was
30. Ki yan oi fo' lok fo- ts'ong lá. Ting Call men carry goods down go-down."21 To-morrow
32
yat, Lai-phi ngo m lai lok 0° Sunday I not come."
31. 'Fo-shün 'kéi- shi hoi - shan ni ? Yau tái Steamer what time start el 263 Have great many
32
to táp -hák lok . passengers.
>
32. Ngo giữ kể sun fán kwai hỏng ha*. I want send letter back home country .
 24 LESSON XI.

LESSON XI. - Medical.

1. This gentleman is a doctor.

呢 位 係 醫生 咯
2. Is he a surgeon , or physician ?
佢係 外科 醫生 豐 內科 呢
3. Call a Chinese doctor to feel my pulse.
請 唐人 醫生 嚟 睇 脈 呀
4. I am not very well to-day.
我 今日 唔多 自然 略
5. What is the matter with you ?
你 有 乜野 病 呢·
6.7.8

6. My head aches. 頭瘌 呀
Have you been sick ? 有嘔冇呢
I have not, but I feel inclined to be so . 冇嘔 想嘔 哄
9. Is there anything else the matter ?
重 有 乜野 病 冇 呢
·
10. I have also the stomach -ache.
我 肚 都 痛吖
11. That is not serious.
個 啲 冇 乜 相干 駕
12. Take a little medicine.
食 啲藥喇
13. What medicine ought I to take ?
我 應 食 乜野 藥 呢
14.
Wait till I come back . I am going to the 等 我 翻 嚟 , 我 而家 去 醫
hospital now.
生館
15. I will send a man with medicine for you.
我 打發 人 箍 藥 嚟 俾 你
16.
You have fever. I will give you a draught. 你 發熱囉 我俾 藥水 你 食
17. I have ague. Take this powder.
我 發冷囉 食 呢 藥散
18. Do you feel your throat dry ? 你 見 喉嚨乾 咩
19. I do, and it is very painful .
見 乾 曜 又見 好痛 添 咯
20. Don't drink so much water.
咪 飲 咁多 水吖.
21. Take a little chicken broth. Take alittle 食 的 鷄湯 食 的 粥 吖
congee.
22. Are you able to sleep at night?
晚 頭 瞓得 唔 瞓得 呢
23. Has he got cold ? Does he cough ? 佢 冷 親 咩, 佢 嗎
24. At times he does , at times he doesn't. 有時 有 有時 有
25. Put on a plaster. Does he drink ?
貼 膏藥 佢 飲酒 飲 呀
26. I am afraid he smokes opium.
我 慌 佢 食 鴉片燃嘅
27. Perhaps he does. I am afraid he does. 或者 係 都唔定 呀
恒係 呀
28. How long has he been ill ? 佢 病 有 幾耐 呢
29. He has been feeling weak for a long time?
佢 好耐 見 軟弱 囉
30. Tell him to take some cooling medicine.
叫佢食啲 涼 藥 喇
31. Did he feel better after taking the pills ?
佢 食 哩 藥丸 見 好的 嗎
32. No , he was much worse.
唔係 越發 做 咯

飲 Yam could be used ; but the above form is better .

 LESSON XI. 25

LESSON XI.- Medical.

32
1. ¿ Ni ' wai* hai² ¿yí- sháng† lok…. This gentleman is doctor."
2. ‘Kui hai ngoi- fo Ji-shúng , pe noi-fo He is external practice doctor, or internal practice
ni? eh 253
3. Ts'engt Tong- yanyi- shángt lai tai Invite Chinese doctor come feel pulse.2
3.
mak,á
4. Ngo kam- yat mototsz? yin lok I to-day not very well.32
S 。°
5. Néi yau mat,- 'ye peng²+ ni? You have what thing sickness ch ?53
6. T'au ts'ek † a'. Headache.2
7. 'Yau 'au 'mò ni ? Have sick not eh ?53
8. Mò au, söng au che. Not sick. Wish to be sick only."
9. Chung yau mi- ye peng²+ mò ni ? Besides have what sickness not el 253
1
10, Ngo to to trung . My stomach also pains.¹
That not much matter."14
11. Ko'- ti mò mat, söng- kon ka².
12. Shik ti yök lá. Eat some medicine."21

13. Ngoying shik mi-¾ye yök¿ ¿ni ? I ought to-cat what medicine eh 253
6
14. Tang ngo fán lai chá .
" Ngoyi-ká hui Wait I back come until. I at-present go hospital,
i- sháng- kún.
15. Ngo tá-fát yan ning yök, lai péi néi ? I send man bring medicine come give you.
16. Néi fát -yít lo' . 'Ngo péi yök 'shui nei You have-fever.31 I give medicine water (i.e.
shiky liquid medicine) you eat.

17. Ngo fát - láng lo'. Shik, ni ti yök sán. I have-ague.31 Eat this medicine powder .
18. Nei kín' hau- lung kon me ? You feel throat dry eh ?39
81 32
19. Kin' kon lo' . Yau kín hò t'ung' t'im lok . Feel dry . Also feel very painful besides ."
Don't drink so much water.¹
20. Mai yam kòm to shui a.
1
21. Shik, ti Ckai t'ong, shik ،ti chuk, á. Eat some chicken soup. Eat some congee.
22. ‘Mán- tau fan -tak , m fan-tak, ui ? Night sleep can, not sleep can eh ?53
23. Kui lang- tran me ? K'ui K'ui k'at, má'? He cold caught eh ?39 He cough eh 235
24. Have times have ; have times not.
“Yau ¸shi ‘yau ; ‘yau ¸shí ³mò.
25. Típ Ckò yök . Kui 'yam 'tsau m 'yam a'? Stick-on plaster. He drink wine not drink eh ?²
15
26. Ngo fong
fong kui shik, á-pín' yin ke'. I fear he smokes opium."
2
27. P'á' hai² ảá'.. Wák, 'che hai tòm ting² ² . Fear does. Perhaps does also not certain.
28. Kui peng yau 'kéi-' noi ni ? He ill have how long eh ?53
> 31
29. Kui bò noi kiu yin -yik , lo. He very long feel weak.
30. Kíú' k'ui shik ti löngyök, lá. Tell him eat some cooling medicine.21

31. ‘K'ui shik¸-' cho yök¸- 'yün* (or yün) kín' He eat [ s . of p . t . ] pills feel better eh ?33
32. M hai , yüt -fat pai lok . [ hò- ti <má ? Not is, the-rather the-worse.
 26 LESSON XII.

LESSON XII.-Ecclesiastical.

1. Is this a convent or not?

呢間 係 唔係 呢
2. Are there any priests ?
有 和 尚有
3. There are no priests ; there are nuns .
「
冇 和 尙 有 尼姑 啫
4. How many are there ? Are there many or 有 幾 多個 呢 多
少 呢
few ?
5. Over twenty. Twenty and more.
二十 零個 二十 個 有多 咯
6. What do they, the priests, do ?
· 和尙 呢, 做 乜野 呢
佢哋 呢
7. Read the Sutras the whole day long, so they 成日 念經 嘛
say.
8. Do you believe it ? No one does.
你 信 唔信 吖, 冇人信嘅
9.
That is a temple . I do not know whetheritis 個 間係 廟 唔知 係 佛教嘅
a Buddhist, or Taouist one. Which is it ? 鼻 道教嘅 呢
10. It is a Buddhist temple.
係 佛教嘅
11. What is the difference ?
有乜 分別 呢
12. There is a great difference. 有大分別 咯, or 大有分別 咯
13. What idols are those?
個 的 係 乜野 菩薩 呢
14 . The three Precious Buddhas.
係 三寶 佛 咯
15. He is a Protestant missionary.
佢係 講 耶穌 嘅
16.
Have you become a convert ? I have not. 你 入教 唔 會 呀 未會 呀
17. Why have you not ?
做乜 你 唔 會 入教嘅 咩
18. Is there a chapel here ?
呢 處 有 禮拜堂 冇 呢
19. There are two ; and there is someone preach- 有 兩 間 咯 日 日 有人 講書
ing every day.
20. Are they Protestant or Catholic ?
係天主教嘅, 嘷耶穌教嘅 呢·
21. One is Protestant.
·問 係 耶穌 教 嘅
22. The other is Catholic.
一 間 係 天主教嘅
23. Who are the Catholic Missionaries ?
神 係乜人呀
24. They are all Frenchmen. 個個 都 係 法蘭西 人 呀
25. ‘ Have they families ? 佢 哋 有家 冇 呢
26. They are not allowed to marry.
唔 准佢 取 老婆 嘅
27. They wear Chinese clothes . 佢 扮 唐裝 嘅 咯
28. What is the intention in this ?
有乜 意思 呢
29. They want to be like Chinese. 佢 想 學 翻 唐人 一樣
30. Is there any other reason? 重 有乜 緣故 呢
31. You must ask them to know.
要 問 佢 就知 囉
32. I am a Chinese, and do not know. 我 係 唐人
, 唔知 到
 LESSON XII. 27

LESSON XII. -Ecclesiastical.

1. ‫ܢ‬kin hi om m hai ui?

Ni hán This [C ] is convent not is eh ?53
2. ‘Yau wo- shiong* mò a ? Have (Buddhist) priests not eh ?2
3. 7
Mò ¿wo- 'shong* ; ‘yau néi-kwú che. No (Buddhist) priests, have nuns.
Yau 'kei to ko' ni ? To péi 53
Have how many ones eh." Many or few eh ?53
4. péï² shiú ni ?
( 32
5. Y²-shap lengt ko', or y² shap, ko' yau Twenty odd ones, or twenty ones have more .
to lok。.
6. K'ui-tei Qui, wo- slöng ni, trởtsomi - ye They,53 priests,53 do what thing eh ?53
65
7. Shengt yat ním²- king wo'. [ ni ? Whole day recite sutras, (so they) say."
8. Néi sun' m sun' giá ? Mo yan sun ke'. You believe not believe eh ?1 No man believes."15
9. Ko'kan
kán hai
hai miu².
mái . SM chí hai Fat -káu' That [ C. ] is temple . Not know is Buddhist sect's,
ke', péi² To²-káu'-ke' ni? or Taouist sect's, which-is it ?53
10. Hai² Fat-káu' ke'. Is Buddhist sect's.
11. Yau mat, fan-pít ¿ni ? Have what difference eh 253
32
12. Yau tại fan -pít, lokor er tai yau fan -pít, Have great difference, or great have difference.32
13. Ko' - ti hai² mat, -ye p'ò-sat ni ? [lok . Those are what idols eh ?53
14. Hai Sám ' Pò Fat, lok . Are Three Precious Buddhas.32
15. 'K'ui hai kong Ye- sò ke'. He is speak Jesus one ?15
16.
ʼNéi yap, káu” ¸m- ts'angá?? Meitsang a'? You entered the-faith not yet eh ? Not yet.²
17. Tso² mat, néi
néi ¸m ¸ts'ang yap káu” ke' me ? What thing you not yet entered the-faith eh 239
18. Nishi yau “Lai- pai Ctrong mà ni ? This place have Sabbath Hall not eh 253
19. kán lok . Yat, yat yau yan
Yau löng kan Have two [ C. ]32 Day by day have man preach.
kong shü.

20. Hai² Tín- Chü-káu ' ke', péi² Ye- sò-káu Are Heaven's Lord's faith's one, or Jesus' faith's
21. Yat, kán hai Ye-sò kau' ke' . [keni ? 15
One [ C. ] is Jesus' faith's one." [one eh ?53
15
22. Yat, chán hai Tín
< Chủ khu kẻ. One [C. ] is Heaven's Lord's faith's one."
23. Shau-fu hai mi - 'yan a' ? Priests (Romish) are what men eh ??
24. Ko'-ko' tò hai? Fát - lan- sai yau á. Everyone even is French -man.2
25. K'ui-téi yau ká-kün' mò ni ? They have families not eh ?53
26. M chun khai tớ'ui lò- po kẻ. Not allowed to-them marry wives.15
15 32
27. K'ui pán² Tong - chong ke lok¸. They dress Chinese style."
28. Yau mat, y '-sz' ni ? Have what meaning eh ?53

29. Kui 'söng hok fán Tong- yan yat, They wish copy again Chinese (lit. T'ong men, i.e.
yöng². men of the Tong Dynasty. )
>< Besides have what reason have not eh ?53
30. Chung yau mat, yiiu-kwa mò ni ?
31
31. Yii man k‘uitsau chỉ lo. Must ask them then know."

32. ‘Ngo lai Trong- gian , m chi tổ . I am Chinese, not know.¹

 28 LESSON XIII,

LESSON XIII.-Nautical.

1. This is a steamer.
呢隻 係 火 船
2. That is a sailing vessel. [steam-launch. 個隻 係 桅 棒 船
3. There is no wind to-day. We must go in a 今日 有 風 要 搭 火 船
仔去咯
4.
How many passengers are there on board ? 船上 有 幾多 搭客 呢
5.
Are there fully a thousand, or thereabout ? 有 成千 個 咁 齊 冇 呀
6. There are mostly Chinese, who are going to 唐人 多 咯 , 去 星架波 嘅
Singapore .
7. Where is the Chief Officer ?
大伙 呢 or 大伙 喺 邊 處 吖
8. This is the Captain ; that is the Second Mate. 呢 個 係 船主 嗰 個 係 二 伙
9. When shall we reach port ?
幾時 到 呀
10. This vessel can go very fast.
呢 隻 船 行 得好快
11. How many li will it go in an hour ? 一點鐘行 得 幾多 里 路 度 呢
12. It will probably go over fifty li. 約嗼 車 得 五十 多 里 路
13.
Is it the Chief, or Second Engineer who has 係 大車 鳴 二 車 埋 呢
14. Do you ever sail ? [gone on shore ? 有時 喉 ��冇 呀
15. How much coal do you use a day ? 呢
一日 嗰 幾多
16. It depends upon the speed of the ship. 睇個 隻船行快 嘷 行 慢 噁
17. If she goes fast more is used ; 車 快就燒 多
18. If she goes slow then a smaller quantity. 車 慢 就燒 少
19.
Come upon deck . Do not go nearthe funnel. 上船面喇 咪行埋烟通個 處 呀
20. Is this a passage boat, or a ferry-boat ? 呢 隻 渡船 嘷 橫 水 渡 呢
21.
It is a passage boat : this is a Kau-lung 係 渡 呀 ; 呢 隻 係 九龍 渡 呀
passage boat. 【頭 呢
22 .
When do you start ; and when do yon arrive? 你幾時 開 身 幾時 到 (or 埋
23.
Where is the ladies' cabin ; and the pantry ? 女 艙 呢 管事 房 呢
24. Call the carpenter, to mend that door. 呌 鬭 木佬 嚟· 整 翻好 個 門
25.
The hinges are off, and the lock is broken. 個 啲錢 用 哩, 個 鎖 叉 爛
26. It has no lock. The key has been lost. 冇錢 囉· 唔見 個 條 鎖匙 咯
27. Make another. 整 過 第二 條 喇
28.
First take a padlock, and lock the door 先使 把 荷包 鎖, 鎖緊 個 度 門
securely. 至得
29. How many sailors and firemen are there on 船上 有 幾多 水手 幾多 燒
board ?
火呀
30.
What is the capacity of the vessel ? 個 船 裝 得 幾多 貨 呢
31. What is her draft ? Seven feet eight. 食幾 深水 呀 七尺 八
32. They are just going to hoist sail . 「就 扯 ��
囉
 LESSON XIII . 29

LESSON XIII. - Nautical.

. 1. Ni chek hai fo- shuu . This [C. ] is steamer.

2. Ko chekO hawai- p'áng" shun . [hui' lok. That [C. ] is sailing ship.
32
3. Kam yatmò fung. Yit 'táp 'fo shün'tsai To-day no wind. Must by fire ship diminutive go."
4. (
Shün shöng' yau 'kéi to tás̟ -bákO ¿ni ? Ship on have how many passengers eh 253
5. “Yausheng† ¿ts'ín ko' kòm² tsai² “mò á² ? Have fully thousand ones so thereabouts not eh ? 2
6. Tong yan to lo' . Hui' Sing-ka - po ke'. Chinese most.31 Going Singapore, 15
7. Túi fo mi ? or Tai o hai pín -shi a ? Chiefmate eh ?53 or Chiefmate at what place eh ?¹
8.
¿Ni-ko' haﲸshün-“chü ; ‘ko-ko' hai yr 'fo. This one is Captain ; that one is second mate.
9. 'Kei shi to' fau' a' ? What time arrive port eh ?2
[about eh ?53
10. Nicheko Sshiu huáng tai, hò fải . [ni ? This [ C.] vessel go can very fast.
11. Yat, tim- chung háng tak, kéi toʻléi lò² ' to * One hour of-the-clock go can how many miles road
12. Yök mok ch'e tak, ng-shap, to léi lò². Probably steam can fifty more li road.
13. Hai Tri
che, pei yỉ cho mái chai ni ? | Is it the Chief engineer, or secoud engineer gone a
14. Yau shí 'shai léi mò a' ? Have times use sails have not eh ?2 [shore el 253
15. Yat, yat, shai kéi to t'án' ¿ni ? One day use how much coal eh 253

16. “Tai ko chekO shin Sháng fải , phi háng See that [ C. ] vessel go fast, or go slow.
17. Ch'e fai tsau ،shíú to. [máu che. Steam fast then burn more.
18. CCh'e mán² tsau²¿shíú ‘shítt. Steam slow then burn little.
19. Shing ¿shün 'mín* lá. Mai Ascend ship's surface."21 Don't walk near funnel
tháng gmái
2
yin tung ko' shü'á'. that place.
7
20. NC ichek , tò * , péi wáng- shui 'tò ni ? This [C. ] passage-boat, or ferry-boat eh ?53 [boat.2
21. Hai' 'tò a' ; ni chek_hai² ' Kan- Jung ' tò * á'. Is passage-boat, this [ C ] is Kau-lung passage
22. Néi kéi -shí hoi-shan ; 'kéi- shi to' (or You what time start ; what time arrive (or touch
gmái thau) ni ? bows) eh ?53
23. Nui chong ni ? 'Kwún-sz² 'foug* ni ? Women's cabin eh 253 Pantry el 253
24. Kíú tauʼ-múk¸- lò lai, ' ching- fán-'hò 'ko Call carpenter come, make again good that [ C.]
to²
tổ mùn door. [broken.
25. Ko'- ti káu' lat, ' cho, ko' so yau' lán².
Those hinges come-off [s . ofp. t. ] the lock moreover
< 31 32
26. Mò so lo' . M kín' 'ko St'iu 'so- shi lok .
No lock. Not see that [ C. ] lock key.
22
27. Chingkwo tai -y thú lạ . mún chỉ tak . | Make again another [C ] [before it-will-do.
(
28. Sín shai pá ho- páu so, so kan ko' to First use [C. ] purse-lock lock firmly that [C. ] door
29. Shün shöng' yau 'kéi to 'shui-'shau, 'kéi Ship on have how many sailors (lit. water hands) ;
¿to slíú-'fo á'? how many firemen (lit. burn fire) eh ?2
30. Ko'shün chong tak, kéi ¿to fo' ni? That vessel hold can how much goods eh ?53
31. Shik, 'kéi sham shuia ? Ts'at, ch'ek pat . Eat how deep water eh ?2 Seven feet eight,
32. Tsau ch'e lei lo'. 31
Just-about hauling-up sails."
 30 LESSON XIV.

LESSON XIV. -Judicial.

1. I want to summons this man.

「 我 想 告 呢 個人
2.
He is a thief, and has stolen things of mine. 佢 做賊 偷 我 野 咯
3. Have you any witnesses ? 你 有 證人 冇 吖
4. I have witnesses ; they have not come yet. 有 證人 : 唔 會 嚟 咯
5. Issue subpoenas for them to come.
出 證人 票 呌 佢 嚟 喇
6. Has the constable arrived ?
差人( 差役 or 緑衣 到 嗎
7. He is at the Gaol.
佢喺 監房
8. This is the Yamen. 呢間 衙門 囉
9. What Yamen ?
邊 間 衙門 呢
10. The Consul's Yamen (Consulate) .
領事 官 衙門 囉
11. Who is the present Consul ? 5家 邊 個 做 領事 官 呢
12. Mr. Fut (lil. Mr. Buddha) . 佛 大人 呀
13. I will trouble you to present this petition to 多煩你 同 我 遞 呢 張察 過
His Lordship , the Chief Justice. 按察司 大人
14. Kindly tell me what to say.
唔該 你 教我 點 講 呀
15. Are you Plaintiff, or Defendant ?
你 係 原告 鼻 被告 呢
16.
You must tell the truth , and only sny what 要 照 直 講 親眼 見 親耳聽
you have seen and heard yourself. 至好講出 嚟
17.
Then I must just say what I know myself. 瞰我硬要 講本身所知嘅事咯
18.
That is right ; that is quite right ; no mistake. 啱 咯, 啱 嘥 咯, 冇 錯 咯
19. Your evidence is not believed.
你 口供 唔 入 信 呀
20. The evidence given on both sides does not 兩頭 口供 唔 合 吖
agree.
21 . One of you must be telling lies.
是 但 有 個 講 大話 咯
22. No, I am not . All Hongkong knows about 唔係 冇 講 大話 通香港 都
it. 知 呢 件事 咯
23. If you had said , the whole neighbourhood 你 話 通 街坊 都 知 我 或者
knows," I might have believed you . 可以 信 你 吖!
24.
Will His Lordship allow us to go to the 大人 准 我 地 去 廟 斬雞頭
temple and swear on a cock's head ? 唔准 呢
25. How many prisoners are there to-day ? 今日 有 幾多 犯 呢
26.
There is a murderer, five thieves, two burg- 有個兇手 五個 賊 兩個 打 明
lars, and three kidnappers. 火 嘅 三個 拐帶嘅

1. 差人 elei yan, and 差役 ch'ai yik, are better than luki, which is vulgar.
 LESSON XIV. 31

LESSON XIV . -Judicial.

1. Ngo söng kò' ni-ko'yan. I wish prosecute this man.

32
2. Kui tsò² 'ts'ák* ,¹tau ngo ‘ye lok¸. He is thief, steal my things."
3. Nei yau ching'- yan 'mò ¿á? You have witness not eh?1
32
4. Have witness, not yet come."
‘Yau ching'-¸yan, ¿m- ts‘ang lai lok .
21
5. Ch'ut, ching - yan-p'íú kíú ‘k'ui lai lá* , Issue subpoenas call them come.
6. Chái yan (or chi yik,, or luk, yi) tỏ ma? Police man (or police man, or green coat) arrived
7. “ Khui hai kim fong. He at Gaol. [eh235
31
8. Ni kán ngá- mún lo”. This [C ] Yamen.
9. ¿Pín- kán¸ngá-'múu * ¿ni? Which [ C ] Yamen eh 253
Consul's Yamen .*81
10, ‘Ling-sz -kwún ngá-mún * lo.
11. ¿Yí- ká ¿pín-ko' tsò² Ling- sz - kwin ni ? At- present who is consul el 253
12. H Fat, Tải SYan . It is Fat Mr. (lit. Mr. Buddha).²
13. To fán néi tung Engo tai² nichöng pan Much trouble you for me present
this [ C. ] petition
hwo On -Chat -Sz Tải -Yan S to Chief-Justice His-Lordship.
> 2
14. M koi nơi khu ngo tim hong a . Not deserve you teach me how speak.
15. “Néi hai SYün -ko , pei Pei -ho ¿ui ? You are Plaintiff, or Defendant el 253

16. Yi ' chiu' chik, koug, ts'an ngán kín' , Must according to straight- forwardness speak ;
tsau yi tieng , chỉ hò kong chut, own eyes seen, own ears heard only good

şlai. speak out come.

17. 'Kom ʻngo ngáng' yíú' 'kong ' pún shan Then I just must speak own person that know—
‘ sho chí kẻ sz lok• matters."32
18. CNgám lok ; ngúm sai lok ; mò t'so' lok . Right ;32 right entirely ;32 no mistake.3
19. Nei hau- kung m ya sun' á'. Your evidence not enter belief.2
1
20. Löng t'au han- kung m hòp , cá Both sides evidence not agree.¹
21. Shi - tán ' yau* ko' '
kong tai -wa' lok Certainly (ofthe two) there- is one speaking lies.81
22. ،
M hai ; mo kong tại wa ; tung Hỏng | Not is, not speaking lies. All Hongkong even
32
“Kong Ctò chí ni kíns lok knows this [ C ] matter."
23. Néi wa², “ tung kai- fong to chí," ngo You say, " all neighbourhood even knows, " I
wak2 'che ho yí sun' néi á. perhaps might believe you.¹
24. Tai - Yan 'chun ngo-téi' hui' 'míú* ' chám His-Lordship allow us go temple chop-off fowl's
kai t'aum 'chun ni? head not allow el 253

25. Kam-mat, yau kéi to 'fán* ni? This day have how many prisoners eh ?53
26. Yau ko' hung - shau , ng-ko' 'tsák, ¹ löng Have a murderer, five [ C. ] thieves, two [ C. ] burg
15 15
ko tá ming -fo kẻ , súm ko kwái lars, three [C. ] kidnappers."
tai' ke'.

1. This is a rising yap₂ tone.

 32 LESSON XIV.

LESSON XIV. - Judicial.- ( Continued).

27. Then there are a great number of cases.

噉 有 好多 案件 咯
28. Those are the lawyers at the table. 坐 埋 檯 嘅係 狀 師 咯
29.
The case has been up for hearing several 審幾 堂 幾時 定案 呢
times ; when will judgment be given ?
30.
How do I know ? Ask the Interpreter to 我 點 知 呀
! 拜託 傳話 同 你
enquire for you. 問 吓喇
31. The case was tried at the Magistracy, and 喺 巡 理 廳 審 過 大 老爺准 担
the Magistrate allowed the defendant to 保 被告 出 嚟 咯
be bailed out.
32. Do you wish to arrest the man , or put execu 你 想 拉 個人 或 (or )封 佢
tion in force against his goods ? 貨呢

LESSON XV. - Educational.

1.
Ah ! here we are. This is a Government | 啊 到咯, 呢 間 係皇家 義 學
Free School. [classes.
2.
There are sixty scholars, divided into four 有 六十個 學生
, 分 四班 嘅
3. The master is a friend of mine, and a 個先生係我 朋友, 佢係秀才
Chinese B.A.
4. Has he got any assistant ? 「有人 帮教 冇 呢
5. Not at present, but he wishes to engage one 現時 冇, 但 係 過年 想 請 個
after the New Year, [I suppose.

6. There will be holidays at the end of the year 年尾 放假 囉啩

7. , 我 地 唐人 過年
Certainly, we Chinese think it of the utmost | 定 嘅 喇 至
importance to keep the New Year. 緊要嘅 咯
8. What book is this boy reading? 呢 個 呢 讀 乜野 書 呢
9.
That is the Trimetrical Classic, the book 個部 係 三字經 咯 唐人 細
that a Chinese boy first reads. 佼 仔先 讀個 部 嘅 咯
10.
Then it is a simple book ; for probably you 噉就 係 淺 書 咯, 大概 自 淺 而
proceed from the simple to the difficult. 深 嚟 學嘅
11. It is neither very simple, nor very difficult : 又 唔係 幾 淺 又 唔係 幾 深
the words are most of them simple, but the 字 大多 淺 嘅, 但 意思 有
meaning is sometimes very abstruse. 時 好深嘅
12. How
How many years have you been at school ? 你 讀 幾 多年 書 呢
 Wed.

ပိုင်
LESSON XIV. 33
Tr

LESSON XIV. -Judicial.- ( Continued) .

32
27. 'Kòm yau hò to onn'-' kín loko Then have great many cases.
32
28. 'T'so* mái 'toi* kẻ hai chong’- sz lok Sit at table those are lawyers."
29. 'Sham 'kéi ¿t'ong lo' ; “kéi- shí ting² on' ni ?
Try several sittings ;31 what time fix case eh 253
30. Ngo tím chí á'? Pái' -t'ok ch'ün- 'wá* I how know eh ?² Beg on-your-behalf Interpreter
21
tung nói 'man* Shá lá . for you ask a-bit.2
31. 'Hai Ts'un- lei- teng sham kwo' , Tái - lò- At Magistracy tried over, His-Worship allowed bail
ye 'chun tám- pò Pei -ko'ch'ut, lai lok Defendant out come."32

32. Néi söng lái ko'yan, wákO (or péi³) fung You wish arrest the man, or seize his goods eh ?53
Sk'ui fo' ni?

LESSON XV. - Educational.

1. O² to lo' . Ni kán hai² Wong- Ká yr² | Ah ! Arrived.31 This [C ] is Government Free

hok, Study.
2. $Yau luk, -shap, ko' hok -shangt, fan sz' Have sixty [C. ] scholars divided- into four
Pán ke'. classes. 15
3. Ko' Sin- Sháng hai ngo p'ang- yau ; The teacher is my friend ; he is B.A,
‘k‘ui hai Sau’- ts'oi.
4. Yau yan pong-káu mò ni ? Have man assist teach not eh ?53
5. Yin²-shí mò, tán hai 'kwo* nín sóng At-present no, but over (New) Year wishes engage
'ts'eng ko'. one.
6. 17
Nín méi fong -kalokwa . Year end holidays31 probably."
7. Ting*-ke' ¿lá, ngo téi² T'ong- yan kwo 51 21
Certainly, we Chinese passing (New)-year
15 32
Snin sin chỉ kau-yu kẻ lok . consider most important ."
8. Ni-ko'ni, tuk, mat,-ye shü ni ? This [C ] now, reads what book eh 253
31 Chinese
9. Ko' po² hai² Sám-Tsz - king lo' . Tong That [ C ] is Three Character Classic .
n i
ya sa ' -man- tsai sín tuk ko' Po² 32
children first read that [ C. ] 15 3
ke' lok
32
10. 'Kom tsau hai' 'ts'in shü lok . Tái - k'oi Then just is easy book. Probably from simple
tsz²´ts'ínyí ¿sham lai hok ke'. 15
to difficult come study."
11. Yau²
Ya u m hai kéi 'ts'ín, yaum hai 'kéi Also not is very shallow, also not is very deep.
sham. Tsztá to 'ts'ín ke' , tán² yí' 15
Characters greater-many shallow, but sense
sz' 'yau- shi 'hò (sham ke'. have times very deep.15
12. Néi tuk, ʻkei tonín shü ni ? You read how many years books ch ?53
 34 LESSON XV.

LESSON XV.- Educational .- (Continued).

13. I have studied between ten and twenty years. 我 讀 十 幾年 書 咯

14 .
Then you must be very learned. [learned. 瞰 你 就 係 好 聰明 嘅 咯
15.
Oh no ! I cannot consider myself as very 唔係 我唔敢話 自己 好聰明 嘅
16. Where is your desk ; where is your seat ? 你 個 書位 (or 書 檯 檯 呢 你

嘅椅呢
17.
I do not belong to this school, I have only 我 唔係 做 學生 吖, 我 不過 嚟
come to visit-to see the teacher.
坐 吓 哄, 嚟見 吓 個教 館
先生 啫
18.
Oh ! probably you are a student. Have you 啊 你 係 讀書 人 啩 考 過 試
passed any examinations yet ? 唔會 呢
19. I have gone up several times, but have not
考 過 兩三 匀 未 會 入, 我 大
graduated ; my brother has taken his M.A.
佬 己經中 舉咯
20. When does this class say its lessons ?
呢 班 幾時 念書 呢
21.
We Chinese don't do that way ; when a boy 我 地 唐人 唔係 噉 嘅 一個 讀
knows his lesson he comes up and re
熟 就 一個 嚟 唔係 成
peats it, the whole class does not come
班 一齊 上 嚟 念 嘅
up at once.
22. If he does not know it, what then ?
或 唔識 呢 點 呢
23.
, 若 係 懶惰
He has to go back to his place and learn it 要 翻 去 位 讀 熟 咯
well, if he is lazy he is beaten .
就打 佢 咯
24.
These are reading the Four Books, and those 呢啲讀 四 書 個 啲讀五 經
the Five Classics.

25. It would be well to hang up two more maps 你 呢 間 書館 掛 多 兩幅 地理

in this school of yours.
圖 都 好吖
26.
How many have commenced to write essays? 有幾多個 開筆作文章嘅呢
27. A number of the scholars can construct 有 好多 學生 噲 對 對 啩
antithetical sentences I suppose.

28. Bring ink, penholder, and pen nibs. I have 擰 墨水 筆 竿 筆 嘴 嚟喇 拈

brought them . 嚟咯
29.
Has the Government Inspector of Schools 皇家 書館 嘅 監督 有 嚟 睇過
been to see this school ?
呢間 館冇呢
30. He 有 嚟 過 好幾 勻 咯 耐 不耐
He has ; he has been several times.
comes every now and then. 都嚟嘅
31. How many names are there on the roll ? 日記 紙 有 幾多 人名 呢
32.
There are sixty odd ; two or three are absent 有六十 幾個 有 兩 三個 因 有
on sick leave.
病告假
 LESSON XV. 35
336

LESSON XV. - Educational.— (Continued).

13. Ngo tuk, shap 'kéi nín shü lok . [lok . I read ten odd years books.32
15 32
14. ‘Kòm “néi tsau³ hai' 'hò ¿ts'ung- ming ke' Then you even are very learned.
15. M hai , ngo m kòm wa tsz'- 'kéi hò Not am, I not dare say myself very learned.15
sm
¿ts‘ung- ming ke'.
53
16. Néi ko'shü-' wai * (or shü- 't'oi*, or 't'oi * ) Your [ C. ] desk (or table) eh ; your seat eh ?53
¿ni ; ³nci-ke' 'yí ¿ni ?
1
17. Ngom hai²- tsò² hok- shángt á, ngo pat, I not am school-boy, I only come sit a-little
kwo' lai 'ts'o * há che, lai kíu là ko 7
hỏ while only, come see a-bit that teach school
8
káu'- kwún Sín- Sháng (or Seng†) che'. gentleman (or contracted form) only.
18
18. 0² ! ³uéi hai² tuk¿- shii- yan kwá'. 'Háu Oh ! you are read-book-man probably." Ex
kwo'shi m- ts'aug ni? amined passed not yet eh ?53

19. Háu kwo' löng sám¸wan, méi² - ts'ang yap ; Examinations over two three times, not yet entered ;
32
ngo tải lò ‘yi- king 'chung * ‘kuilok my elder brother already passed M.A.
20. Ni pán kéi- shí ním²́- shüini? This class what time say lesson eh ?53
15
21. Ngo-téï² Toug- yan m hai 'kom ke', yat, We Chinese not are so, one [ C. ] learned thorough
ko' tuk¸-shuk tsau yat, ko' glai pui , ly then one [ C. ] comes back-it, (i.e. says his
m hai ¿sheng† ¿pán_yat, 'ts'ai* 'shong lesson with his back to the teacher : so that he
¿lai ním² ke'. cannot see the book the teacher holds) not is
whole class one together up come say.53
22. Wák, m shik, ni, tím ni? If not know eh, how then 253
32 lazy
23. Yíú fáu hui' 'wai* tuk, shuk, lok , yök Must back go seat read thoroughly, if is
hai lán-to² tsautá 'k'ui lok . 32
then beat him ." [Classics .
24. Ni- ti tuk, Sz'- (Shü, 'ko-ti tuk, Ng- King . These learning Four Books ; those learning Five
25. Néi ni kán shü - kwún kwá' to 'löng fuk, You this [C. ] school hang more two [ C ] maps
tới Śléi-tò tò hò cá.
ạ. also good.¹
26. Yau kéi'
¿to kohoi pat, tsokman- chöng Have how many [ C. ] start (with) pens compose
ke' ni? 15 53 18
essays. [I-suppose."
27. Yau hò to hok - sháng† wúi tui' 'tui kwá'. Have great many scholars can make antitheses
28. Ning mak, shui, pat, kon, pat, 'tsui lai Bring ink, pen holder, pen-nib come.21 Brought
come.32
clá . Nim lai lok .
29. Wong-¿Ká shü- kwún-ke' Kám-tuk,, yau Government Schools ' Inspector have come look
kwo'nikán
lai 't'ai nikán kwún mò ni ? over this [C. ] school not eh ?53
30. Yau, lai kwo' hò kéi
kwo’hò kéi wan lok , noi² Have come over good few times,31 now-and-then
also come. 15
pat - noi" to lai kẻ .
31. Yat,-kei-‘chí yau “kéi to yaann 'meng * ui ? | Roll have how many persons ' names eh ?53
32. Yau luk¸-shap 'kéi ko' ; 'yau löng sám Have sixty odd ones . Have two three [ C ] be
ko`¿yan ‘yau peng'† kò' ká’. cause have sickness got leave.
 36 GRAMMAR.

Directions for the Rendering of English Grammatical Forms and

Idioms in Chinese and vice versa.

CAUTION. The following directions and notes refer only to the Cantonese
colloquial, though in many instances it will be found that the forms of expression
and construction are equally applicable to both the vernacular and book-language.

I. Chinese being to a great extent a monosyllabic language, there is no change

in the word itself such as takes place in English and many other languages by
declension and conjugation. The following pages will shew how such forms are to
be expressed in Chinese.

II. It is scarcely too much to say that position is everything in a Chinese

sentence : it takes the place in a great measure that declensions and conjugations do
in Western languages, and often shows to what part of speech the word belongs.

NOUNS .
NUMBER.

III. There is no difference, as a general rule, between the Singular and Plural
of Nouns, as :---

yan, man. yan, men.

IV. The Plural is understood from the sense, as :

人 噲 講 說話 yan 'wii 'kong shut, wa², men can speak.

tsökO wúi féi, birds can fly.
Note. This is not a very trustworthy test, as the above sentences might be rendered
in the Singular in English.

Caution. When speaking in Chinese do not attempt to render English Plurals in such
a manner in Chinese as to show that they refer to more than one, unless particular attention
is to be drawn towards the fact that more than one is spoken of, or unless No. V. is
applicable.

V. The Plural is shewn to be meant in Chinese (and must be expressed in

English) by the qualifying words, where such words occur, or by the general
context, as :

個 啲 人 ko' tiyan, those men.

日 日 有 幾個 人 嚟 yat yat yan kei ko yan lai, several men come every day.
 NOUNS. 37

NUMBER.

VI . The sign of the Plural, téi², is often added to the word man, yan ;
but such a combination is not always best rendered by " men ;" but may be put into
English in various ways, as :—

### mhai ngo tso² ke', yan téi² tso² ke', it was
not I that did it ; it was some one else.
tei hai kòm kong, people say so.
人 哋 係 噉 講 Jan
人啦 講 yan té kong, it is said—on dit.

人 哋 話 我 人子 係 乜 誰 呢 Yan ti² wa² Sugo yan 'tsz hai mat, ' shui
ni ? Whom do men say that I the son of man am?
Note.- yan alone is also used in this sense, as :

yan wa hai kòm, it is said to be so (i.e. men say it is so.)

VII. The Plural is sometimes formed by the reduplication of the Noun, as :

yan yan chí lok , all men know .
Note 1. This repetition of the noun shows, as above, that the whole of the class for
which the noun is a name-in its entirety, or the whole of the portion which is then the
subject of thought or conversation is referred to.

Note 2.- Such a form may often be equally well, or better rendered 4into English as
follows :
-:

^^ yanyantò chí, every one knows it.

m shai p'á' ¿á, every
人人 都 做 嘅 唔使 怕 吖 yao yan tò tso² ke ,
body does it, you need not be afraid.

VIII. Sometimes a collective and exhaustive phrase is used to express what in

English would oftener be expressed by a simple Plural and Adjective, as :—

ĐT ANHBA TUC MOL sao sau kèm to yan lai tsai sai , all the men
came. (As many men as there were all came without an exception) .
i' m
yan ni, yau kòm’ to hu kò ' to, all the men
went. (Of the men, as many as there were went).

IX. Very often a Numeral is added to the Noun (or Pronoun), owing to the
necessary ambiguity when no Plural is otherwise expressed, when in English the
simple Plural would be sufficient without any such device, as :-

佢 六個 嚟 kui loky ko ¿lai, they six came.

Remark. Without E might equally well mean he, she or it.
Note.- 'tang is given in some books as a sign of the Plural. It is booky and is
not often used as an affix to the noun (or pronoun) in every day conversation.
 38 NOUNS .

CASE.

X. Strictly speaking there is no case in Chinese ; See No. I.

XI. There is then no means of distinguishing whether a noun (or pronoun) in

Chinese is to be rendered in English by the Nominative, or Objective Cases or other
Cases (for Possessive Case see No. XV, XVI, XVII , and XVIII ) except by its posi
tion, or the obvious meaning, sometimes shewn by Prepositions, &c., as : —

14 Fugo ʻpéi, 1 give.

14péingo, give me .
11péi kwo'ngo, give (it) to me.

Remark. The position of ngo shows whether it is I, or me, the same word being
used in Chinese for both.
S
1 kui wa ngo, he scolded me.

Note.-1'ui wa ngo, may mean, he scolded me, or he said to me ;

but in the latter case there is another word added to amplify the meaning, as :
:
-佢 話
Đề ĐH kui wango chí, or 'ui wa ngo t'eng†, he told me.

XII. The position of the Subject or Object with regard to the verb may be
stated generally to be the same as in an English sentence. See No. XIV though .

XIII. When two Verbs are used in Chinese to express what in English is shewn
by one Verb, the Objective or Dative is placed between the two Verbs, as :

kui wa³ ¾ngo teng†, he told me.

kui tá fát ngo hui' , he sent me.

Remark. The meaning of the above and similar phrases will be better got at by
paraphrasing them, as :
ŒŒk'ui wango chí, he told me, i.e. he spoke to me about it in such a way
that I acquired a knowledge of it, or more simply, he told me so that I knew about it,
or, he informed me about it.

XIV. When particular attention is to be drawn to the object in the sentence,

then it and its qualifying words take precedence of all other words in the sentence,
as :
個 啲 生意 你 做 有 幾 耐 呢 Koi sháng yi ni tsò? Syau ki noi*
ui? How long have you been in that business ?
koti uk, ngo mái cho lok , I have sold those houses.

XV. The Possessive Case may be, and is often, expressed by the addition of
ke' to the Noun (or Pronoun ), as :

人嘅 yan ke², man's.

 NOUNS. 39

CASE.

yan téi keʼ, men's.

我嘅 Sngo ke², mine.

XVI. Í ke' is often understood and not expressed at all, as : —

ngo uk,, my house.

XVII. A Personal Pronoun preceding a Noun may be in the Possessive case,

or in apposition to the Noun which follows it, as :
ngo sz² 't'au* , my master, or I, the master.
Note. In the latter case the tone may be more strongly marked , or a slight pause,
represented in English by the comma, may be made after the Pronoun.

XVIII . The word Źchi is even used with certain words to mark the Posses
sive though essentially a book word ; this occurs but seldom in the purest collo
quial.

GENDER.

XIX. Many nouns in Chinese may be used with equal appropriateness as

names for males or females, or for both combined. They are used with equal cor
rectness for either, or for both males and females when there is no necessity to draw a
distinction, or when the sex is known to the hearer. The context or sense will
generally show whether a Masculine, or Feminine word, or one commen to both
Genders is to be used to convey the meaning of the Chinese word into English.
Such Chinese nouns are rendered Masculine or Feminine when it is desirable
from a Chinese point of view to point out the difference.
有幾多 人 呢 yau kei to yan ni ?, How many ' men are there?, or How many
persons are there ?

** # ▲ k'ui lò ¿p′o hai² Sai yöng yan, his wife is a Portuguese

(i.e. western ocean person.)
Nám nui yau kéito yan ni ? How many persons are
there, male andfemale ?

XX. The Genders are distinguished by prefixing the wordsnám, male, and
nui, female, respectively to the noun when it refers to the human species, as :—
男人 :nám 'yan*, man.
nui 'yan , woman .
男仔 nam tsai, boy.
★ 17‘nui ‘tsai, girl.

XXI. The Genders are also distinguished by affixing kung an 婆 ' p'o *
respectively for males and females, as :
 40 NOUNS.

GENDER.

1
伯爺 pákye kung, an old man, a greybeard.
1 pák ye* p'o, an old woman , an old wife.
▲▲ múi yau kung, a male go-between.
媒人 婆 ¸di yan p'o, afemale go-between.
主人 chü yan kung, a master .
Chi ¿yan ¿p'o, a mistress.
主人
Asz² t'au kung, a master.
sz² t'au p'o, a mistress.
uk, 'chu, a landlord.
屋主 婆 uk, ' chu p‘o, a landlady.

Note. -1 pák, ye, * alone is Masculine and not common to both Genders.
ᏚᏃ
sz²'t'au* alone is more generally Masculine, though applicable to both males and
females.

屋主 公uk, chi kung is allowable , but seldom used. 屋主 uk, chi alone is
Masculine and Feminine.

XXII 偌 lò and pò are used in the same way as 公 kung and 婆

sp'o, as :
蛋 家 佬 tán㎡ ká lò, a boatman.
蛋 家婆 tán配 ká po, a boatwoman.

XXIII . The Genders are distinguished by the use of kung, or '

kú for
the Masculine and ná for the Feminine for animals and birds, as :—

鵝 kai, a fool; 雞 公 kai kung, a cock ; 鷄 姆 kai ná, a hen.

'kau, adog ; 狗公 kau kung or狗牯 kau Skri, a male dog ; 狗 乸 kau
ná, a bitch.

馬 ‘mi, a horse ; 馬 牯 Sná lets, a stallion (馬公 má (kung is not used ) ; 馬

má ná, a mare.

✈
牛 ngau, an ox, or cow ; 4¸ngau kú, or 44¸ngau kung, a bull ; 牛乸
ngau 'ná, a cow.

None.- ná is even applied to women when spoken of together with their child
ren, as :

Flöng taai 'ná, mother and child.

三 仔 乸 sám tsai 'né, mother and children.

The word 'tsai is common to both genders here.

The Masculine for ' ná used in such a manner is as :
sye,
兩 仔爺 long tsaiye, father and son.

1
 NOUNS. 41

GENDER.

三 仔爺 sim tsai ye, father and two sons.

1pákО ye*, andò ná are used for father and mother ; the latter is rather
vulgar.

Remark. It is remarkable, that with all the Chinese reverence for age and the
superiority of those who are older over those who are youuger, that in two or three Collo
quial idiomatic phrases in common use the younger and inferior is named first before the
elder and superior. Those given above for father and son, &c, and mother and child, &c, are
two of them . Besides those there is long sham mò, two sisters-in-law, (two
brother's wives are thus styled) , löng tai hing, two brothers.

Other words are sometimes given as expressing Gender ; but the beginner will
find that they are but seldom used in Colloquial, and that the above are quite
sufficient for all practical purposes, as far as the vernacular is concerned.

XXIV. tsai used by itself is Masculine, as : —

hai ngo 'tsai , it is my son .
nui is the Feminine, as : —

#ngo mò ³nui, I have no daughters.

In combination the compound word of which tsai is a part is common to

both Genders, if it refers to living objects (See Note ), as :

saiman 'tsai, a child.

1chü 'tsai, a little pig.

kau tsai, a puppy.
Exceptions :-mán tsai, a boy, Masculine ,
nui tsai, a girl, Feminiue.
事 仔 s2''tsni , a " boy " (servant) Masculine.

Note.- ' tsai when used as a diminutive with Nouns, whether they apply to objects
without sex, or living beings, has no effect on the Gender of the Noun, as :

' t'oi ' tsai, a small table.

'pò* 'tsai, a pass book, or small manuscript book.
E13'teng tsai, a small boat.
à' sò 'tsai, a baby.

XXV. It will be seen from the above that Gender is not generally either
inherent to, or a necessary condition of a Chinese word. It is made use of to

prevent confusion, and is often not used even where to our ears it seems as if con
fusion were already worse confounded without its use.
 42 NOUNS.

I
1
GENDER.

Remark. - As a rule abstain from the use of sex-denoting words, when others will
do equally well.

XXVI. Notice that in Chinese the names of the eight principal points of the
compass are reversed in their order to what they are in English :

1st. As to the order of naming the four cardinal points, instead of saying
North, South, East, West, they say Tung Sai Nám Pak,, East,
West, South, North.

2nd. The order of the component parts of the names of the other principal
points of the compass, the names of which are compounded of the names of the four
cardinal points, is reversed in Chinese, as :

Chinese. English.

東北 Tung-Pak, North-East.

西北 Sai-Pak, North-West.
South-East.
東南 Tung- Nám
Di Sai- Nam South- West.

XXVII. The word denoting relation is placed after the name of the in
dividual. When names of relationship are used in connection with the name of
the individual to whom this relationship belongs, or on whom it is bestowed , the
name of the individual comes first and is followed by the name of the relationship,
contrary to the practice in English, as : —

Sám shuk,, uncle Å Sám .

Note. It is politeness amongst the Chinese ; 1st, to give a title of relationship

to every one with whom they are acquainted ; 2nd, to everybody to whom they wish to
be polite, though perfect strangers to them even to the extent of never having set eyes on
them before. The title of relationship thus bestowed on an individual, to whom the
speaker is not in any way related, depends upon the age of the person addressed and of
course the sex. The large terminology, which the Chinese possess for indicating the differ
ent shades of relationship, lends itself readily to all the gradations of respect considered ne
cessary in thus addressing strangers and adopting them for the moment as relations. If
the stranger looks older than was at first sight supposed and a favour is being asked, to
which it may be thought a ready response is not likely from appearances to be given, a more
respectful degree of relationship can readily be substituted for the one originally bestowed on
the spur of the moment without sufficient thought. Do not therefore suppose that when a
Chinese speaks of uncle and sister-in-law So and So that these people are his relations.
 NOUNS AND ARTICLES. 43

GENDER.

Remark. To those who have been in the United States the analogy of this custom to
that prevalent in the Southern States of addressing elderly negroes and negresses as Uncles
and Aunts will be apparent.

XXVIII. 4 sín sháng†, literally, elder born, but which is applied to

teachers, is also used in the same way that Monsieur and Herr are in French and
German respectively , as :—

Chan Sin sháng†, Mr. Ch'an.

hai -á , CSin sháng†, Yes, it is so, Sir.
yau kósín sháng† lai, a gentleman (or teacher) came.
ko' sín sháng† hai² kom fan fúlai tsò², the
gentleman directed it to be so done.

Note.-The feminine of sin shángt is 03 ¿sz nái.

XXIX. Notice that titles in Chinese come after the name of the person, as :

Tái? yan, His Excellency Ch'an.

陳 大人 Chan Tai

XXX. Notice that in Chinese the surname, as in our directories, precedes the
other names which an individual bears, as :
Lam A' 'Yau.
Note.-The ' is not really a part of the name. The surname and name in the
example if given alone would be Lam Yau, but this particle ' is often pre
fixed to a Chinese individual name (They can scarcely be called Christian names) when it
consists of only one syllable.

XXXI. Amongst phrases expressive of quantity occur such as kẹp tải

pún',, síú pún', which mean two divisions of any thing, one being rather
more than the half, and the other rather less.

ARTICLES.

XXXII. There are no Articles in Chinese.

XXXIII. - yat, is often used before a Noun where in English the Indefinite
Article is used, and ko' , that, where the Definite Article would be employed in
English, as :
--Ay
個人 at, ko'
ko'¸yan, a man.
個人 ko'yan, theman.
Note. When the Numeral Adjective is thus used it must always be accompanied by
the appropriate Classifier for the Noun, as above .
 44 ARTICLES AND CLASSIFIERS.

ARTICLES.

XXXIV. But the words which may take the place of the Article in English
are often omitted , as :—

shengtt yat , the whole day.

成日 sheng

As in French no Article is used in Chinese before the word half, as :

(− ) F4 (yat, ) kan pún , a catty and a half.

Remark.-The - yat, which might be thought to take the place of the Article is
not often used in this connection unless particular attention is to be called to the one.

XXXV. The use of the English Definite Article the before an Adjective to
express a class of persons, as the virtuous, is expressed in Chinese by lui follow
ing the Adjective.

CLASSIFIERS.

XXXVI. A Chinese does not say as we do in English a board, a ship, a man ,

&c., but he generally uses some word, such for instance as, piece, just as we generally
speak of a pair of trousers, a brace of snipe, a set of instruments, &c.

XXXVII . These words have been termed Classifiers, as certain ones are used
for certain classes of objects and they cannot be used for others and vice versa. They
have been described as constituting a secondary class of Nouns.

XXXVIII. They are largely used in the Chinese language, more especially is
this the case in the colloquial. The Cantonese colloquial has its full share of them.
Every Noun has its appropriate one or more. No confusion must take place in their
use. Mistakes in the use of these Classifiers may insult a Chinese, as for instance to
speak of a man as → 隻 人 yat, chek yan instead of cand 個人 yat, ko' yan,
chek, being only applied in pure Cantonese to animals, birds, and certain
inanimate objects, &c. , though in the Hakka Dialect the former mode of expression
is quite correct. The learner must therefore pay the greatest attention to these
important words, of which an alphabetical list of those in colloquial use with
examples of the way in which they are used are given below.

XXXIX. Genuine Classifiers are those which are merely distinctive, or de

scriptive to a more or less degree of quality, but which have no numerical, or
quantitative meaning attached to them. These distinctions are in many cases to
the English ear so apparently arbitrary and subtle as to defy translation.

Remark. The pidgin English word ' piecee ' used before a Noun, as : -one piecee man
is the rough attempt at what is unstranslateable.
S
CLASSIFIERS . 45

CLASSIFIERS.

Remark. Many words which are constantly used in Combination with Nouns have had
the conventional term of Classifiers applied to them by foreigners, though being merely either
simple Nouns, or Nouns of Multitude. They have thus been grouped together with the
Genuine Classifiers, the latter being " words which have no analogous terms in our own
language " to represent them. The designation, thus given to a number of Nouns simply used
in a partitive sense has been a misnomer, and at the some time misleading, as the distinctive
character and beauties of the use of Genuine Classifiers has thus been lost sight of.

XL. The Classifier comes immediately before the Noun, the Numeral pre
ceding it, as :
一個 人 yat, ko' yan, a-man.

Note. This rule applies to the cases where a Noun is only accompanied by a Numeral
and consequently of necessity a Classifier as well.

XLI. The Classifier is used occasionally after the Noun. It is used after the
Noun in enumerating articles as in a list, or catalogue, or when particular attention
is to be drawn towards the number, but this is more the case in the book language.
It is not every Classifier that can thus come after its Noun, when used alone with
its Noun.ko' for instance cannot be used after yan alone without a
Numeral, but chek, can be used after shün, as :—
睇 吓 船隻 有 幾 多個 tai há shun chek yau kéi to ko', see
how many boats (or vessels) there are. This sentence would, however, be generally used as a
subordinate one in a compound sentence and not used alone as a simple question . The more
to
natural forn would be, 睇 吓 有 幾多 隻 船 喺 處 tai hua yau kei
cheko
shün 'hai shü' , see how many boats (or vessels) there are here.

Note.- ko' can be used after yan when a Numeral comes between them ,
as :
-人 (有) 三個 yan ( yau) sám ko' , of men there were three .

XLII. A more common use of the Classifier after the Noun is when it is

accompanied by a Numeral in which case any Classifier may follow its Noun, when
particular emphasis is to be given to the Noun . It is then brought out with more
distinctness than when rapidly said with the words in their common order. When so
said it is well to make a momentary pause after the Noun, which would be re
&
presented in English by a comma, as :—

人 yan, sám ko' , three men, or ofmen there were three, or as to men there were
three ofthem.

Note 1. -When the Classifier is used after the Noun it does not appear before the
Noun as well.
 46 CLASSIFIERS.

CLASSIFIERS.

Note 2. -When a Classifier is used after a Noun whether it forms in this connection a
Compound Noun, or is still simply a Noun and its Classifier, it sometimes happens in order
to enumerate the number a Numeral and a Classifier again require to be employed ; in such
a case the same Classifier is never employed again, as : —

-on' kín² yat, Ctsung, a case at law.

shün 'wai * yat, ko', a seat on board a boat, (your place on board a boat,
or ship that your passage entitles you to.)
It is also to be noted that if the order were to be reversed different Classifiers would
require to be employed, as :

-yat, tsung on' kín², and —· 個 船位 yat, ko'shün 'wai*.

XLIII. If an Adjective is used with a Noun accompanied by a Classifier and

Numeral, the Adjective is placed between the Classifier and the Noun, as :—

- 1 sat, chek O tai shün,a— large slip.

XLIV. Adjectives and the Adverbs which qualify them, when unaccompanied
by Numerals, precede the Classifier, as : —

大 個人túi² ko'yan , a large man, or an adult.

5 bí hò chương thú hải , a very long stret

XLV. When a Demonstrative Adjective Pronoun is used, as well as an Adjec

tive, the former precedes the Classifier and the Adjective or Adjectives immediately
precede the Noun (See Note to XLVI. ) , as :—

THUÊ đâyko chóng chương yt, that— long chair

BE HAKI ni pở tải hung shi , this — large red book .

XLVI. When two Adjectives are used without any Numeral to qualify the
Noun, the Classifier may come between the two, as : —

KH đây tái chỏng chơng y , a — lurge long chair.

Ako sai' kin' tseng shik, shám, that small-blue coloured
jacket.
Note. It will be seen from the last example that XLV. has exceptions.

XLVII. But it is often better to put the Adjectives together, especially when
a Demonstrative Adjective Pronoun is used, as :

**** ko kíu' sai ts'eng† shik, shám, that—small dark blue

jacket.
 CLASSIFIERS . 47

CLASSIFIERS.

XLVIII. When a Numeral is used the Classifier either takes the first position
after the Numeral, the Adjective then following it and preceding the Noun, or the
Classifier comes after Numeral and Adjective (See XLIX. ) , as :

- Ht yat, kín táink , a large house.

-xyt,
一 大 間屋 tại kán uk , a large house.

XLIX . When, however, the Adjective expresses Nationality it invariably

immediately precedes the Noun and follows the Classifier, whether a Numeral
Adjective appears in the sentence or not, as :

-yat, ko’Ying kwok yan, an —Englishman.

' ko ko' Tong yan, that—Chinese.

L. The Demonstrative Adjective Pronoun and Classifier are often used toge
ther before a noun, the commonest combinations of the two being ni ko'
and 嗰 個 ko ko .
Note 1. -Some Dictionaries give these two forms as this and that. This, however, is
incorrect. The ni represents the English " this," ko' is untranslateable ; unfor
tunately, according to our ideas, ni cannot always be used alone, but must often be
accompanied by a Classifier. ko' is a Classifier and, being one of the commonest in
use, has been supposed by Europeans to be a part of the word this, or that, as the case may
be. That this opinion is erroneous aud the view here enunciated is correct the change of
classifier before the different classes of Nouns will show, for it is still adhered to when used
with ui and ko', and the use of ni and ko' alone before a certain class
of Nouns also proves it as :-|Daiwai this time, koshi that time.

Note 2.- ni and ko' are used alone before Nouns of time and place, as
above, without the need of any Classifier.ko' can be used alone oftener than ni,
as 一個 人 ko yan, that man. It is often best rendered by the in English .

Note 3. -When more emphasis or rather more distinctness in pointing out the parti
cular object meant is required the ko' is repeated, as, however, the reduplication of
ko' i.e. ko'ko' is used to mean every, each one, or all, to prevent mistakes the
former of the two, when one is to be a Demonstrative Adjective Pronoun and the other a
Classifier, is put into an upper rising tone as 'ko ko' and consequently written in
a slightly different form to indicate that it is a colloquial word. Note the difference between
the two, as

ko' ko'hni shü' lok , all (every one, or each one, is) are here.
嗰 個人 喺 處 咯 ko ko yan 'hai shü' lok , that-man is here.
 48 CLASSIFIERS .

CLASSIFIERS.

Remark. It will be well for the learner to bear the above remarks in mind, or else he
will commit many egregious errors. For example it will be quite correct when asked, " Who

did this ?" to reply 呢 個人 ni ko' yan or 呢 個 ni ko simply ; for 個 ko' is a

Classifier that can be used withyan ; but it would be incorrect to say in auswer to ,
“ Which piece of thread did you drop ?" to say ni ko' ; for ko' is not the proper
Classifier for thread, t'iu must be used in this case.

LI. The Classifier must be used with ni, but ko' can be used
alone, as :

泥間屋 ai kón uk,, this house.

個 屋ko' uk,, that house.
Exception.- ni (as well as ko') is used alone before common Nouns of Place
and Time.

LII. When the Demonstrative and Classifier are thus combined it often happens
that the Classifier is dropped in the Plural, ti, the Plural addition to ni
taking its place, as :

ni chekO shün, this—ship.

啲 ni- ti shün, these ships.
翕 樹 kop'o shii² , that—tree,
Eko- ti shu', those trees.

LIII. If, however, the Classifier is retained in the Plural, it is then necessary
that it should either be preceded by a Numeral, or that the word 'kéi, several,
should be used between the Demonstrative and the Noun, as : —

呢 幾隻 狗 nikei
画 chek‘kau, these several—dogs.
+ 部書 Sám-shap, pò² shit , thirty - books.
三十

LIV. A Classifier may be used alone without its Noun . This is the case when
the Noun has been already used in the sentence or in a preceding sentence. Or even
if the context shows plainly then the Classifier may be used instead of the Noun, in
which case it is best rendered in English by one. The Noun may then be dropped
and its place taken by its appropriate Classifier, the classifier being used in this way
as in English we might use an Adjective substantively, or a Numeral Adjective
without its Noun, or a Personal Pronoun, or the indefinite Pronoun one, as : —

ko' chek O shün hò tái ko' , the vessel was a very large one.
有 幾多 人 嚟 有 三個 = Yau keito yan lai ? “Yau sám kolai.
嚟 ‘Yau
How many men came ? There were three came.
 CLASSIFIERS . 49

CLASSIFIERS.

有 一個 叫做 陳亞 日 yaulyat, ko' kíú' tso² Ch'an A' Yat, there is one

called Ch'an Á Yat.

LV. The Classifier is often used where in English the Indefinite Article would
appear, as :
三個 銀錢 個 月 sám ko ngan 'ts'ín* ko' yüt¿ three dollars a month .

Remark. The Rules given above are equally applicable to the Genuine Classifiers
as well as to other words such as ' pair,' &c. commonly miscalled Classifiers when used in
Chinese.

LVI. List of Classifiers and other words used before nouns.

1. 'Chán is applied to lamps, &c. , as : —

Kế yat, chán tang, a lamp.

• 盞燈
·盞* ok
火 yat, chán fo, a lighted lamp .
一 盞 油 yat chán yau, a lamp-saucer full of oil.

Note.-The Classifier chán after tang lamp , i.e. used in combination with
it, as : tang chán, forms a Compound Noun. It is the name given to the
saucer-like portion of a Chinese lamp which holds the oil and wick.

2. Chek, is used for boats, ships, birds, animals, the hands, the feet,
plates, balls of opium, &c., & c., as :—

sám chekʻshau, a pilferer.

AHA tái chek O shün, a largeship.
pát chekO yin nai, eight balls ofopium.

隻 唐人 狗 yat, chek Tong yan kau, a Chinese dog.

Exception.-The Classifier ko' is more appropriate with hung yan,
a bear.

3. Chíis applied to sticks, walking sticks, muskets, & c. , pencils, pens,

flowers, branches of trees, pieces of ginseng, cinnamon, & c., &c., forks, lamps, flags,
masts, flagstaffs, candles, incense-sticks, a band or body of soldiers from two
upwards, oars, &c., as :

-yat, ، chi pat,, a pen, or pencil.

#yat, chí fá, aflower.
-
tite
-枝 樹枝 te yat, chi shichi, a branch ofa tree.

4. Chong is used with # szts'ing, an affair, a concern, ' where the

object of the speaker is to speak specially of one matter amongst a number. It is

RY
SE IBRA
REE L
OF THESITY
UNIVER
 50 CLASSIFIERS.

CLASSIFIERS.
"
a means of particularising.' kín is much more common with sz
ts'ing.'

5. Ch'ong , a bed, is used with coverlet, mattress, and very rarely with
carpet, as :
――――
yat, ch'ong yuk , a mattress.

6. Chong though it means to spread out is not applied only to articles

that may be spread out, such as sheets, table-covers, mats, documents, letters, news
papers, (where the latter are unsealed or opened out, not closed in envelopes, or
wrappers, &c.) curtains, carpets, beds, tables ; but also to chairs, stools, & c. , as : —
-
- IF A file yat, Cchống pát , sin troi, an octagonal table.
-
Eyat, chong shui² ‘yí, an easy chair .
yat, chong sun' , a letter (not enclosed in an envelope) .
打開 嗰 張 新聞紙
ĐT DUELLE A l tá hoi ho chống sang man chí, open out that neespaper .
chồng san

7. Ch'ong is used for matters, or business, & c. , as : —

-- thì bf nữ vạt, cường 'hò sam, a good action.
-
tayat, ch'öng káu, to have afight.
tá yat, ch'öng kwún fú, to take a case to Court.
ta

8. Chu' is applied to cash, or incense sticks, games of fán-tán, &c., as : —

Kyat, chuts'in, a pile, or heap, or lot of cash.

Eyat, chühöng, a cluster of incense sticks.
-Kyat, chu tán, a game offán-tán.

9. Fái' is used with cloth, leaves of trees, or plants, mirrors, stones, wood,
iron, copper, paper, &c. , as :—
fái shu² yip₂ a leaf.
一塊 樹葉yat,
-Ayat, fai muk a piece ofwood.
fái slick¿' a piece ofstone.
一塊 石Sat

10. Fuk, is applied to walls, pictures, maps, pieces of ground, cloth ,

& c., as :

yat, fuk, t'in, a field.

yat, fuk, tsz , a scroll.
-yat, fuk, 'wa*, a picture.
 CLASSIFIERS. 51

CLASSIFIERS.

11. Fún is applied to sections, or articles of laws, treaties, petitions, busi

ness, news, cash, cases in Court, & c. , as :

-yat, fin sz , a matter ofbusiness.

-
-yat, fúu shäng† yť, a business.
欵錢 yat, 'fúv ts'ín, one kind ofcash.

一 欵 案件 yat, fún on' kín², a case (in Court).

-

12. Fung is used for letters and despatches, &c. , as : —

yat, fung sunʼ, a letter.

-yat, fung man shü, a despatch.

13. Há is used for sighs, and in a number of phrases where short

periods of time are expressed, as : —

唞 一 吓 氣 tau yat, hú héi' , to give a gasp, or sigh.

14. 'Hau is applied to small arms, to knives, swords, & c., and in
dividuals, as :

一口 對面 笑yat 'hau tui' mín síu', a revolver, or pistol, &c., &c.

六 口 連 yat, hau lúk, hau 'lin* (or lím), a six-barrelled revolver.

拐帶 人口 kwai thi yan 'hau, to kidnap.
-yat, hau ¿yau, an individual.
-yat, hau t'it, wok , an iron cooking pan.
yat, hau kim' , a sword.
三口 刀 sám hau tò, three knives.

15. Hòm is applied to cannon, muskets , &c. , as : —

-- 砍
#A大炮
KẾ yat, hòm tái pháu , a cannon.
一砍鎗
- TA ĐỀU yat, hòm tsing, a musket, (& c.)
一碗 米 yat, hom mai, a mortar full ofrice.

16. Ka' is used with fire-engines, carriages, jinrickshas , & c. , as : —

—-7 (E) yat, ká' (¿má) ¿ch'e, a carriage.

1
駕 水車 yat, ka' shui ¿ch'e, a fire-engine.

17. Ka' is the Classifier of screens , pictures, pier-glasses, and whatever is

framed, as :

-yat, ka' keng’†, a mirror .

 52 CLASSIFIERS.

CLASSIFIERS.

18. Kán is applied to houses, or shops, and most buildings, rooms,

monasteries, convents, temples, & c. , & c., as :

Hyat, kán uk,, a house.

yat, kán po' , a shop.
ts'at, kán ' fong* , seven rooms.
Maiko kán t'eng†, in the sitting room.
Exception. Do not use káu before the word pagoda.

19. Kín' is used for articles of clothing, matters of business, goods, such
as balls of opium , cases in Court, cushions, & c. , &c., mirrors, glass, & c. , as :

一件事
-yat, kín² sz , a matter ofbusiness,
件 衫 yat, kín² shám, ajacket.
·件 案 yat, kin' on' , a case in Court.
-ya
· 件 木板t, kin² muk, pán, a board.

20. Ko' , is used before the names of the human species and many
inanimate objects ; no definite rule can be laid down as to its use. On the other
hand it is absurd to say that it can be used with ' other substantives when the
correct classifier is unknown .'
-
一個 人 yat, ko²,yan, a man.
-
-10 Myat, ko' chung, a bell.

21. '
Kün is applied to pictures, maps, plans, books, as :—
shü 'kün, books.
-yat,
一卷 地理 圖 ʻkün tei² léi t'ò, a map.

22. 'Kwún is applied to needles, nails, pencils, fifes, flutes, flageolets, pipes,
water-pipes, quills, and tubular objects, &c. , as : —

一 管 針 yat, kwún cham, a needle.

-yat, 'kwin siú, aflute.

23. Man is used for cash and coins, &c. , as : —

- yat, man* ' ts'ín* , a cash.
S
-yat, man* ¸ngan ' ts'ín* , a dollar.

24. Mín' is applied to gongs, looking-glasses, shields, & c., as :

11

yat, mín² lo, a gong.

1

鏡 yat, min² keng' †, a looking-glass.

TÚI DA HÁT TH sat, min trang phải tip,, a rattan shield .
 CLASSIFIERS . 53

CLASSIFIERS.

25. Mún is applied to pieces of artillery, anchors, rudders, matters of

business, & c. , as :

Pyat, mún p'áu' , a piece of artillery.

-yat, min sháng† yi, a business.
Pyat, ¸mún
múa sz² yíp , a matter ofbusiness.

26. Nap, is applied to seeds, grains, buttons, grains of sand, shot , peanuts ,
fleas and other vermin, mites (of humanity), spots on the person, &c., as :

- ki îl yat, nap, 'nau, a button.

—
-kiyat, nap, sing, a star.

27. Ngán is used with, or for, needles, lamps, nails, wells, & c. , as :
- Ryat, ngan cham, a needle,

28. Pá is used for articles that can be grasped though not confined to
such things alone, as, knives, umbrellas, a head of hair, torches, a bunch of chop
sticks, sheaves of grain, or large bundles of grass, firebrands (both literal and
figurative, ) as :
- vat, pá tò, a knife.
- yat, pá che, an umbrella .

29. Pán is applied to tableau vivant, as : —

-yat, pen shik,, a tableau vivant .

30. P'at, is used for horses, &c. , as : —

— yat, p'at, má, a horse.

31. Pin is used with essays of all kinds , as : —

-
li xi yat, pin man chống, an essay.
Note.- pin is here used in a different manner to what it is when it is used with
the word book, as : — — yat, p'in shü. In this connection it is not a Classifier
but means a page of a book.

32. P is used for trees, vegetables, &c., as :—

yat, po shu', a tree.
yat, p'o ts'oi ”, a vegetable.

33. Pò is used with bed, as :—

- yat, p'ò ch'ong, a bed.

34. Po is used for books, as : —

kói pò²shü, several books.
 54 CLASSIFIERS.

CLASSIFIERS.

Pún
35. ' is used for volumes of books, acts of plays, & c. , as : —
-yat, 'pún shü, a book.
-yat, pún héi³, an act ( of a play).

36. P'ung' is applied to bad odours, and walls, & c., as :

yat, p'ung'ts'ui , a stench .
yat, p'ungtsong, a wall,

37. Shing is applied to carriages, sedan chairs, &c. , as : —

- yat, shing 'kíú* , a sedan chair.
-
yat, shing ch'e, a carriage.
38. Sho is used with buildings, places, & c. , as : —

一 所 花園
-yat, sho Сfá ¿yün, a garden .
39. Shu't is used with places, &c. , as :
- yat, shu’† téi² „fong, a place.
—

40. Tái' is used with walls, trees, &c , as : —

yat, tái'waits'öng, a surrounding wall.
muk a row oftrees.
·帶 樹木 yat tái shi
帶 水 yat, tái shui, a neighbourhood, or locality.
41. Tát is used for spots, or marks, & c., & c., as : —
– Hyat, tát, téi² fong, a spot, a place.
- Eyat, tát O yanʼ tsik,, a mark.

42. Tau is used as a Classifier of trees, as : —

- yat, tau shü², a tree.
—

43. Tím is applied to dots, spots, hours, drops of fluid, souls, inspirations,
actions of the mind, & c. , as :—
點 靈魂 yat 'tím ling wan, a soul.
·
機 yat, tim lingke, a sudden inspiration, a happy thought.
點 好心
-ya t, tímtim hò sam, a kind heart.

44. Ting J is applied to hats, caps, sedan chairs, & c. , as : —

— JÓ Œ yat, ' ting 'kíú* , a sedan chair .
— Jyat, 'tengt 'mò *, a hat.

Note. This word is often pronounced 'teng . It is pronounced 'ting or ' teng when
speaking of a sedan chair ; and 'teng when referring to a hat or cap. It is however

very generally in colloquial pronounced 'neng when used with the word hat, as :—yat, ʻneng
'mò*, a hat.
 CLASSIFIERS . 55

CLASSIFIERS.

45. Tip. is applied to charms, plasters, &c., as :

yat, tip, fu , a charm.
-yat, tip, ¿kò yök¸, a plaster.

46. T'iú is used for a handkerchief, a single stocking, a pair of trousers,

a road, a street, snakes, whips, girdles, fish, worms, rivers, pieces of thread, sticks,
pieces of wood, rattan, bamboo, reins, a single body or person, a passage or hall in
a house, villages, seas, &c., as :—
-
t'iu lò² , a road.
yat, t'íú
yat, thi ho, a river.
t'íú she, a snake.
條蛇 yat, t'i
yat, t'in 'yü , afish.
- sat, t'i fu' , a pair of trousers.
-yat, t'iu shái†, a piece ofwood.

Note. With regard to the last two examples, the first might be translated, a length
of trousers, that being the Chinese equivalent of pair when that word is applied to trousers.
In the same way the second might be rendered a length of wood, or stick of wood, i.e. a
piece of wood that is not simply square, or round, or flat ; but whose predominating quality
is length.

47. Tö, or To is applied to flowers, flames of fire, or the flame of a

lamp, &c., as :
-
·朵 花 yat, tö fá, aflower.
Kyat, to 'fo, a light ,

48. To' is applied to charms, Imperial commands, &c. , &c., as : —

- yat, to' fii, a charm.
yat, to shing' 'chí , an Imperial command.
- ch
道 文書 yat, to² man shü, a despat .
49. To is not always applied to places over, or through which one can
pass. It is used for bridges, doors, an official residence, or office, a despatch, seas,
rivers, embankments, staircases, &c. , as :

一度橋 yat, to² k'íú, a bridge.

-度 門 yut, to².¿mún, a door.
-vat, to hoi , a sea.
-yat, to lau t'ai, a staircase.

50. Toit is applied to theatrical plays, &c. , as : —

— yat, ¿t'oi héï³, a play.
 56 CLASSIFIERS .

CLASSIFIERS.

51. Tong is applied to curtains, suits, ladders, &c. , as :

-
yat, tong man chong , a mosquito net.
―――
yat, tong tai wáng, a ladder.
52. Tso is applied to houses, pagodas, temples, hills and mountains, cities,
idols (images ), lighthouses, forts, &c. , as :
-yat,
座廟 too' ' míii*, a temple.
yat, tso táp¸, a pagoda.
yat, tso 'lau , a house.
-Ayat, tso²ts'z t'ong, a monastery.
53. Tsun is used with idols, Buddhas, and sometimes with cannon, as :
yat, tsün fat , a Buddha.
Note. This Classifier is only used with the word cannon by literary men. No. 25 is
the one oftener and more commonly used.

54. Tsung is applied to cases in court, affairs, business matters, &c. , as :—

yat, tsung sz² kon , a matter .
-off yat, trung ôn kín ”, a case.
55. Tün' , or Tün is applied to pieces of news, or pieces of ground,
essays, &c. , as :
n tsz² , an essay.
一段 文字 yat, tin㎡stha
- Eyat, tün kw , a story ofolden times.

56. T'ün is applied to earth, cotton, snow, whatever can be held in the
hand, and harmonious feelings, good intentions, & c., &c., as :
yat, t'ün sin', a roll of thread.
yat, t'ün nai, a lump ofearth.
yat, t'ün wo² hei', a peaceful time.

57. Wai' is applied to respectable persons, & c. , as : —

= súm 'wai Sin Shang†, three gentlemen.
' wai* núi hák , a lady visitor.
位女 客 yat
yat, ' wai Sshan, a god.
1 * BÈ yat, wai* pò sát , an idol.
-y at ú , an official.
kwin ‘ffú,
位官府 , wai * ¸kwin
58. Yun is applied to officers of government, as :—
― on ts'át , ajudge.
·員 案 察 yat, yin
• -yat, yün yam ch'ái, an ambassador.

59. Yun is applied to coins, as :—

- yat, yün 'ngan*, a dollar.
 CLASSIFIERS . 57

CLASSIFIERS.

Note. It may be noted that some of the above words had better not, in some connec
tions, be considered as Classifiers ; but are sometimes better rendered in English partitively.

LVII. Besides the above the following may sometimes be heard.

Classifier of trees.
1. Chi株 as a
Note. This is a book language Classifier ; but it is occasionally used in conversation
by literati.

2. Kan 根 as a Classifier of trees.

Note This is used by natives of other parts of China, and is not a pure Cantonese
use ofthe word,

LVIII. Avoid the following in Colloquial.

1. 'Méi a tail, which is used in the book language as a Classifier of fish,

as :
:- + wán 'yu * shap¸³méi, ten tench. In the Colloquial¿ť'íù
should be used.

2. Fo'a clod, used in the book language as a Classifier of pearls, beads and
similar articles. nap, is the word which should be used in the Colloquial.
3. Fong a square, is used in the book language as a Classifier of squares
of ink, inkstones, junkets of beef, mutton, pork, &c.

Note. This latter however might be rendered in English by the words square, or
piece, and might be looked upon as a partitive construction.

LIX. The following is a list of words generally included in Lists of Classifiers,

but omitted in this book from the List of Genuine Classifiers given above, and for
the most part consisting of Nouns used partitively.
1. Ch'an' is used with showers, times, noises, fits of temper, gusts, puffs,
and flashes of light , as :—

Byat, chan² fung, a gust of wind.

陣 光 yat, chan² kwong, aflash of light.
陣雨 yat, chan² Syü, a shower.
Bj
-yat, chan' fo héi', afit of anger.

2. Chát is used for rolls, or packages, bunches of flowers, bundles of

papers and letters, as :—
-
- t [ { l yat, chát, chí, a bundle of paper, or papers.
- yat, chát, fá, a bouquet.
ko chát ye, that bundle of things.

3. Chu' is used with regard to incense, as

-Kyat, chü² ¿höng a bunch of incense sticks.
ပိုင်
 58 CLASSIFIERS .

CLASSIFIERS.

4. Chun' is applied to anything strung together, as a string of cash, or

beads, as :
―― 串
珠 yat, chin' chi, a string of beads.

5. Fuis used for sets of beads, tools, buttons, bedding, writing materials,
bed-boards, coffins, & c., as :

yat, fù'¸toʻi ʻyí, a set of chairs and tables.

-yat,
副 架撐 fú ká’ ch áng, a set of implements.
fú
一副 長生 yat, fű ' ¿ch'öng sháng†, a coffin, or set of coffin boards, (generally applied
to one when bought before death . )

6. Hong a column of words , or row of objects, or men, &c., as :――

-yat, hong tsz², a column of character.

7. Kwú is applied to shares in business and heads of essays , &c. , as :

--
— Byat, 'kwú fan², a share (in business) .
一股 生意 ya5 'kwu ¿sháng† yí, a business of one share,

-yat, kwu man chöng, a head ofan essay.

8. Kui' is applied to sentences, phrases, &c. , as : —

一句 說話 yat, kur shüt¸ wá², a sentence.

9. Kuk, is applied to games of chess, to gentry and people of a neighbour

hood, or company for public business, &c. , as :
-yat, kuk, k'éi, a game of chess.
-
yat, kuk, shan k'am, the body ofgentry.
-yat, kuk, pák sing' , the body of the people.
19. Kw'an is used for droves, flocks, herds, crowds, schools of fish , flights
of flies, &c., as :
―
yat, kw'an mín yöng, a flock ofsheep.
-
yat, Skwan wú ¿ying*, a lot offlies.
―
yat, kwan yan, a crowd ofmen.

11. Pat, E is applied to pieces of cloth , silk, game, & c. , as : —

- yat, p'nt, pò' , a piece ofcloth.

12. Páu s used for bales, bundles, or packages, & c. , as : —

― vat, páu shü, a bundle of books .
yat, páu yí mat, a bundle ofclothing.
―
-1vat, páu fo', a bale of goods.
13. Tám' is applied to burdens, weights, &c. , as :—
-yat, tám' 'shui 't'ung, a pair of water pails.
― 坦
蘿 yat, tám lo, a couple of carrying baskets.
 CLASSIFIERS AND ADJECTIVES . 59

CLASSIFIERS.

—·
担 貨物 yat, tám' fo' mat, a picul ofgoods, (i.e. a hundred catties, or 133 lbs .)
一 担 山水 yat, támshún shui, a load ofhill water .
A pát, tám' t'án', eight piculs ofcoal, (nearly half a ton.)
14. Tui is used for a crowd of people, a flock of birds , or animals, a
school of fish, a fleet of ships, & c. , & c. , as :
隊 人 yat, tui²¿yan , a crowd ofpeople .
·
隊雀鳥 yut tui2 tsok³níú, aflight ofbirds.

-yat, tui' 'yü*, a school offish.

ADJECTIVES.

LX. The Adjective, when used attributively, or predicatively, occupies the

same position in the sentence that it does in an English one .
Exception. It is the first word in the phrase, or sentence when the principal, or only
idea used is in regard to the quality expressed by the Adjective. The Chinese habit of
leaving out even the verb in a sentence accounts often for the Adjective taking the foremost
place, as :
t'au, it is too hot.
熱 過頭 yity kwo
1 mm chương tak, tsai”, it is too long.
Aptün
短 咯 唔够嗰 lok , m kau' 'shai, it is short, there is not enough for use.
Note. The verb is not always necessary in Chinese when it is used predicately in
English, therefore the position ofthe Adjective with regard to the Noun shows whether it (the
Adjective) is used in the predicate or otherwise . When the latter is the case it follows the
Noun, and it precedes it when it is used attributively.
Exceptions.-The Adjective follows as well as precedes the Nouns in a few cases in
Chinese. In these cases the meaning differs according to the position of the Adjective before
or after the Noun.

Đầu ti để lại chí kon, dried li-chis #kon lai chí, a dry (without
(the dried fruit). juice) li-chi.

ĐỀ HP A sung ngàn kon, dried EL VỀ HP kon lung ngán, dry lưng

lung-ngans (as above). ngans (as above).
yü shángt, a dish composed of 4 shángt 'yü *, freshfish.
uncooked fish dished up with condi
ments is sotermed.

LXI . The Comparative Degree of Adjectives is formed by the word ti

being added to the Adjective, as :
hò, good, hò ti, a little better , or better.
 60 ADJECTIVES .

ADJECTIVES.

Note. This might be called a qualified Comparative ; for it is limited in its meaning
and does not have the fulness of meaning of the English Comparative. It also differs from
the Comparatives given below. In common conversation , however, its limited meaning is
often lost sight of.

LXII . The words kang' or chung are prefixed to the Adjective in its
Positive Degree and often in its Qualified Comparative Degree and form a Com
parative, being identical with the English Comparative, as :
大 ti², lurge : 更大 kang' ti², or 更大啲 kang tii² ti, larger.
Note.— ¿ti is also used after the Adjective sometimes when kang' and I
chung have already been employed before the Adjective, as :-]
- t nh kang ho ti,
chung hoti, better. These forms are both quite admissible and in com
mon use.

LXIII. What French Grammarians call the Comparative of Equality is

expressed in Chinese as follows :
ko' chek, kom' tái², as large as that one.

VØRKE hò tszni t'iú kom'chöng, as long as this one, (lit. like

this one so long).

LXIV. The Repeated Comparative is often rendered by yut, as :-

一越
大越 好 yüt, tái yüt, hò, the larger the better.
Note. That it is to be rendered in English by the Definite Article the and the Com
parative.

LXV. The Repeated Comparative is sometimes rendered without the yüt

the juxtaposition of the two Comparatives showing well enough what is meant,
as :

Xu Đặc Hưng cái ti hò ti, the larger the better.

Note. It is perhaps as well or better to render the above, as, it would be better to be
larger.

LXVI. The Superlative Degree is formed by prefixing chi

', ' ting,
kik, or shöng to the Adjective, as : —

chương, long; chỉ chương, longest.

hò, good ; ting hò, the best.
*
yai, bad; kik, ' yai, the worst.
ho, good; shöng hò, the best.
Remark. The last form is also used as a Comparative, as :-上 貨 shōng fo
superior goods,
Note 1.
1.--
第一 好 tai yat, hò, literally, " No. 1 good, " is sometimes used when
in English we would say, the best.
 ADJECTIVES . 61

ADJECTIVES .

Note 2.- + shap, fan used before an Adjective should be rendered by very and
the Superlative Degree, or the latter alone as the sense may direct, as :

shap, fan Syün, very far, or very far indeed.

shap, fan hò, very good, or the best,
Note 3. In a sentence with a Verb best is better relegated to the end of the sentence
though it is permissible to put it at the beginning, as : —至 好 噉 做 chi hò kom
tso², or kom tsò chi hò loko' 極好 係 噉 做 kiky hò

bai kom tsò' , or 'kom tso hai kik, hò, it is best to do it so, or
yat, 'hò
to do it so is best . But with 十分好 shary fan hò and第一 好 tai²
ting hò it must be placed at the end,

The reason of shap, fan being thus employed is that, the decimal system
being in use amongst the Chinese, ten parts, or divisions of any thing form in a Chinese
mind the idea of completeness : so † shap, fan hò gives a Chinese the idea that
whatever is spoken of in that way is completely, entirely -in all its tenths, which go to
make up the whole, good ; or rather that the quality of goodness is, as it were, divided into
ten parts, certain things to which the quality of goodness appertains only possessing certain
tenths of this goodness , whereas the one to which shap, fan is applied possesses
the goodness in its fuluess of ten parts. It is curious to notice, however, that exaggeration

has rendered it necessary to introduce a still stronger form than + shap, fan, when the
latter form expresses, as above stated, completeness : completeness or entirety having been used
in an exaggerated sense when it was not strictly applicable, a still stronger expression has been
felt to be necessary to express the idea of completeness, or entirety in a higher or the highest
degree, hence the phrase + ) shap, y² fan ( hò), which might be rendered by
the very very (best).

Remark. The Adjective itself undergoes no change, it will be noticed : this will best
be seen by literally translating the forms which represent the Comparative and Seperlative
Degrees in English, as :

hò, good, hò ti, good a- little-more ; kang' ho, more good.

shap, y² fan hò, twelve parts good, &c. &c.

LXVII. When the word than is used in English with a Comparative, the
Adjective in Chinese need not be accompanied by any sign of the Comparative
Degree-the than showing conclusively that it cannot be put into the Positive
Degree in English, as :

1 kòn kwo ko ko' , dryer than that — (oxe).

Note.-According to the genius ofthe Chinese language there is no necessity, when
the sense is shewn plainly enough by the context, to add words. One reason of this may be
FF THE
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05
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 CARE
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62 ADJECTIVES AND NUMERAL ADJECTIVES ,

ADJECTIVES.

that a multiplicity of little words has a tendency to obscure the meaning in a monosyllabic
language devoid of inflexion and conjugation.

At the same time both ti and kang may be used as well whenkwo'
appears in a sentence, as :
>
Hi AXE HE nên khng tải kwo ni ti, larger than these.
£ 1515 chồng ¿ti kwo ko ko' , longer (or a little longer) than that — (one).
★ kang tai ti kwo' kui ke', larger than his (or rather larger
than his.)

The use of ti and sang' aften give more force to the Comparative when
used with kwo forming to some extent a Comparative of Intensity, as opposed to a
simple Comparative.

LXVIII. Many Adjectives are formed from Nouns by the addition of ke',
as :

Ying Kwok , England. 英國 嘅 Ying Kwok ke’, English .

Note 1. -The ke' is, however, often dropped, and it is often better to drop it
when the Adjective is used attributively, as :

Ying Kwok yan, an Englishınan.

Ying Kwok ye, English things.

Note 2. -When used predicatively , however, is better to retain the ke', as :

E kui hai Ying Kwok ke' yan, he is an Englishman .

Remark. - The ke ' is sometimes useful in differentiating the meaning of words or
terms which might otherwise be confused together, as for example : —

★ Tai² yan, His Excelle - cy , His Lordship , fc . , or it may be translated by

its primary meaning that of a large or great man ; but if ke' be inserted any am
ke , great,
biguity is gone at once, it cannot then be a title , as :-★★ tái² yan a
or large, or tall man.

LXIX. The Chinese always say " new and old " and not " old and new," as :—

San Kau² Yök ( Shü) , the Old and New Testaments, lit. New Old
Covenants (or Convenant Books . )

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.

LXX. The Cardinal Numerals, given on page 3, are strictly speaking the only
Numeral Adjectives in Chinese, the other forms of Numeral Adjectives being
 1
NUMERAL ADJECTIVES. 63

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.

expressed by their combination with other words, or with themselves. Those

given at the beginning of the book will be sufficient to guide the student in the
use of these words.
Note.- shap ten if meant in Chinese is generally understood , or so represented
as to be understood It may be omitted or not when used with other numbers , the position
of the figure which represents the number of tens plainly showing that it must be tens
and nothing else. When there is no ten shown in English . say as in 101 , the one is shewn
to belong to the units by the insertion of lengt between the two ones , as :— — 百
― yat, pák leng yat, without it the figures would stand for 110, as : — —
B
—yat, pákyat,. The one , it will be noticed, is also omitted before figures, as : —
hundred and one instead of a or one hundred and one. lengt may be introduced be
tween any of the figures expressing numbers as : 二十 零 - – yi shavy !lengt yat,,
twenty and one, or between all of them, as 一百 零 二十 零 - yat, pákO lengt

yí² shap¸ ¿leng† yat,, one hundred and twenty and one , but it is better for the beginner to use
it sparingly, except when its use points out what in English is shown by the insertion of a
cypher between the figures.

LXXI. In speaking of time an ambiguity may arise as to whether for instance.

the speaker means " half past one," or " an hour and a half," unless something else
is said as well which will show clearly what is meant, as :
1
yat, tím chung, which may mean, one o'clock, or one hour.

Note. 1. To make sure as to which is meant it is often as well to ask questions

shí
similar to the following : 一個 陣 時 打 一點鐘 未 呀 Kochar2 ¿shi tá
'cho yat, tím chung méi á ? Had it struck one o'clock then ? To be followed by the

questions - kom hai yat, tím lok ? Then it was one o'clock ?

*成 點鐘 嚟 做咩 Hai' yiu' shengt tím chung lai tsò mé ? Did it tare

要
a whole hour to do ? If in the latter case this is not what was meant , the answer will be
m
something like the following 唔係 個 陣 時 係 一點鐘 咯 gu Lai² , ko
chan2 shí bai yat, 'tím chung lok , no, it was one o'clock then.

Remark. It is by such methods that one has to resolve the precise facts out of what
seem ambiguous statements in Chinese.

Note 2.-At the same time it must be remembered that where there seems no want of
clearness in the English context, the contrary may be the case in Chinese, owing to the want
of tense and other matters incident to the language ; so it is better that the foreign student
should use some word or phrase, when a certain length of time is meant, to show without
doubt to the Chinese hearer that such is the meaning and that an hour of the day is not
intended,
 64 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES AND DATES .

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.

Note 3.- A reference to the old English style of stating the hour and its meaning will
show the Chinese idiom, which is the same : -e.g. seven of the clock, i.e. seven hours ofthe
clock or seven strokes ofthe clock as it is in Chinese,

LXXII. The same order is observed in the construction of a phrase represent

ing time on the clock, &c. as in phrases denoting weights, &c. , as : —

luk, tim pún', halfpast six,

八點 (過) 一 (個) ( 1H ) '¦ pát tím (kwo') yat, (ko' ) kwat,, a quarter past eight,
骨 pát
五 點 四個字 ng tim sz² ᏚᏃ ko' tsz², or Ing tim táp, sz', twenty
minutes past five.
ko' min ni,
ní,
= #
4B, or ☎ +18 0 2 sám tím (kwo , or leng+) shap₂
ten minutes past three.

LXXIII. to shíú is often used in Chinese when speaking approxi

mately of a number and has the sense of more or less ; or it may be often rendered
by some, or a few, with a nearer approach to the idea in the Chinese mind when
using it. When used with a definite number it may also be rendered by there
abouts, as well as by more or less, as :—
PIZ <yau to shiú hai shu', there
are more or less, or there are a few,
你應
or there are some.

有+
十個 多少 喺 處 ya yau shap, ko' to shiú hai shit , there are ten or there
abouts, or there are ten more or less.

LXXIV. The Ordinal Numerals are represented in Chinese by the use of

tai' with the Cardinal Numerals, as :
第一 tai
tai² yat, first (or No. 1) .

Note 1. - ko' is generally used after them in the higher numbers ; it may be used,
however, or not with all of them,
Note 2. tai² y² is also used to mean next, or another as 第 二個月
tai² yi² koʼ yüt¸, next month, or another month.

DATES.

As the Ordinal Numerals are largely used in dates it may prove useful to the
beginner to have their combination with other words noted.

Note. That in Colloquial there are no distinctive names for the days of the week, or
month ; but that like quakers the Chinese largely use the Ordinal Numerals for this purpose.
In speaking of years they are commonly called the first, second, and so on years of such and
such a reign, though the cycle of sixty years is also used.
 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES AND DATES. 65

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.

LXXV. In giving the date the Chinese invert, according to our ideas, the order
of the words. The year comes first, then the month, and finally the day, as :

同治
[ VÊ 十年 + 八月
AA + 十三 = STrung Chỉ shap, nín pát, yit, shap, sim ,the
thirteenth of the eighth moon of the tenth year ofT'ung Chí.

sz'yüt, ch'o ts'at , the seventh of thefourth moon,

-
Note. That as in English it is not necessary, when it is quite plain from the context
that the day of the month is meant, to say day ; the word day is left out, as in the sen
tences above. The Chinese carry this further than the English, for the last denomination
of anything mentioned, when others are mentioned before it, is not expressed, the number
of such a denomination only being given, as :—

一個 九 銀錢 yut, ko kau Sngan 'tsín* , one dollar and ninety (cents understood),
(lit. one [ C. ] nine silver cash. )
-
— pát¿ts'in yat,, eight mace and one (candarin understood .)

LXXVI. The word ch'o is used before the days of the moon (or Chinese
month) from the 1st to the 10th inclusive, and even if the word month does not
occur in the conversation the use of this prefix shows when the first ten days of the
month are spoken of that the number which follows it refers to a day of a month
1
and not to anything else. Nothing is prefixed to the numbers representing the re
maining two thirds of the days of the month, as :

cho yat,, the first ofthe moon.

+ shap, sám, the thirteenth ,

LXXVII. It is a very common division to make of the month into three, and
when one is uncertain as to the exact day when anything occured, & c. , instead of
saying in the beginning, middle, or end of the month, though all these terms are

used , it is more common to say, 初 幾 (ch'o kěi, 十幾 sharp kěi and 艹 幾

ye², or yá² kéi, or ≈ + y² shap, kéi, as : —
ch'o kéi tá fung kau , there was a storm in the 1st decade of
the moon.

+ M= 9H ITS ngo shap, kẻi fán huỉ kwai hỏng “há , I returned
home in the 2nd decade ofthe moon.

+ ye² kei fynu witi yam kwa', I think there will be an answer
in the 3rd decade ofthe moon.
Note. The beginning of the month is rendered as yütt'au.
The middle 99 29 月中 vứt, chung.
Hi
The end "" 99 yüt, méi.
Remark. — yüt chung also means in the course of the month.
 66 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES AND DATES.

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.

LXXVIII. The word ho is used after any and every day

of the English
month, and this when the word month occurs in the sentence shows (sometimes the
context will show it otherwise) that the number of which ho forms a suffix
refers to a day of the English month, as : —
1
— yat, ho² , the first of the month (English), supposing that what has been already said
shows that it is a day of the month that is being spoken of.
英人 二號 Ying yan y² hò , the second of the English month (lit. English man 2nd
day [ of month understood] .)
# = + Ying yüt (fan²) yı² slimp bo², the twentieth of the English
month.

LXXIX. New Year's eve is called ¸nín sá á² ³mán i.e. the

night of the thirtieth of the year, notwithstanding whether it really is the 29th, or
30th of the month ; for, owing to the Chinese month being variable in its length,
(some months having twenty-nine days and others thirty) it sometimes happens that
the day that is so called is only the 29th of the month.

-
LXXX. New Year's day is nín ch'o yat,, i.e. the first day of
the year.

♬ 大 yiit, tái², a large month,

LXXXI. A month of thirty days is known as 月
and one of twenty-nine asyüt, shiú, a small month. These are the respec
tive number of days in a Chinese month.

Note. It has already been said (See Dates under Ordinal Numbers No. LXXIV) , that
the Ordinal numbers are employed in dates. It will however be found that :

(a .) With regard to years it is sufficient and more correct to say, for example, %=
Lê Trung Chỉ ¿súm nín, the third year of Tung Chi, without using the tai before
thesam, &c.

(b.) With regard to the months of the year the same holds good, as :-今年
: 八月
kam uín pátO yüt , the eighth month of this year.

Exception. This only holds good when Numerals are employed ; for example, it is
impossible to put tai before Eching, as :-Eching yut , the first month of
the year. In fact this month may be said to be the only one which has a name, as above,
applied to it in colloquial, for though Eching may mean the first when applied to months
it is not a Numeral. It is worth nothing that Eching thus used is in a different tone
to what it is in when it is used otherwise, then it is pronounced ching' . It may further
be noted that if the word tai' is used before yüt, it should then be rendered into
English by the first month that say such and such a thing happened, irrespective of whether
 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES AND DATES. 67

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.

it be the first month of the year or not. It is not then to be considered as the first month
of the regular year.

(c. ) There is likewise no need to use the tai before the days of the English, or Chinese
month. Before the first ten days of the Chinese month it is impossible to use it as there is
no place for it to come in.

(d.) # tai² can only be used in connection with the days of the week in the following
manner, as for instance, the third day of that week, 1 = ko ko'
lai pai' tai sám yat

LXXXII. The names of the days of the week are in Cantonese, as follows :

Sunday ( ) ¾lai páï³ (yat¸). Thursday lai pai' sz'.

Monday 禮拜 ― lai pai' yat,. Friday ‘lai pái³ ³ug.
Tuesday ‘lai páï' yf². Saturday lai pái luk¸.
Wednesday 禮拜 lai páï' sám.

LXXXIII. Theyat, in lai pái' yat, can be dropped whenever

the context shows plainly that the lai pái' used alone refers to the day and
does not mean “ week," for‘lai páï' alone also means " week."

#= # tai yi ko' lai pailai, means, come next week.

Note. —The difference between Sunday and Monday when theyat, is used is very
subtle to the English ear : it consists only in a different tone to the last word, as : —

Suuday lai páï' yat¸.

lai pai' yat,.
Monday 禮拜 ui pai

LXXXIV. The Distributive Numerals are represented in Chinese by the re

duplication of the Cardinal Numerals, accompanied by ko' , as :

— 1 —
一個 一個12
嚟 yat, ko'yat, ko' lai, come one by one.
G*
一逐個 , or 逐個 逐個 chuky ko', or chuk, ko' chuk, ko', is also used
for one by one, or each by each.

LXXXV. The Numeral Adverbs, once, twice, thrice, &c. , to be turned into Chinese
must be translated from their literal meaning in English into Chinese, as :

I did it once, i.e. , I did it on one occasion - ngo tso² kwo'yat, chöng'.
Strike him once, i.c. , Strike him one time - tá ³k'ui yat, há.

I have been twice, i.e. , I have been two times'ngo hui' kwo' löng ¸wan.
I have heard him twice, i.c. , I have heard him two times Engo
t'engi kui löng wui wúi² lo' .
 68 NUMERAL ADJECTIVES AND PRONOUNS.

NUMERAL ADJECTIVES.

LXXXVI. Amongst expressions denoting time such as the following are of

frequent occurrence : —
(
The time it would take to drink a cup of tea, yamyat, pui ¸ch¹á
kom ' noi', or 'noi* .

The time it would take to drink a cup of hot tea, 飲 一盃 熱茶 咁 耐 yam yat
pui yít, chá kom nổi .
The time it would take to eat a meal of rice, shik, yat, ¿ts'an
fán² kom' noi .

The time it would take to eat a bowl of rice, shik, yat, "win
fán² kom' noi .
The time it would take to smoke a cigar, shik, yat, 'hau yin
kom' noi ,

The time it would take for an incense stick to burn, ₺pfshini yat,
chí hỏng kom’noi

PRONOUNS .
PERSONAL PRONOUNS.

LXXXVII. Personal Pronouns are often left out in a Chinese sentence.

Note 1.-Personal Pronouns of the 1st and 2nd Persons are often understood,
the sense showing what person is meant, as in the 2nd person of the English Im
perative, as :

kam chítí tsò lai, I did it this morning.

tso lok , it is done.
Note 2.- The Personal Pronouns of the 3rd Person are often left out in a Chinese
sentence when it is well enough understood to what the sentence refers, as :

hai m lo kẻ loko
個 啲 係 雞蛋 係 唔好 嘅 咯 ko tihai? kai tán * ;
those are hen's eggs ; they are bad.

Note 3.—All the Personal Pronouns are in the hashöng, or lower rising
tone, as :-ngo, ³néi, 1E ³k'ui.

LXXXVIII. When the Plural is shewn téi' is the sign of it, as : —

佢 kui, he, she, or it ; 佢 地 kui téi², they.

Remark. Though Plural forms exist for the Personal Pronouns, the Singular form is
often used where in English we would use the Plural, especially when the context shows that
more than one is meant, as when more than one has been already mentioned, as :

三個
佢= 話我 知
1HGĐ KH khui sám ko wa ‘ngo chi, they three told me.
 PRONOUNS . 69

PRONOUNS.

LXXXIX. When the Possessive is expressed ke' is the sign of it, as :

ngo ke', mine.

XC. The Declension of the English Personal Pronouns are therefore repre
sented in Chinese as follows :
First Personal Pronoun.
Singular.
1. 我 ²ngo.
My, or go, or ‘ngo ke' .
Mine, 我 嘅 ugo ke'.
Me, Sugo.
Plural.
We, 我 哋 fogo téiP.
Our,, or #ngo téi², or sugo téi² ke’ .
Ours, ngo téi² ke’ .
Us, 我 哋 Sngo tei².
Second Personal Pronoun.
Singular.
You, néi.
Your, or ‘uéi, or ‘néi ke'.
Yours, 你 嘅 ‘néi ke’.
You, néi.
Plural,
You, 你 哋 ‘néi téå.
Your, or néi téi², or néi téi² ke' .
Yours, 你 地 嘅 ‘néi ti² ke?.
You, 你 哋 ‘néi teiP.
Third Personal Pronoun.
Singular.
He, she, or it, 1 'k'ui.
His, her, or its, 1E, or 1 k'ui, or 'k'ui ke' .
His, Hers, or its, 1 kui ke' , (when used predicatively) .
Him, her, or it, 'k'ui.
Plural.
They,1E. or 1E³k'ui or 'k'ui téï².
Their, TE , or Ek'ui téi², or 'k'ui téï² ke’.
Theirs, kui tei' ke'.
Them , 'k'ui.
喝
 70 PRONOUNS.

PRONOUNS.

Caution. The learner must not forget that the signs of the Plural and Possessive may
often be omitted.

Note. The want of Gender in the Third Person occasions some degree of ambiguity,
as well as the often optional use, or rather disuse of the signs of the Plural and Possessive.

XCI. The Nominative of the Personal Pronoun with the Reflective Pronoun
is sometimes placed before or after the Verb and sometimes the Verb is placed
between the two as in English, as : —

ugo'ta tsz² koi, I strike myself.

ngo tez² kéi hui', I went myself, lit. ( I myself went.)
Note 1. -Note the difference betweenʻngo ta tsz' 'kéi, I strike
myself, andÉT (1 ) ngo tsz kei ta ('k'ui) , I myself strike (him), as in
English.

Note 2. -To those who find a difficulty in the tones it may be of assistance to remember
that all the Personal Pronouns are in the Lower Rising Tone or há² png, as : #sugo,
1; néi, you ; 1E k‘ni, he. shöy

INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS.

XCII. There are several words which may be used in connection with ap
propriate Classifiers to express the ideas conveyed in English by who, what, or
which. The Classifier appropriate to the object spoken of is always used with
them whether the Noun be employed or not. If the Noun is not employed the
Classifier may be considered as being used substantively. The first word which
may thus be used is pin which alone in itself may be taken to mean which, the
words that are used with it showing whether it means when used with these words
which, what, or who, as for instance :-pin ko' . Here in the first place we
must find out to what the Classifier ko' refers. Is it a man or men who have
been spoken of, or who are referred to ? Then pin must be translated either
as, who, or which. If an animal, or some inanimate object then it must be trans
lated by which. Likewise remember when doing the converse, i.e. putting one of
these English words into Chinese to get hold of the appropriate Classifier for what
is spoken about, as for instance if you want to say which table, or the word which
alone, referring at the time to a table, do not on any account say pin ko',
for ko' is not the Classifier to use with table, but say pín chông.
Note. That pín is used with all the Classifiers just in the same way es 9
==, yat,, yî², sám , one, two, three, and all the other Numerals would be used with
all the Classifiers. This seems simple and plain enough and yet some of our dictionaries
 PRONOUNS. 71

PRONOUNS.

for the use of English-speaking people learning Chinese have fallen into the error of saying
that pin ko' is who, or which !!! Why not say at once that 1 yat, ko'
is one, and then add on each of the Classifiers in turn to ― yat, and state, that curious
to say the Chinese have many ways of expressing one, in fact no less than sixty "? (For
there are nearly sixty different Classifiers in Cantonese. ) This would be as much the fact
as saying that pín ko' meant who, or which. The importance of the matter is
great and it is not one to be thought of no consequence, and yet this class of mistakes is
in daily use by foreigners speaking Chinese, most egregious error though it be, thanks
in part to our dictionaries, which, if not in error themselves , are not explicit enough on
this and kindred points. The absurdity of the thing may be further shown by adding
yan, man on to
人 pín ko' , for it is often used with the Noun ▲ yan,
man when referring to men (as it is with other Nouns when referring to other objects),
as : 邊 個人 pin kod yan who, or which man, and then say that these three words
together mean what.

XCIII . To form the Possessive Case the sign of the Possessive ke' is used,
and whether it is intended to be applied to a person , or object the Classifier
will again, to a certain extent if not entirely, show whether it is to be rendered in
English by the Possessive whose, or which. The ke' always follows the Classi
fier, the Classifier however, as above, always changing according to the object
spoken about, as : —

Pin ko'ke' ? This may be whose ? or the Neuter according to the context, &c.
Pinchöng ke?? The Classifier here at once shows this cannot be whose.
The Classifier is one that is only applied to inanimate objects. It must therefore be
rendered by the Neuter in English.

Remark. In other words it may be said that who, which, or what are expressed in
Chinese by pin, and that the Classifier, which is always present and, which must always
be the appropriate one, shows how it is to be rendered into English, there being no ambiguity
in Chinese, as the word pin is common to both Genders.

XCIV. The Plural of who, what, and which is formed by adding ti to the
邊 pín, as - pin ti. No Classifier is necessary in the Plural, irrespective
of whether persons, animals, or inanimate objects are spoken of, as :

Pinti yan ? Which men ?

邊 啲 做 嚟 呢 Pin ti tsò lai ni ? Who (plural) did it?
邊 啲 禽獸 係 呢 Pin ti k'am shau' hai mi ? Which animals are the ones ?

XCV. Before Nouns the names of things, which are capable of subdivision with
out losing their distinctive character, the plural form is used in Chinese where in
 72 PRONOUNS .

PRONOUNS.

English the subject in question would not be looked upon from a grammatical point
of view as an aggregate of small particles each having a singular character of its
own, as it is in Chinese, as :

Pín ti t'ong hai? ni ? Which sugar is it ?

Nei tek pín ti mai ? Which rice did you buy ?
Mat, 'yan lai ? Who comes ?
Mat, ye ni ? What is it?

XCVI. Another word is used to represent who, what, or which, viz.: mat,,
but when it refers to any inanimate object the Noun, ye, thing always follows
it. When it relates to a human being the Noun, yan, man, or the Pronoun,
'shui* invariably follows it. No Classifier is ever used with it, as :—

Mat, 'shui * tsò²¿ni ? Who did it!

XCVII . The Possessive, when mat, is used, is formed by affixing the sign
of the Possessive, ke' . This is always placed after the Nouns, ▲ yan, man,
ye, thing, or the Pronoun ' shui*, who as the case may be, as :—
Mat, 'yan* ke’
Whose?
Mat, shui* ke’
Mat, ye ke' ¿ni ? What does it belong it !

Remark.-Themat, in conversation is often slurred over in pronounciation so

that it sounds like mi (mih). It then takes (having no longer a final k, and therefore not
coming into the Lower Entering Series, or Yap, Tones) the Upper Even Tone, or
shöng p'ing.

XCVIII. The Plural has the same form as the Singular.

Remark. These three forms might be literally rendered, as :

Mat, 'yau* ? What man ? i.e., Who, or Which ?

Mat, ' shui ? What who ? i.e., Which, or Who ?
Mat, ye? What thing i.e. , Which ?

Note. —Though the objection is not so great with mat, as in the case of pin
to the dictionary way of putting these forms, on account of their use being limited to the
designation of men and inaminate objects, it is as well that the learner should remember
what the component parts of these phrases mean. He should then be able to speak
intelligibly and correctly. The dictionaries are not full enough in their definitions under
these words.
 PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS . 73

PRONOUNS.

RELATIVES.

XCIX. The Relative can scarcely be said to be expressed in Chinese. The

sentences in which the Relative Pronoun occurs in English are generally expressed
in Chinese, as follows, the Relative being understood, as :

#ngo tsau hai' kinni ko'yan, this is the man whom I saw,
BUBE ko'kan uk,, tít tò ko'kán uk, ni, the house
which fell down.

✯✯✯ wá² ngo chi ko ko'¸báng+ lui” lok , he who told me

walked away.
chek , ma tít 'tò lo' , the horse that
我 騎 嗰 隻 馬 跌倒 咯 ngo ¿k'éi ko chek
Irode fell down.

✯✯ngo tsau hai kong ni ko'yan lok , this is the man

that I spoke of.
呢 個人 就 係 幫 我 嘅 iko yan tsau hai' ¿pong ʻngo ko' , this is the man
that helped me.

佢 借 我 個 部 書 佢唔 會 俾 翻 我 咯 kui tse' Sngo ko' pùl

¿shü, 'k'ui mts'aug péi fán ngo lok , he has not returned me the book, which he bor
rowedfrom me.

1 hai'k'ui tsò² ke', it was he who did it.

E ÉÉ hai k'ui lai² ni shu ke', it was he who came here.
Note.- ke' it will be noticed is about the nearest approach to the sign of the
Relative.

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS .

DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS.

C. ni, this and ko' , or 'ko, that. See previous remarks on these.

CI. The Plural these, and those are 呢啲 niti, and 個 啲 ko' ti

CII. p¿ mání tí and ko'tí are, however, often used in Chinese

where the Singular form is used in English, viz : -before Nouns, such as weather,
sand, dust, flour, gunpowder, powders, wheat, grain, rice, &c . , the names of liquids
and names of similar objects consisting of an aggregate of infinitesimal particles,
or in other words before Nouns representing objects which are capable of subdi
vision without losing their distinctive character, as :—

niti yök, sán, this power (medicine) .

ko' ti shui, that water.
 74 ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS .

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

Note.- uí is used at the end of explanatory phrases, or clauses, and seems some
times to have the power of intensifying the Demonstrative, or to have the meaning of the
English word " there," as :
ko' ko' ní, hai² lok , that man , that
個人 個 高 個 呢 , 係 咯 ko yan, ‫ ܢ‬kd
tall one (there), is the one.

INTERROGATIVES.

CIII. Which, and what are represented by pín. The Classifier appropriate
to the Noun must always be used after pin.
Note. Some of the Dictionaries and Phrase Books are again in error here, giving
pín ko', as which. The remarks made previously with regard to ni and
ko’apply here as well with regard to pin.

CIV. What is also rendered by mat, alone, or by mat, ‘ye, as :—

(or ) Néi wa² mat, (or mat, 'ye) ? What do you say ?

1 + t t $ Ko'nin yau mat, sz² ni ? What events happened that

year ?

CV. Whosoever, whosesoever, whoever, &c. may be expressed in Chinese by the

use of several different phrases to couvey the meaning of the English, as : —

邊 個 (or 是 但 邊 個) 做 都要 辦 佢咯 pin ko' (or shi tén² (Pin ko')

teò²¿tò yíú pán² k'ui lok , whoever does t is wu be punished.

但凡 你 地 釋放 佢 罪 嘅 佢 罪 必 被 釋放, tán² Sfán Suéi

téi² shik, fong' ‘k'ui tsui² ke', 'k'ui ke' tsui' pít, pei' shik, fong' , whosesoever sins ye
remit they are remitted unto them.

CVI. The interrogative Mat,? What ? is placed after the rest of the sentence
instead of before it as in English when a Verb is used ; but the construction of
the sentence is the same as in English (subject to Note 1 ) when a Noun is used
with it, as :

Mat, ye sz² ? What is the matter ?

講 也 野 Kong mat, ye ? What are you saying ?
Mat, ye au ? What kind of man ?
Mat, 'ye kung fú ? What work ?
Túk, mat, ye shû ? What book are you reading aloud ?
Tai mat, ye ? What are you looking at ?
 ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS . 75 .

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

Note 1.— The verb is generally omitted in such sentences. It sometimes has the force
ofconveying more emphasis to the sentence when brought in, but not always, as :

Mat, 'ye shün ? What vessel is it?

係 乜野 船 Hai? mat, ‘yeshün ? What vessel is that ?
Note 2.-In Colloquial themat, is very often changed into mi in pronunciation.

Note 3. —⇓ mat, is only used beforeyan man , and ' shui *, and not with
a Classifier as pín is used.

CVII. The impersonal there and it are left out in the interrogative form, as :—

有冇 yau mó? Is there, or not ?

RELATIVES AND INTERROGATIVES.

CVIII. Relative and Interrogative Pronouns must be rendered according to the

sense of the word , viz., which of the two, &c., as the case may be, as :
ko'
₪ 1817 18☀ # ✰¤¤¤ , Ní löng ko' tsai, (pín
¿tsun ¿yí fii²¿ts'an ke' “chí y ni ? Whether ofthem twain did the will ofhisfather ?

DISTRIBUTIVES AND INDEFINITES.

CIX . The Distributive and Indefinite Pronouns, each, either, neither, any, other,
may be expressed in Chinese by the following words, or combinatious, as :

Each, múi, as : múi ko' to' lok¸, each one was there.
Note 1. - Such unnecessary words as any are often left out in a Chinese sen
tence, as :

Yau mò ? Are there any ?

Note 2. -The Classifier (care must be taken that it is an appropriate one) must be used
with.múi in most cases, the exceptions to the use of the Classifier being when múi
is used before Nouns of Time and Place.

Either 是 但 sh㎡ tán², or 是 但 邊 個 shi tin² pín ko', as

1s :: -是 但 邊 個
都好
Đi đến shi²
chữ tán pin ko to hò, either will do.
Either, ―0 , 或 wi 或 wáky. as :·或 呢 啲 或 嗰 啲 wáky ni th
k
wák2 ko ¿tí, either these, or those.

Neither, 兩個 都唔 (or †) löng ko'tò ‫ ܨ‬m (or ʻmò) , as : —

(or 冇)
11
兩個 都 冇 打佢 löng ko'tò inò tá 'k'ui, neither of them struck him.
My long ' wai* tò mò tsò , neither of them did it.
 76 ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.

Any is understood, or it may be expressed by ti a little, some, as :—

# œ ✯ ↑ ko'tí 'kwo ʻtsz kòm' yai ngo m slik

lok , that fruit is so bad I will not eat any.

LĦ BK ₺ shu shong² ¾yau 'ch'áng*, £néi ³yau shiką

¿tí ³mò a' ? There were some oranges on the tree, did you eat any ?
檯上 有 你 有 啲 ( 多少) 冇 呢 【Toi* sl:öng² Syau
'ngan * , ‘néi ‘yau ¿ning ti (or to shíu) mò ni ? There was money on the table, did
you take any?
Other, and Another are expressed by tai² yı², or pít. Some of the dictionaries
are again in error, giving pit ko' as other. Remarks which have previously
been made with regard to similar words apply with equal force to pit. It is used
both with an appropriate Classifier, and alone like µę ni .
The other's (Classifier here if used) pit, [ C. ] ke' ; others ', MÁS
pít ti ke'.

tí is used to denote plurality with pít, in the same manner as with ni. PÉ
ke' is used with pít, to shew possession, as represented by the English, other's, or
others'. When a Classifier is used with it, ke' is placed after the Classifier, as : —
pit, ko'keʼ, the other's.
-
Each other may be expressed as follows, viz :

long ká söng of , they love each other.

佢 哋 兩個 憎惡 好似 你 憎 我, 我 憎 你 噉 嘅 kui tel Yöng
ko tsang wú , hò t‘sz nói tsang ngo, ngo tsang ‘néi ‘kòm ke', they hated one
another (i.e. they two hated, as if you hated me and I hated you).

CX. Self is expressed by tsz² kéi with the Personal Pronouns, as :—

Myself, ngo tsz² kći, (I myself).

Yourself, 'néi tsz² “kéi, (you yourself).
Himself, herself, or itself, 1E É Z k'ui tsz² kei, (he himself, she herself, or it itself) .
Ourselves, ³ngo téi² tsz² kéi, (we ourselves).
Yourselves, Z‘néi téï' tsz² 'kéi, (you yourselves) .
Themselves, Z k'ui téi² tsz² 'kei, (they themselves) .

Note.- É Z tsz² 'kei is often used alone without the Personal Pronoun when the
seuse is sufficiently clear without the Pronoun, as : —

hai² tsz² kei tsò² ke', I did it myself.

係 佢 自已 做 嘅 嗎 係 自己 做 嘅 咯 Hai² Scuitsz² kéi tsò? ke?
má ? Hai' tsz kei tsò² ke' lok . Did he do it himself? Yes, he did it himself.
င်း
 ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS AND VERBS. 77

ADJECTIVE PRONOUNS.
-
A man's own self, Zyat, ko'yan tsz² kói.
Men's own selves, or people themselves, yan téi² tsz² ‘kei.

CXI . Self is also often expressed by pún shan (own body), as : —

*4 # Hai² 'néi “pún shan tsò² me? Did you do it yourself?

Myself, himself, &c. , are formed in the same way with pún shan as with É
tsz kéi, as given above.

CXII. Selfwould be used in English where the Chinese often make use of the
following and similar expressions, as :

親眼 tsan Sugu ; 親耳 san yi ; 親手 <ts'an shau, &c , as : -

KUNói ts'an 'yi t'eng† kín me ? Did you hear it yourself? (i.e.
with your own ears).

KRENéi ts'an ngán kín' 'k'ui me ? Did you see him yourself? (i.0.
with your own eyes).
m hai² ni? Now,
**** Ná², hai nei ¿ts'an shan tsò²
did you do it yourself? (ie. with your own body).
S
係 乜 唔係 呀 係 我
ELEKTR ‡‡‡ 親手 做 嘅 咯 Hai², mat, m hai² a' ? Hai² ngo
ts'an ' shau tso ke' lok , yes, why not ? I did it myself, (i.e. with my own hands) .

Note.-That the tsz kéí self, i.e. myself, yourself, &c. , always immediately
follows the Personal Pronoun, and is not placed at the end ofthe sentence as sometimes in
English. He sold it himself, such a construction in Chinese if literally followed might be
thought to mean that the man sold himself-in fact it would be unintelligible. The proper
construction in Chinese is, he himselfsold it, as : —

EÉRRK kui tszkói mái ke' lok , he himselfsold it.

VERBS .
-
CXIII. The Active and Passive Voices are distinguished as follows :

14 SH
個 貓 thẻ
捉老鼠để kho
kò máu chuk,
chuk 。 lò shi , the cat catches rals.
TẠI ĐI THI ĐỂ H ko lo shū per máu chuk, to lok , the rat is caught
by the cat.

CXIV. The Passive Voice is but seldom used in comparison with the Active ;
therefore the learner must use it but sparingly, preferring the Active Voice to it,
and should generally turn all Verbs in the Passive Voice in English into the Active
in Chinese.
 78 VERBS.

VERBS.

CXV. Other Verbs are sometimes used in combination with the principal Verb
in some cases when it is of importance to give prominence to the ideas conveyed by
the use of Moods and Tenses in English, subject to what follows.

CXVI. There are no special modes of expression that will serve to differentiate
the Infinitive, Indicative , or Imperative except the positions of the words in the
sentence, or the context, or obvious meaning, as :

我 ngo lai, I come.

Ekíú' 'k'ui lai, tell him to come.
做好 人 tsò hò yan, be a good man.
kwa', You
做好 人 你 莫 係 好難 啩 ts ' hogyan néi sün ' bai' 'hò <nán
probably think it is very hard to be a good man.
19 péi ko pò²¿shü ngo, give me that book .

and
CXVII. With regard to the Subjunctive, the Conjunction, or sense will show
that a Chinese Verb is to be rendered in English in the Subjunctive Mood , as : -

佢 或 喺 處 我 就 見 佢 'k'ui wák, hai shü', 'ngo tsau² kín' 'k'ui, if he were

here, I should see him, or if he is there, I shall see him, or if he had been there, I should •
have seen him.

CXVIII. The Conjunction is however often understood and the dependent

member of the sentence will then show that the Verb must be put into the Sub
junctive Mood in English, as :

#kui tsò , ngo mchung yi lok , ifhe does it, I shall not
be pleased.
Note. The voice often rests on and after the Verb when in the Subjunctive . The
beginner will do no harm by always thus pausing on such a Verb, especially when no
Conjunction is expressed . It serves to call attention, and has a tendency to bring the meaning
out more clearly. In fact there are a number of little niceties of this kind in Chinese, the
use of which assist materially in elucidating the meaning where according to our ideas the
want of Grammatical forms obscures the sense..

The student will probably notice when a Chinese has anything to say about any
matter, that he prefers to tell what we consider a very long narrative instead of condensing
what he says. Remember, before condemning him for being an interminable gossip and
long-winded, that if he begins, as he prefers to, at the commencement and gives you the
events as they occurred in their natural sequence, then nearly all obscurity from the want of
Tenses, &c. is done away with, and all the minutiae being entered into at length the whole
matter according to his ideas is made plain. The best plan is to let him go on his own way.
 Fr
VERBS . 79

VERBS .

Cut him short in his narrative, and after several ineffectual protests on his part, after great
difficulty, and after the use of an enormous amount of tautology, quite contrary to the spirit
of the Chinese language, you may arrive finally at his story in disjointed fragments, which
you have to piece together as best you can, or what is more likely he has been utterly
unable to tell you what he wants and you can but guess at his meaning. We forget how
easy it is in our own language with its fulness of grammatical form, as compared with the
Chinese, to express what we have to say shortly.

CXIX . More reliance must, however, be placed on the obvious meaning, if it

is possible to have any certainty on that subject in such cases, as Chinese sentences
may often be put either into the Indicative or Subjunctive in English, as :
24
TE nó Đề & Đề in #TTE khui wa ngo tieng †, ngo tsau tả k‘ui, he
told me, and I stru him , or ifhe tell me, I will stri him . In su a ca it is ne
ck s ke ch se cessary to
know whether any striking has taken place . If not , it would probably best convey the
meaning to put the sentence in the Subjunctiv . Very often in a case of doubt simply
e
asking : —Did you strike him ? # † † ¤Ÿ Néi ³yau tá ³k'ui mò ¿á ? will
solve the difficulty ; for the reply will be very likely something like the following Ħ, E
wá
*** Emò, 'k'ui hai wa ngo chí, ngo tsau² tá ³k'ui
lok , no, if he tells me, then I will strike him. This sentence is of course capable of being
construed into other Tenses in English.

Note.- wák, of course would bring out the sense of the Subjunctive more clearly ;
but unfortunately in Chinese, as in many other languages , one must take the sentences as
one finds them, and as the people speak them. If one should try to speak Chinese according
to English idioms, as many foreigners do more or less, it would produce such a gibberish
compared to Chinese, as pidgin English is compared to correct English.

CXX . Certain combinations can be used to express the ideas conveyed in

English by the use of Participles, as :
'tsai tá
Imperfect, 我 見 個 細 侯 仔 打緊 隻狗 ‘ngo kin' ko' said man
'kan chek kau, I saw the child beating a dog.

The Perfect may be put into Chinese in some such manner as the following :-1✯ ±
因為 個人 嚇親 佢 kui tsau hui yan wai² wai kod
ko yan hák ts'an 'k'ui,
frightened bythe man he ran away. Of course this Chinese sentence may be translated
in several different ways into English .
Acting Perfect Participle, 已經 打 BE) víking tá (cho) lok , having struck.
Active Perfect Participle of continued action, yíking tá kan lok 。,
having been striking.
 I
80 VERBS .

VERBS .

Passive Indefinite Participle, X X Syí king péi² yan 'tá kan

lok , being struck.
阻) 略 ‘yi king péid yan tá (cho )
Passive Perfect Participle, 已經 被 人 打 (
lok , having been struck.

Note. It is necessary to introduce the object or thing which has struck, or which has
performed the action.
Avoid, however, as much as possible the use of such complicated constructions : change
them to simpler ones such as, the man struck me and then

GERUNDS.

CXXI. Such forms as, " I like reading," may be rendered in Cantonese by such
sentences, as :

* 'ngo chung y tuk, ye, I like to read things.

Ek'ui chung yi tuk, shü, he is fond of studying.
佢 UZ
想 得好 名聲 Z kui söng tak, hò ming shing, he is desirous of being dis
tinguished.

* - * & # ¤ ‡ ƒÙƒƒ³ngo yí ¿king sheng† ¿chíú “se taz²,

'sho 'yi kin' kwúi, after having been writing the whole morning, I am tired (i.e. I have
been &c. , therefore, &c. )

TENSE.

CXXII. The Verb by itself may represent an action as taking place in the
Present, Past, or Future time, as :
strike you.

✯ Vj³ngo tá ³néi, I struck you.

I will strike you.

CXXIII. Where the context, or sense does not show the time during which the
action is performed, and where it is essential that such time should be most clearly
expressed, certain words, or Particles, or Adverbs of time are introduced into the
Chinese sentence and atone in some measure for the want of inflexion, as follows :
:

1. To show present time, or continued action ' kan, or Adverbs denoting

present time, such as yíká, now, yin' shí, at the present time, and
similar phrases denoting present time are used, as :—

yinshi yau, there is (at present).

ngo yí ¿ká huť, I am going (now) .
$
VERBS . 81

VERBS.

2. To show past time, or completed action such words, or Particles, as,

gwan, hiû, 完 yiin, 咀 cho, 了 liú, 倒 tò, 黎 lai, or Adverbs, or

Adverbial phrases of past time are used with the Verb, such as 個陣 時 ko chan²
shi, at that time, HE tsok, yat, yesterday, &c. , &c. , as :

wan lai lok , I have looked for it.

搵 嚟 咯 wal
vam
見 曉 咯 !M kínʼhíú lok , it is lost.
讀過 túk, kwo', I have read it.

整 勻 嘥 咯 Ching wan s ' loko ,

tsolíu, it is finished.
做完 tsò yiin,

3. To show future time Adverbs, or Adverbial phrases of future time are

added to the Verb to qualify it, and bring out into prominence the idea of future
time ; for it is to be remembered that time-all time-is already inherent, as it
were, in the Chinese Verb ; the object of these auxiliary words is to bring out into
view so plainly the particular phase of time meant, that there shall be no mistake
about it.yin hau , tsong loi, &c., &c. , &c. , are such Adverbs of
futurity, as :

** ugo tsong loi hui , I shall go (by and by) .

我 然後 做 ngo yin hau tso , I shall do it afterwards (i.e. after the present
time).

CXXIV. The mere changing in some cases of the tone of the Verb into the
Third Rising Tone is sufficient to show that the action is completed.

ngo wa² néi ¿chi, I tell ngo ' wá lok¸, I have said it.
you (or I said to you -).

講 成 唔 會 呢 Kong shengt mm sheng* lok , it is settled.

ts'angui ? Is the matter settled ?

你幾時 到 呢 Niki ‫܀‬shitù? ?

sluitd ni 十點鐘 到 咯 shapy tim chung
When did you arrive ? 'tò* lok , I arrived at ten o'clock.

Remark. --When the word is already in the Upper Rising Toue, the emphasis, which
is sometimes thrown on it to mark the Past Tense prolongs the tone-in short the voice
rises during a longer space of time in uttering the word, as for example inhi ,
to understand. That is to say it is changed from the Upper, or First Rising Tone to the
Third Rising Tone. And this likewise would be the case with a word, which might happen
to be in the Lower Rising Tone.
 တ
82 VERBS.

VERBS.

CXXV. In the Lower Entering Tone the word, in such cases, is uttered in
what must be called for want of a better name an Entering Rising Tone, as :—

Tuk, shu mé² à? Have ' tuk lok , I have.

you read (your) book yet? (or learned your
lesson ?)

NUMBER AND PERSON.

CXXVI. There is no means of expressing the modifications of the English Verb

in Chinese in regard to Number and Person , &c. subject to what follows, as : —

'k'ui oi' , he (she, or it) loves, or they love.

CXXVII . If great clearness is to be expressed, as to Voice, Mood, or Tense,

&c., &c , in a Chinese Verb, it is possible, though not usual, to convey the meaning
in English into the Chinese sentence in the following, or some similar manner,
which at the best, must, in many respects, strike one as a lame expedient ; for to
convey with any distinctness the ideas shown with such ease in many languages
into Cantonese it is necessary, as stated above, to employ different Adverbial phrases
of time, and Particles.

The following paradigm will give the learner an idea how to form combinations
in Chinese to express time when it is absolutely necessary that it should be
expressed ; but the Chinese eschew such particularity as much as possible. The
Examples given below, it must be remembered, are but expedients, and must,
necessarily, often be imperfect.
Expedients can only be used when no forms exist.
No amount of expedients can free such a language from a certain amount of
ambiguity. At the same time it must be remembered, that our own language is
not altogether free from ambiguity-in fact no language is :-e.g. I found him
out. And our own language is also wanting in expressions, or terms which in
Chinese, and some other languages are simply expressed without the verbiage
necessary, in such instances in English. For instance we have no word in English
for the Chinese word sung', but must paraphrase it as ' something to eat with ¦
the rice ; the Scotch, however, in this instance have an equivalent in the word
' kitchen.' Again our terminology for degrees of relationship is not so complete,
nor so clearly expressed as it is in Chinese, and some other languages. Nor have
we any terms in use for the day preceding the day ( or night, or morning, or
evening) before yesterday, and the day (or night, or morning, or evening) following
the day after to-morrow, such as the Chinese have.
 I

VERBS. 83

VERBS .

CXXVIII. "TÁ, TO SMITE, OR TO STRIKE.

打
ACTIVE VOICE,

INFINITIVE MOOD.

Indefinite Tense , [ To ] smite, † tá.

Imperfect Teuse, [ To ] be smiling, TX tá ‘kan.
Perfect Tense, [ To] have smitten, ‡‡ ¶ ko'chan² shí tá cho .
Perfect of continued action, [ To] have been smiting, ko'shi
Syiking 'ta 'kan.

PARTICIPLES.

Imperfect, smiting, TX tá kan.

Perfect, having smitten, viking tá 'cho.
Perfect of continued action , having been smiting, ko'chau
slí víking tá kan.

INDICATIVE MOOD.

Present Indefinite Tense, I, c. smite,, &c. ngo, &c. 'tá.

Present Imperfect Tense, I, &c. am smiting, , &c. ‡ EX ngo, &c. tá kan.
Present Perfect, I, §c. have smitten,, &c. ‡ ngo, &c. 'tá 'cho.
Present Perfect of continued action, 1 , fc. have been smiting, ✯, &c.
‘ngo, &c. tsau hai tá lai.

Past Indefinite Tense, I, ĝýc. smote, #, &c. ‡ ngo, &c. 'tá 'cho.
n
Past Imperfect, I, &c. was smiting,, &c. Xngo, &c. ko' shi tá 'ka .
Past Perfect, 1, &c. had smitten,, &
c. ngo, &c. ko shí tsau²
hai tá cho.
Past Perfect of continued action, I, &c. had been smiting, e
H. &c. 1
ugo, &c. ko'chan² ¸shí ‘yí ¿king hai² tá 'kan.

Future Indefinite Tense, I, c. shall smile,, &c. ngo, &c. tsöng loi tá.
Future Imperfect Tense , 1, gc. shall be smiling,, &c. * ngo, &c. hau²
loi tá 'kan.
 84 VERBS.

VERBS.

Future Perfect Tense, I, §'c. shall have been smiting, **, &c.
>
EKATH
已經 打阻咯 If song loi ko chanh 'shi" to, ngo, &c . y king ta cho lo
Future Perfect of continued action , I, fc. shall have been smiting ,

到 我, &
DJ &c. 已經 係 打緊 tsong loi ko' chan ' sh to ', ugo , &c. zí
cking lui tá kau.

IMPERATIVE MOOD.

Smite, tá

CXXIX. For the Subjunctive Mood use 或 wûk , or若 yōky or these with

hai, or similar words before the Tenses of the Indicative as given above, either
immediately following the Pronouns, or use such words without any Nominatives
expressed at all, as :

1k'ui wák, Jai, he may come.

'néi
我若 hui, Sneti m 'shai hui', ifI should come, you
你 唔使 去 ngo yöky ¿lai,
need not go.

CXXX. The Impersonal form of the Verb, there is, or there are is not used
in Chinese. Its equivalent is simply yau, have and mó, not have, or none,
nothing.

CXXXI. In the cases where in English the impersonal it is used, in Chinese the
Verb in some case precedes the Noun, as :

✯ lok, ‘yü, it rains.

lok, süt , it snows.
落大雨 lok, tái Syü, it rains heavily.

CXXXII. In other cases the Chinese prefer to use the simple and more natural
form where the Noun is expressed, and the Verb follows it, as :

fung ch'ui, the wind blows.

CXXXIII. For the Passive Voice use péi before the Verb in its different

Tenses as given above, the person or agent being expressed, if in no other way by
the impersonal, yan, someone.

CXXXIV. Where emphasis is expressed in English by do, it may be rendered

in Chinese by shat,, or Echan ching' , &c., as :
ΟΙ
Ingo chan ching' oi' nei, I do (really) love you.
 VERBS . 85

VERBS.

CXXXV. A number of auxiliary words, particles in some cases, Verbs and

other parts of speech in other cases, are used with Chinese Verbs at certain times,
and have the effect of rendering clearer the meaning of the Verb, as regards the
time of being and action . They also limit and define the nature of the being, or
action expressed by the Verb (see Paradigm of Verb) ; but if rendered into English
literally these words have the contrary effect to what they have in Chinese. Many
of these words are given, and the manner of their use exemplified elsewhere in
this book.

CXXXVI. Interrogative sentences are formed in several ways.

1. By simply giving a rising intonation to the word, or last word in the sen
tence very much the same as in English, as :
'Hai ? Yes?
Kui hai lai* ? Has he come ?
佢係 嚟

2. By the simple addition of an Interrogative Particle at the end of the word,

or sentence, either taking the place of the Affirmative Final Particle, where such is
used, or in some cases forming a suffix to it. Practice and a careful attention to
good speakers will teach the proper use of these, as : —

係 咩 Hai² me ? Yes ?
THE Hai' lo' ¿me? Is it so?

3. A most common form is the Interrogative-Negative.

係 唔係 Haim hai ? Is it so, or not ?

tits Yau mò ? Is there any, or not?

4. It often happens that Nos. 2 and 3 are combined, as :—

係 唔係 呢 Hai㎡ m hai² ¿ni? Is it so, or not ?

Note. It will be seen that unlike the English the Subject of the Verb precedes the
Verb in the Interrogative sentence as well as in the Affirmative, and the Verb therefore
follows instead of preceding it as in English. There are no auxiliaries to usher in an
Interrogative sentence in Chinese. If there are any words to show that it is Interrogative
they close the sentence, as :

個人 係 今朝 嚟 囉 咩 Ko yan hai kam chiu lai lo' me? Oh ! Did the

man come this morning?

EKŁ ! Kui hai shik, mat, ye pi ? What does he (or she, or it) eat ?
係 I Hai kom ' to lai lo' me ? Were there so many as that came ?
or Was that the number that came ? lit. 'Twas so many came eh?
 L

86 VERBS.

VERBS.

Exception. What at first sight might appear an exception is in sentences, such as,
Hai' ngo tsò² me ? Did I do it ? but it will be seen that it is no exception
to the affirmative form of this sentence, as, Haingo tsò² lok , It was I
who did it. The it is not represented in Chinese, and so in sentences where it is used in
English it is omitted in Chinese and the subject to the first Verb has to be supplied when
turning the Chinese into English.

CXXXVII. In answering questions, the Chinese language is less elliptical than

the English, as in Chinese it is often necessary to repeat the words employed in the
Interrogative. The Chinese is more like French in this respect, as it is not con
sidered polite to simply say yes, or no in reply to a question, as :

k'ui yau lai me ? Did he come ?

Ek'ui
佢 有嚟 yau lai, he has come.

CXXXVIII. The Interrogative-Negative is largely used in asking questions,

and in such cases it often happens that 係 hai² or 有 yau, or 唔係 唔係 m hai² or
mò is repeated in the answer as well as the Verb used in asking the question
(in this respect again like French) , as :
bai² m
mhai²
佢係 出 街, 係 唔係 呢 Kui huai² chruty fkái, lhai? ni ? Has he gone
out, or not?
hai hai² ch'ut, kái lok , yes, he has gone out.
係 咯 , 係 出 街咯 hm² loko,
kui hai tsau hui', haim hai ni ? Has he run
away or not?

Ehai', 'k'ui hai' 'tsau hui' lok¸ yes, he has run away.

CXXXIX . When a pronoun is used in the question it is well to repeat it in

the answer, or use another, as the sense, or the person of the speaker may
require, as :

係 佢唔 係 吖 Y Hai² k'ui m hai² á ? Is it he, or not ?

EK , or , hai k'ui lok , or hai²á, hai² 'k'ui lok。, it is
he (like French again.)

Remark. Therefore when replying to a question, as a rule, take the question that has
been asked you, and simply put it in an Affirmative, or Negative form, leaving out when it is
an Interrogative-Negative question the Affirmative, or Negative part of the question, as the
case may require.

CXL. The Negative precedes the Verb, as :

m chí, I do not know.

 VERBS . 87

VERBS.

CXLI. If the Negative follows the Verb it is interrogative, as :

Yau tsò mò, Did you do it, or not ?

Exception .—The Negative pm follows the Verb when it is desired to express simple
negation in those cases where its preceding the Verb implies not simple negation, but an
unwillingness to perform any action or deed, as :

#ngo tsò'm tak¸, I was not able to accomplish it, or simply, I did not do it.
我 做 唔 嚟 ngo tsù 2 Sm Slai, I could not do it, or I did not do it.
#ngo mtsò², I will not do it.
Note.-Inability is expressed by pm wui, not able.

CXLII. The Negative is placed before a single Verb, and after the Nominative,
if it is expressed , as :
ngom oi lok , I do not want it.
pm tso' lok , (I) will not do it.
唔做 咯 ;

CXLIII. Where certain words are used as adjuncts to the Verbs, whether they
are Verbs themselves, or other parts of speech, the Negative is either placed
between the principal Verb and its auxiliary, or the Verb and its adjunct, as the
case may be, or the Negative immediately precedes the two, as :

我 唔到 omm
Đề thI ĐI] ngo ° tổ ,
#ngo mo tak, to', I cannot reach up to it.

#ngo om tak, to',

tso² tak,,
我 唔 做得 ngo m
I cannot do it.
我 做 唔得 ngo tsòz m tak,, }

CXLIV. The Negative follows an Adverbial Phrase of time, as :

ĐH đi yin' shí mò, none at present.

myíká mò, none at present.
Eni ch'an² ' shi mò lok , none at this time.

CXLV. The simple Affirmative and Negative, yes and no, are generally
represented in Chinese by the words 'yau there is, or the Verb to have, or 係
hai' it is, and mò there is not, or not to have, or 唔係 m hai² it is not
respectively, as :

yau mò, Is there any ?

yau, there is some.
係噉 唔係 Hai² kom m hai ? It is so, or not?
m hai' 'kom, it is not so.
 88 VERBS .

VERBS.

Note. —It might he said, that the words yau, hai, and mò, p
m hai? are so largely used in making statements, and asking questions in Chinese, that in
accordance with Remark under CXXXIX, they often come into the reply in Chinese where
in English a simple, yes, or no would suffice. In some cases they simply represent the
English Verbs have, did, to be, &c., and the Negative employed together with these Verbs.

CXLVI. The words hai á are often used with the meaning only of
well, very well, or as a simple sign that the statement that has been made has been
heard, without implying assent in any way whatever.
Note. —The most marked use, which I have noticed of this hai in this sense is in
murder, or other criminal cases, when in rebuttal of a statement by an accusing witness, the

prisoner will sometimes reply, 係 吖, 但 係 我 有 做到 嚟 吖 hui ¿á, & tin²

hai³ ³ngo ‘mò tsò³ tò' lai á, yes (or well) ; but I did not do it. The idea seems to be this —
Oh yes, I have heard what he says, or very well, that is his statement ; but the fact remains
that I did not do anything of the kind at all. It must be noted what an important part the
final plays in this meaning.

Remark. It must be remembered that the Verb is not always used in Chinese where
it would appear in English, upon the principle, probably, that what can be understood from
the sense need not be expressed in words, as :

DE đi & JUE NAM EIF Kui yau trở mò ni? Nga tím chí
to'k'ui á' ? Did he do it or not ? How do I know (whether) he (did or not ?)

CXLVII. hai² me often represents the exclamations which are so

often used in English conversation, such as :

E ⠀⠀ kui fo kéi fán lai lok , his partner has returned.

hai² me ? Has he?
ngom tsz² tsoi², I am unwell.
haime? Are you ?
Remark. These exclamations generally imply astonishment, or disbelief.

CXLVIII. Nothing is mò ye, or imò mat, ye, as : —

sza, nothing is the matter.
冇 乜事 呀 nd mat, sz
mò ye a', nothing.
Note.- mò mat, though it means nothing is sometimes used in the sense of
nothing much, or nothing particular. In some cases its use seems somewhat similar to the
use of nothing in English at times, as for instance, What is the matter with you ? Oh ! nothing,
is sometimes said in reply, when there is really something the matter, but it is either of so
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unimportant a character, or the speaker does not care to make any fuss about it, so he says,
nothing.

CXLIX. No one is mò yan, ormò pín ko', as :—

冇 人 話 mdyan wa², no one says so.

# mò pin ko' 'kom tsò², no one (or nobody) does so.
冇 邊 個 噉做

CL. Do not is expressed by mai, p¸m hò, as :—

pk mai tso², or pm hò tso , Do not do it.

pktat inai tau, Do not touch it.
咪 咁多 事 mai kom' to sz , Do not be so troublesome.

Remark. There is a distinction between the two, but it is often lost sight of, and the
two are used interchangeably. mai means do not ; a simple prohibition, while
sm ho has some sense in it of that it is not well to do so, and so means originally that it is

not well to do it, ass , Engo hün' uéi, ¿m hò tsò² , I advise you not
to do it.

CLI. Verbs are often left out in Chinese Sentences.

1. The Verb is often understood in a Chinese sentence when it would be

expressed in English, as :

麵包 酸 Min㎡ páu sün, the bread is sour.

2. The Verb is often understood in sentences composed of a subject and some

quality predicated concerning it. In such cases the copula is understood, as :—
ko'shünch'onz, the ship is long.
個人 高大 kogian phò tái , the man is tall.

3. In sentences expressive of admiration, surprise, or wonder, or in sentences

beginning with Interjections the Verb is often understood, as :

⇓⇓⇓Ái C yú, kom' ka shai', Dear me, how handsome !

采, 乜 你 咁 衰 Ts'oi, mat, nei kom' shui ? Tush ! why are you so stupid ?
兮, ¤ Hai, mai ' kom á, Look here ! do not do so.
Chan ching' hò lá, it is really good.

CLII. The Subject always precedes the Verb : that of which something is pre
dicated, that which is predicated of it.

Exception . Sometimes in questions the Personal Pronoun follows the Verb, as : —

係 Hai' ngo lai me ? Was it I who came ?

 90 VERBS.

VERBS .

Note. It will be seen though that this can scarcely be called an exception, and
does not invalidate the rule as it, if translated according to its meaning and literally according
to the construction, would resolve itself (or it might be rendered into) the following English :
It was I came, eh?

CLIII. When two Verbs are used to state what in English would only require
one the object is placed between the two, as in English, as :

péi ngo hui², let me go.

CLIV. No Preposition is required before the Verb in the Infinitive in Chinese.

Position and sense show that it is to be rendered by an Infinitive in English, as : —

1 k'ui wa '
k'ui song tá ngo, he said, he wished to strike me.

CLV. In a sentence the Indirect Object follows the Direct when it is governed
by kwo' , which may be rendered in English by to, the sign of the Dative, as :—

141 *** péi ko'po' shü kwo'ngo, give that book to me.
But it may either precede or follow when kwo' is not used, though it is
better to follow, as :

Epi pò² shū k'ui , give him a book.

CLVI. In quoting what one has said the forms " said he " " said she " &c. are
never used in Chinese, the Subject always precedes the Verb, as : —

1 'k'ui wa², he said.

Note. —The use of the Final Cwá is more akin to the " he said ' of the English, as : —
kui ta ngo wá, he said he would strike me.

CLVII. That Chinese Verbs are as idiomatic in their use as English or French
or other Verbs the following list of words or phrases in which tá to strike,
occur will show. This list is not exhaustive, as so common and so varied is the
use of this word that new forms are constantly appearing.

1. It is used in the simple form tá with the meaning of to strike, to beat,

to hit, and is the common rallying cry in faction fights, street quarrels, & c. , as :

tá fo, to strike a light.

1 tá 'k'ui, beat him.

Note. —It is to be noted that a Chinese often says E ‡‡ k'ui tá ngo, aud the
same of similar acts of assault, when upon further investigation it is found that though
au assault may have been committed in a strictly legal sense of the term that actually
 VERBS . 91

VERBS .

no blow has fallen upon the person of the speaker. Care must therefore be taken not
to render such phrases literally until it be found whether there was a threatened assault,
or an actual one.

2. As striking takes a prominent part in war &c. it is used in the following

combinations (in a quarrel).

打 交 tá kau, tofight (in a quarrel).

tá chong , tofight (in battle).
打 tá ¿yeng†, to conquer ; to win.
tá shi, to be defeated.
tá lut, to get off ; to rescue. (It necessarily implies to get off by the use of blows) .

3. With the idea of striking it is used in combination with the article which
is habitually struck to indicate the name of the striker, that is, the man who earns
his livelihood by continually striking such an object, as : —

tá tít lò, blacksmith,

打
ĐT 銅
Đi 佬
1 tr tung lò , coppersmith.
tá kwú ké', drummer.
te shek, lò, stone-cutter .
打石 佬 富

4. It is used in the names of actions in which striking is habitually used, as :

tá fui shá, to chunam.

tá fui lò², to caulk.

5. It has the meaning of " by" when used with a Noun representing the way
by which, or on which the progression takes place, as : —
tá lò² hui', to go by road, or by land.
tá shui lò² hui', to go by water.
or
шtá shán hui' , or 'tá shán lò hui , to go by way of the
hills, or to go by a mountain road.
tá ch'öng ch'ut, hui , to go out by the window.

打 tá shun hui' , to go by ship.

ATA tá teng hui , to go by boat.

đi
tá ché lui , to go by carriage, or any wheeled vehicle.

6. It is used to express certain actions of the elements, as :

打雷 响 tá Jui höng, the sound of thunder.

tá fung, to blow.
ĐA tư tại fung , or “tá fung kau,, to love a strong wind,
 အား
92 VERBS .

VERBS .

tá tái²yü, to rain heavily.

個 啲 水 打過 嚟 ko' ti shui tá kwo' lai, the water beat over.
tá lui 'sz, to be killed by a thunderbolt.

7. It is used in combination , or in words to represent sudden and violent

actions, as :

打石 炮 tá shek, p'au', to blast.

tá máng, to be struck blind (i.e. to become blind from the effect of a blow , or a
thunderbolt).
tá pai, to become lame from the effect of a blow.
tákwún fú, to go up to Court ; to go to law.
tá tit , to be struck down.
tít tá, accident . ( See next sentence) .
跌打 丸 tit。 tá yün, accident pills (i e . to cure the effects of accidents).
lokz shui, to be thrown down into the water.
打 落水
打 落地 tá lok, tei , to be thrown down on to the ground.
tász, to be killed ( primarily by a blow , or in battle).

Note - tá sz , necessary implies that the death has resulted from a striking
of some sort, or from a shot from a fire-arm.

8. It is used to express a number of other actions, as :

'ta so', to sweep.
tá shui, to draw water.
tá tengt, to drive in a nail.
打花 面 tá fá min², to paint for acting.
‡ Ï'tá¸ts'ints‘au, to slue right round.
tá lok , to knock down .
tá ch'am, to be sunk ; to sink.
H
tá tám' , to pay a visit of inspection, or surprise.
tá chikshan, to be naked.
tá fátyan hui', to send any one away anywhere (as on a message) .
tász lit, to tie a dead knot.
tá páut, to do up in matting (as a bale of goods).
Já lei, to attend to anything.

9. It means to buy in the phrases.

،
tá mai, to buy rice.
ktá fo shik , to buy provisions.
 VERBS . 93

VERBS .

10. It is used to express a profession, or occupation, as :

k tá 'fo kéi', an inmate of a brothel.
(
tá tsáp , a general assistant in a shop, or a coal trimmer on a steamer.
† ) tú pún (ke³) , a capitalist, anyone who provides money for any undertaking,
or work by some one else.

11. It has the sense of to play in the following combinations, as :

ĦĦ 'tá kwat, 'p'ái* , to play at dominoes .
ĐT KH HẢI tả chí phái* , to play at cards.
12. It is used for the action of fire-arms, as :—

U ĐÂU ĐT IE hoi tưởng ta k‘ui, shoot him.

' tátsök , to go shooting (birds).
bui

13. It implies addition, as :—

ng ko' tá ts'at, ko', five added to seven .

CLVIII. Some idiomatic uses of háng†, to walk.

1. It represents bodily, or physical motion, as :
hangshün, to proceed, or start on a voyage, or to be employed on board ship.
hángt kái, is used in the sense of taking a walk, or to go out.

佢 就 致
TERA & 行 * 出
H 街
1kJ 呗
HJ Kui tsau chỉ háng† chut , phái che , he has only just
gone out.

% T { j i lại hàng * kái lá, come have a talk.

2. It is also used in combination with the name of the object in connection

with which certain men take that physical motion which is necessary for them to
undergo to perform their daily toil, as :
hángshün keʼ, a sailor.
hángt kai ko', a man who attends to the outside business of the shop, or firm.

3. It represents actions, or conduct in the phrases

hangt ying, to punish.
hángt wai, conduct.
bangt lai, to perform a ceremony.
hángt ts'ing, to worship at the tombs.

CLIX . On the uses of hei which means to rise ; 0to stand up.
1. It means in some combinations " to raise," as :
Anh đi châu héi, to raise.
héi shan, to get up (lit. to raise the body) .
 94 VERBS .

VERBS .

2. In combination with some words it means to start, to begin, as :

✯ héi ‘shau, to begin.
) hei kök, (háng†), to start on a journey.

3. Used with t'au it means beginning , as : —

L'héi 't'au* , beginning.

4. Used with tso² it means to build in a generic sense and is used with
respect to the building of any edifice, as :
L'héi tsò², to build.

Note.一起做 嘅 wéi tsò? ke , is a builder, and接 盤 起 做 嘅 tsippin

héi tsò' ke', is a builder and contractor. The natural order of the two callings is preserved
in this sentence. We say a builder and contractor ; but in so saying we reverse the order of
things, as a man must first take a contract before he can begin to build, unless it be argued
that the man first followed the business of a builder, and then added on to it that of a
contractor. 起 屋 hei uk,, andhéi pò' are also used with regard to building
houses the first is used about houses, and the second about shops. These two must not
be confused. In Cantonese Colloquial houses, and shops are kept quite distinct. A building,
the lower story of which is used as a shop, or mercantile office ( for there are no distinctions
between the two except when the latter is a large concern and then it may be called a 行
hong) is called ap'o ' and not an uk,, which is a house in which there is no shop .

5. Used after the Verb tso it means completed, as : —

( ) tso hei (lai), it is done.

CLX. hoi has a number of different meanings .

1. It means simply and commonly " to open," as : —
Thoi 'ye, to open anything.
hoichöng, to open a new shop.

2. It is used with other words to represent the commencement of many actions

and deeds, as :
hoi shan, to start (on a voyage) .
hoi ka', the first stated price, i.e. the price at the beginning of a bargain, lit. the
opening price.

3. It has to be rendered into English sometimes by " off" or " out," &c., as : —
hoi shun, to go off to a vessel.
hoi hui' , to go off (to anything) .
ij ) H (háng ) choi lai, come nearer (to the speaker).
Note.- hoi t'au, means, outside, off there, &c.
S
VERBS. 95

VERBS.

CLXI. shöng does not only mean to “ go up.”

1. It also means to enter in a book, as :

shöng 'po*, to enter in a book.

shong sho' , to enter accounts.

Remark . Compare our phrase to enter up accounts and other similar expressions.

2. It has the sense in the Chinese of, going up in the following phrases ; but
the genius of our language requires it to be otherwise rendered in English, as :—

shöng shun, to go on board a vessel, i.e. to go up on to a vessel.

shöng hok , to go to school, to begin to study, i.e. to go up to study.

上岸 shöng ngon², to go ashore.

Láy suông kái,
Remark. The difference between these two is that there must be a street, or streets
when the latter is used, i.e. the one must go up on to a street, or streets, and not simply up on
to the land ; and a street, or streets necessarily implies a hamlet, village, town, or city.

3. The Chinese habitually say when speaking about going to the capital of
the Empire, or the capital of a province "to go up " just as we say, "to go up
to London," & c. , as :

shong shengt , to go up to Canton, i.e. the city.

shong king, to go up to the capital (of the Empire, Peking) .

CLXII. On some uses of the word lok .

1. It is used in the sense of descending, falling, &c. , as : —

lok, lai, come down, i.e. descending come.

Note. It must often be rendered in English by down as above, as : —

tit lok , tofall down .

2. It is used in the sense of putting down, as :

( ) lok, pún ( ts'ín), to advance, or pay in, or pay up, capital, i.e. to put down
capital into any business or concern.

( ) lok, tengt ( 'ngan* ) to pay (down) bargain money.

3. It is often used where in English an impersonal form of expression would

be used, as :

lok, süt , it snows.

落雨 lok, yü, it rains.
 96 VERBS.

VERBS.

4. It must be translated in some instances by " begin," as :

落 手 10kz shau, to begin (any manual labour) , i e. to put to the hand.

lok, pat,, to begin writing, to commence writing a book, fc.

5. In one, or two phrases it must be rendered, to go on board, as :—

lok25shün, to go on board a vessel,

6. Again it must be sometimes rendered by " put in " or " mix," as : —

lok shá, to mix sand (with anything ).

CLXIII. It will be found that there is quite an idiomatic use of lai and
hui' in some sentences.

1. When going or coming are spoken of, they are used with reference to the
position of the speaker, and are equivalent to " come " and " go," as :--
上上 落

shöng lai, come up、

shöng hui', go up.
lok, lai, come down .
lok, hui' , go down.
2. But it is to he remembered that lai when following Verbs is often
used as a denoter, or sign that the action the preceding Verb refers to has been ac
complished, as :
佢 做 嚟 咯 'k'ui tsò² lai lok , he has done it,

3. In answer to a call lai lok , means, (I am) coming. lai to come

when used in phrases the equivalent of the English, come in, come out, come back
again, come up, follows the word, which shows whether the action is one of exit,
or entrance, of ascent, or descent. In other words the word which takes the
place of, or represents rather, the Preposition in English precedes the Verblai,
to come, &c., as : —
yap, lai, come in (lit. in come, or entering come) .
ch'ut, lai, come out (lit: out come) .
出 嚟
shöng lai, come up (lit. up come) .
lok, lai, come down (lit, down come) .
Note. — The same holds good as to hui', to go.

CLXIV. Idiomatic uses of ' ts'o*† to sit, to sit down.

1. It is in common use in the sense of visiting ; paying a visit ; going to see

anyone, as :
(yau) tak, Shán ¿lai 'ts'o * † , when you have time come, and see us,
(lit. come sit) .
 VERBS. 97

VERBS .

你 時時 見 佢 咩 係, 我 日 日 都 入 去坐 嘅 Nä ghd ght
kin' 'k'ui me ? Hai', 'ngo yat, yat yap, hui' ' ts'o * † ke', Did you constantly see him ?
Yes, I went in every day to visit (lit. to sit).

2. It is often used with the sense of to ride, or where we would use a Preposi
tion, such as, " in," or " by," or " on," or where the sense would be plain enough
in English without the use of any Preposition .

'ts'o*+ má ch'e, to ride in a carriage.

坐船 去 ts'o* t shün hui' , to go by vessel.
Ets'ot t'eng† ¿lai, to come by boat.
'ts'o* + 'kíú*, to ride in a sedan chair .
' ts'o* tch'e 'tsai, to ride in a jinrickshaw.
Note —To ride on aminals is more commonly and better expressed by k'e, as :
騎馬 k'e Smd, to ride on horseback 騎 蟹 kte lui, to ride on a mule. It is not
wrong however to use 'ts'o*t, as :

' ts'o*t má, to ride on horseback.

' ts'ot lok。 to, to ride a camel.

3. It is also used where in English the Verb " to be " and the Preposition.
"in" would be used, as :

Ats'otkám, to be in gaol.

*** Tai² Yan 'ts'o* † t'ong lok , His Lordship is in Court.

CLXV. Notice that with the word 'sz, to die (whether by natural, or
unnatural means) the means, or method, or cause by, or from which, the person
has died, or been killed is, more especially in the latter case, mentioned in
Chinese, as :

peng'sz, to die from disease.

ching 'sz, to put to death (used in a general sense).
tász, to kill, to slay.
Note . This is also used in a general sense to a certain extent, that is to say when
speaking of death in battle, or by the hands, or by the elements ; but not when applied to
death by drowning, falling, &c., &c. Therefore it will be seen that though a dictionary may
<
put, as some standard ones do put, under the heading " to kill " shát , shát sz,
ching 'sz, it must be understood that they cannot be used indiscriminately, but
have different shades of meaning.
<
titO sz, to be killed by a fall.
tsam' 'sz, to drown ; to be drowned.
 98 VERBS .

VERBS.

Remark. Compare English present illiterate phrase, drowned dead.

hoi' ' sz, to put to death by foul means.

(
剖 死 kat,
ket, sz, to stab to death, or to kill by stabbing.
' chám sz, to execute, to stab so as to cause death.
C
kuk, sz, to put to death by suffocation.
hák O sz, to frighten to death.

Note. This last is used in the same exaggerated way that the similar phrase is used
in English, as :

k'ui hák Ész ³ngo, he frightened me to death .

CLXVI. The Chinese are very fond of euphemisms to soften the idea of death,
so repugnant to many ears, as : —

1.一過 身 kwo'shan,

Note 1. - The Buddhist idea of metempsychosis may be here referred to. In that case
it would mean to pass into another body.

2.- kwo'shai', to pass into another life, or world.

3.- m tsoi , not present, not here.

Remark. -Compare the Hebrew he was not with this last phrase.

Note 2. — An emperor's death is spoken of aspang.

CLXVII . The Chinese generally use, like the French, the Verb to have
yau when stating the size or weight of any object, or the age of any person,
or thing, followed by the wordsko, high, ch'ong, long, sham,
deep, fut , broad, ' ch'ung , heavy, nín, years, & c. , & c. , & c. , as the
case may be, as :—

Yau 'kéi kò ? How high is it ?

TÊÂKHẢ Kui kam nín yau kéi tái ? Hono old is he ?

Note 1.-All the above and similar sentences may be as well, and sometimes better
S
rendered, by putting the yau at the beginning of the sentence, as :—

Yau 'kéi ko¿ni ? How high is it ?

Note 2. -Theyau may also be omitted, as :—

sam ts'ün' kò kkw
woo'ngo , he is three inches taller than I.
佢 三寸 高 過 我 kui <
Note 3.- It will be seen that articles possess weight , &c. in China instead of being
simply so heavy.
 VERBS. 99

VERBS .

CLXVIII. yau is also used in place of the English Verb, to be, when
speaking of the hour, as :

Yau kéi tim chungui ? What time is it?

CLXIX.ch'ut,, to go out, and háng† , to walk, used with kái

street, had better, as a rule, not be rendered literally, as :

ch'ut, kái, simply means out, and is similar to the French en ville, as : —
Ek'ai chut, ¿kái, he has gone out.
háng† kái, to take a walk (lit. to go out into the street), as : —
Ꭺ Sám ni ? Where is Á Sám ?

EXO k¹uingám ngám ¸háng+ ch'ut, ¿kái lok , he has just

gone out.

Note. To bring the idea of being on the street into prominence, it is necessary to
make use of some other words, as :

¿ Я 係 邊 處 Ko'hat, yi hai pín shü' ? Where is the beggar ?

個 乞兒
kui hai kái shöng , he is on the street. This last being more like the
French a la villa.

CLXX. The term for to marry when applied to a man is different to that
used when a woman is spoken about, as : —
1. To take a wife, or marry a wife, ists'ui' , or ' ts'ui.

2. The girls also of a family are said to have ch'ut, mún, when they
marry, i.e. to go out of the door.
3. To marry a husband is ká' .
Caution. These terms must not be used the one for the other.

4. Other terms are also used, as, ' ts'ui sam p'ò generally pro
nounced ' t'sò san p'ò , to take a daughter-in- law, i.e. to get one's son married .

CLXXI . There are distinctions to be observed in the use of ' tai, to be worth.

1. In speaking of articles, say, ( ) chik, (tak,), or (1 ) tai (tak,).

2. But tai cannot be used in speaking of individuals. A phrase that may
be used in such a case is, 'k'ni yau tái pá 'tsín* , he has a lot of
money (lit. a great handful).

Note 1 tái² pá may also be rendered by much, a great deal.

Note 2. —There are also other uses of tai, such for instance as in 'tai
'shau, clever, and in mtai tak,, I cannot bear it, or I cannot stand it.
 100 VERBS .

VERBS.

CLXXII. Difference between PHX shik,, and 知 chí.

1. chí means "to know a fact ; to be aware of ; to be sensible of. "

你 知 呢 啲 事 幹 唔知 呀 Nä chi ai i sz㎡ kon᾿qm chí á ? Do you know
about these matters ?
你 知 係 噉 唔係 呀 ‘Ni elf hai² koım m hai a' ? Do you know that it is so,
or not?

你知 佢 有 冇 呀 Nä chí k'ui yau lai mò a' ? Do you know whether he

came, or not?

你 知 邊 個 打 你 唔知 呀 Ni chi Pín ko tá nói m chí ả ? Do you

know who struck you?
Sis Shik, means, or implies, mental knowledge , science, acquaintance , and may
PHX
generally be expressed by " to understand ; to know how to do anything " (ie. to
be able) ; " to be acquainted with ."

我識讀 ngo shik, tulky . I can read it.

ʻngo shik, tsz², I can read, and write.
ngo slik, tsò , I know how to do it.
ugo shik, 'k'ui, I know him (i e. am acquainted with , not merely know him by
having simply seen him once, or twice).

Note. To know anyone from having seen him, as say a thief from having seen him in
your house, would be kiu' kwo'.

CLXXIII. mái, to buy, mái², to sell. The difference between the two
words consists in the tones.mái, to buy, is in the lower rising tone, or 下 上
há' shöng . mái , to sell, is in the lower entering, or A há² yap Either

Ch'ut , or péi is often used with mái , to sell, andya , to enter, is

also often used with mái.

Remark. It will be well for the beginner to get into the habit of using these words at
first with mái, and mai², and thus cover any mistake he may make about the tone
of the word, or at all events to fall back on them, if he is in any difficulty in making himself
understood. He may also employ them in asking a question, if he is not sure that he has
understood what has been said, as :

lê Vi Hi My hai mái ch‘ut , lok , it was sold.

141ngo máipéi k'ui, I sold it to him.
係 買入 嘅 had nii yap ke', it was bought.
wa mái yap hai? m hai' a' ? Did you
你 係 話 買入 係 唔係 呀 Ni had w㎡
say bought, or not?
 ADVERBS. 101

ADVERBS.

CLXXIV. Adverbs are compared in the same manner as Adjectives.

Note. In fact many Chinese Adjectives and Adverbs are one and the same. The
distinctions of parts of speech are not marked with the clearness that exists to a great extent
in English. Chinese parts of speech are more like some few English words that may be
classed under different parts of speech according to the use they are put to, as :

fái má, a quick horse.

Áfái tilai, come quickly.
Ek'ui Jai tak, fái” , he has come quickly.

ADVERBS OF TIME.

CLXXV. Adverbs and Adverbial Phrases of Time sometimes either precede,

or follow the Verb, or often commence a sentence, instead of ending it as in
English, as :

聽日 嚟 ting yat¿lai, come to-morrow .

Myíká hui , go now.
嗰 陣 時 科 咯 to chan² shí kíú lok', (he) called out at that time.
今日 好天 kam yat, hò t'in, it is good weather to-day.

Note 1.- ting yat , to-morrow, must not always be taken in a literal sense,
it often means simply some indefinite time in the future, as :—

It'ing yat, lai kín ngo lá, come see me again .

Note 2 The to which appears in the English construction of to-day, to-night, is
represented in Chinese by 4 kam this, or the present, as 4 kam yat , to-day, and
4 kam mán, to-night.

Remark. — In colloquial the y of yat, after 4 kam is changed into m.

Note 3.-Note the difference which may exist in meaning due to the Adverbial Phrase
of time occupying a different position in a sentence, as :
koyan lai, the man came at that time.
koshi ko'
lai 'ko ¿shí, the time that the man came.
個人 嚟 嗰 時 ko yan lai
Ngo sai' 'ko ko' chan' shi, when, or at the time I was small.
個 陣 時 我 細 個 lko² chan² ¿shi ngo sai' ko', at that time I was small.

CLXXVI. When the Nominative of the Verb is expressed whether it be a

Noun or Pronoun, it, with its qualifying words, in many cases either precedes the
Adverb, or Adverbial Phrase of Time, or not , as :
01'
#AKK, 。 4✯ngo kam mán lai lok , or kam ³mán
ngo lai lok , I shall come to-night.
 102 ADVERBS.

ADVERBS.
" CLXXVII. The Adverb, or Adverbial Phrase sometimes follows both Subject
Nominative and Verb, as in English , as :

#K, 4ʻngo Jai lok , kam mán, I shall come to-night.

Note. But it is added more as an after-thought in such a case. The best form for the
Beginner to get into the habit of using will be the one in which it immediately follows the
Subject of the sentence.

CLXXVIII. In some cases the Adverb, or Adverbial Phrase must occupy a

certain place in the phrase, or sentence, and no elasticity is allowed, as to its posi
tion, as :

我就 嚟 咯 ngo tsnu² lai lok , I amjust coming.

ADVERBS OF PLACE.

CLXXIX. Adverbs of Place, or Chinese words which may be translated in

!
English by Adverbs of Place, when used with simple Verbs follow the Verb as in
English, as :

chai ni shü¸, place it here.

搬去 嗰 處 pún hui' ko shü', move it there.
lai ni shu', come here.

CLXXX. When there is an Object in the sentence Adverbs of Place often

precede the Verb, or when the Verb to be is used they precede the Verb, as :
1
ni shu' yau 'ho to 'ye, there are many things here.
Eni
呢 處係有咯 shu hai yau lok , there are some here.

CLXXXI. When Adverbs of Place are used with hai they generally
precede the Verb , as :

我 喺 呢 處 打 個人 Sngo uai cni shü' 'tá ko' yan, I struck the man here, (at
this place).
Note 1.--The Dictionaries are again wrong in saying that here isni shu’, and

there, ko' shu' . These two phrases are undoubtedly the phrases which are often
used when we would say here, or there ; but in reality they mean this place, and that place,
and they are not the only phrases which are used in Chinese where in English one would
say here, or there. It is therefore far better, while at the same time they may be best
rendered many times in English by here, or there, to remember their construction, viz :
:
thatni, and ko' are respectively this, and that, and that any other word which
 ADVERBS. 103

ADVERBS.

represents the English word spot, or place is used with either of them according to whether
one wishes to say here, or there, as :

ni shu' , this place, English here.

Eni tát , this spot, English here.
P'ni teng*t, this spot, English here.
ko' shu' , that place, English there,
ko' tát , that spot, English there.
ko''teng , that spot, English there.

Note 2.- Where is likewise rendered into Chinese by a number of different phrases,
which are similar as regards the manner of their construction to those above. To represent
where pín, which, is used, and then any of the other words which represent spot, or
place, such as, 處 shuii², 笪 tát , 定 teng*t, 位 'wai*, 吓 ‘há, as :
喺 邊 處 Hai pín shu'? Where is it, or at what place is it?

Remark. -No Verb is required, or can be used in such sentences. Notice that where is
is transposed in Chinese into is where.

CLXXXII. The Adverb often occupies a different position in a Chinese sen

tence to that it occupies in an English one. When an Adverb is used in connection
with a Verb to amplify its means, it is placed before the Verb instead of after it as
in English. Note the following transposition of ideas according to our mode of
thought. To the Chinese it is, however, the natural mode of expressing oneself,
and ours the unnatural, as :

English. Chinese.

Come back.
Back come, 翻 í fán lni.
Come up . Up come, 上嚟 shòng Ji.
Come down. Down come, 落嚟 lok, lai.
Come out.. Out come, 出 嚟 ch'ut, Jai.
Go back.
Back go, 翻 去 tán hui .
Go up. Up go. shöng hui'.
Go down . Down go, lok, hui' .
Go out. Out go,
出去 ch ut, hui .
Down stairs. Floor down, lau há².
Up stairs. Floor up, lau slöng².

ADVERBS OF MANNER.

CLXXXIII. Adverbs of Manner may be placed in many cases in different

positions in a sentence, as the following examples will show, their position in the
 104 ADVERBS.

ADVERBS.

sentence sometimes producing a slight difference in the meaning, as :

'
k'ui ' se tak, fái”, he can write quickly.
'k'ui se fai' to tak,,
} he can write quickly.
佢 快 都 寫得 kui fail to ‘se tak ,
快 都 寫得 嘅 Hi to se tak, ke' , it can be written quickly.
Note. The insertion of the Negative even in the sentence does not alter the readiness
of the Adverb ofManuer to appear in any part of the sentence, as :—

佢唔 寫得 快 kui ‚m ‘se tak, fái”,

m 'se tak, ke', he can not write quickly.
佢 快 唔 寫得 嘅 vui ? ‫ܢ‬
佢寫 快 就 唔得 嘅 kui se fail tsuu² m tak, ke',

CLXXXIV. tò used in the sense of " as well," " also " is used before the
Verb, as :

long ko' to 'hai shu' , the two were there also, or as well,

Note. It appears after the Verb also in other senses.

CLXXXV. kom, or 'kom 'yöng*, so, or in this manner precede the

Verb, they qualify, as :

ŒŒ₺‡Œ¹'ui 'kom ' yöng* ‘tsau ke' , he ran like this.

CLXXXVI. When, however, an Auxiliary as 係 ha² is used, 噉 kom, or

'kom ' yöng* come between the Auxiliary and the Verb, as : —
'
k'ui bai² kom ‘tsau, he did so run .

CLXXXVII. Too, kwo't'au and tak, tsai' follow the Adjective

they qualify contrary to the usage in English, as :—
多 過頭 to kwo t'au, there are too many.
(
shiú tak, tsai², there are too few.

CLXXXVIII. More is often represented in Chinese by chung?, as :

25
chung yau tak, lai, there is more to come.
‫ ܐ‬،
chung yau ti ( tím), there is a little more.
chung yan, there is more.

CLXXXIX . The Adverb to used after many English Verbs is represented in

Chinese at times by kwo', as :

'péi kwo' ngo, give it to me.

S
P
ADVERBS AND PREPOSITIONS. 105

ADVERBS .

CXC. The Negative is introduced into the middle of the phrases, # yök,
yin, if, and tsz² yin, of course, consequently, as : —

yök, pat, yín, if not .

2
自 不然 tsz pat, yin. See Remark,
Remark. This last is very seldom used in a negative sense. Strange to say it is
almost always used in a strongly positive sense.

CXCI . The phrases É AM shui chí, and E X AM shui pat, chi, though
in the one phrase a Negative, pat,, not, is employed, and in the other it is not,
have both the same meaning, the idea of which may perhaps be as well represented
in English by the following, as by anything else, viz : but unexpectedly, but who
would have thought it.

Remark 1.- See Remark under CXC .

Remark 2. -The phrasesying yin, still, and sui yin, although

are never used with the Negative.

CXCII. When a word which represents the Adverb in English is used with
two Verbs in Chinese it is placed between the two, as :
Without Adverb.

‡ ning hui', take away, i.e. lit. take go .

ning lai, to bring here, i.e. lit, bring come.
With Adverb.
ning ch'ut, hui', take out.
ning yap, lai, bring in.

PREPOSITIONS.

CXCIII. Many Prepositions precede the Verb in Chinese, even when there
may be two Verbs in the sentence, though in the latter case they may be placed
with equal correctness between the two. Those which may be used either before,
or after the Verb oftener precede than follow it, as :—

tung ngo hul , go with me.

## má ³ngo hui tsò³, go with me and do it, or go, and do it for me.
ò²
你 同埋 我 去做 ni t'ungmái ngo hui ts ., go with me, and do it.
去 同 我 做 hi tung ngo tso , go and do it for me, or come with me, and do it.

ĐC RESET At 3 Pha ngo troi ni kán uk, chữ yau shap,

tonín lok , I have lived in this house ten years, and more.

S
REM .
UNIV
0F
 106 PREPOSITIONS.

PREPOSITIONS.

au ko'stin lời yap I entered by the

我 打 裹 頭 個 條路 入 ugo ta Sui st'
inside road.
162
你 去 就打 山 邊 個 條路 行 ni hui? tsun² tá shán pin kod sťíú
háng†, when you go, go by the road on the hill side.

CXCIV. Some Prepositions always precede the Verb, as :

ngo tá lò² hui' , I went by road.

Mngo 'tá 'ko pin' kwo' , I passed by that way.
但當 我 面前 做 ‘ kui ¿tong mín² ts'in tsò² , he did it in my presence.
tong ngo min²

CXCV. Prepositions which are used with Verbs to modify, or extend their
meaning are sometimes placed after the Objects, and not immediately after the
Verbs, as in English , while at other times they immediately follow the Verbs, as in
English, as :

ning ko tsun fán lai,

bring back the bottle.
B ) ning fan ko tsun ( lai),

CXCVI. If the Personal Pronoun is expressed in the sentence, it comes first,

and then the Prepositional Phrase followed by the Verb :-see sentences above.
Exception. - yan wai , however, either follows, or precedes the Pronoun.

CXCVII . The Preposition is often not expressed, but understood, as :

* ✯✯lau fán kwongo shik , keep it for me to eat, becomes

lau fán ngo shik¸ .

CXCVIII. Prepositional phrases follow Adverbial phrases, as :

我 聽 晚 喺 呢 處瞓 ngo ngo t'ing Smán hai ni shüʼ fan', I shall sleep here (at this
place) to-morrow night.

POSTPOSITIONS .

CXCIX. Some words which are Prepositions in English follow the Noun in
Chinese, as :

mún lui, within the door.

mún ngoi , outside the door.
shau shöng , on the person.
sam chung, in the heart.
I 前 min² ts'in, before the face.
面
ချင်က

PREPOSITIONS. 107

PREPOSITIONS.

uk, hau², behind the house.

shau há², under the hand, or under the command of.
uk, noi, within the house.

CC. Notice that the above words are capable of transposition, and have a
different meaning when so transposed to those given above, as :

lui mún, an inside door.

ngoi²¿mún, an outside door.
shöngshan, the upper part of the body.
chung sam, the very centre.
opposite.
前面 ts'ín míu², before, or
Khan² uky houses at the back.

Thashau, to move the hand down ; to begin anything.

Anoi² uk,, houses within an enclosure, (seldom used.)

CCI. After. After is placed after its governed words in Chinese instead of
before as in English, as :

從此 之後 tsung 'tsz chí hau² , after these things.

Ek'ni lok‫ ܐ‬lai chí hau², after he came down .
tsung kam yi hau , from this time henceforth.
kong yün chí hau², after finishing talking.

CCII. After is sometimes placed after the Subject of the sentence, and before
the Verb, as : —

'k'ni hau² loi lai ke', he came afterwards.

CCIII. The English Preposition " at " is not used in Chinese before time, as :—

六 luk, tím lai, come at six o'clock.

CCIV. " By " when used to show the manner, or route, or method by which a
journey has been, or is to be taken, is represented by tá, as :—

tá lo² hui' , to go by road (i.e. by land).

tá 'shui lò² hui' , to go by water.
tú ko' shi ' kwo', to go by that way, or place.

CCV. " By" when used in English after a Comparative before a Noun of
Number, Measure, or Weight, or a Number relating to age is not used in Chinese,
 108 PREPOSITIONS.

PREPOSITIONS.

the word yau being quite sufficient, as : —

- † k'ui kò kwo' néi 'yan yat, ts'ün', he is taller than you by

one inch.

-kwai' yau yat, pún' , it was dearer by one half.

BI✯ - Néi 'ch'ung* kwongo Syau yat, kan, you are heavier
than I by one cutty.

*** = 'k'ui sai' kwo' ngo ‘yau sam níu, he is younger than I
by three years.

CCVI. In a Chinese Sentence when the dimensions of an object are given the
Preposition "by " is rendered often by T tá, to strike, being an idiomatic use of
that Verb, as :
I
FREER ) ng ch'ekO ( ch'öng) tá sám click (füt ), five feet by
three feet.

CCVII. " Of " is not expressed before the name of a month, as in English , as : —

Ying yi yüt, sám hò , the 3rd. of February (lit. English second

month, and third day).

CCVIII. " Of " is also not used after weights and measures, as in English, as : —

shap, kan 'yü *, ten catties ( of) fish.

two and a halffeet ofsilk stuffs.
兩尺 半絲 髮 long ch'ek。 pin’sz fáto ,
Note. —In Chinese accounts the position of these words would be altered, viz :

+ƒ'yü* shap¿ ¿kan, fish, 10 catties, &c.

CCIX.tung means for, and from, as well as with, as : —

ngo t'ung 'k'ui mái, I bought itfrom him.

我 同 佢 賣 ngo t'ung ‘k'ui mai², I sold it for him.
我 同 佢 去 ngo t'ung 'k'ui hui' , I went with him.

CCX. There is no need to use a Preposition with the Verb ' ts'o* , to sit, 1
though it can be, and is sometimes used, as :

Ats'o*, to sit, or sit down, or to sit on.

Remark. —It will be seen that the Verb ' ts'o* represents all these ideas. Note
also the following :―
坐落 'tsto* lokp to sit down. 8
ts'o tsoi, to sit on.
 PREPOSITIONS AND CONJUNCTIONS. 109

PREPOSITIONS .

' ts'o* chu', to be sitting on, or to be sitting.

' ts'o* shöng ko shü’, sit up there.

CCXI. The Preposition is sometimes left out, as :

Nei ni ? Where were you ?

Remark. This is somewhat like the English, And you ? which sometimes occurs.

Note.-Note, however, that it is polite to repeat in answer to a question the question

itself as an answer ; but without, of course, its interrogative adjuncts.

CCXII. The word " for," or phrases " in order to " or " in order for " are some
times represented by lai.

EENERE 'k'ui béi kán uk, lai ‘péi 'k'ui chü², he built a house
for him to live in.
佢上去 嚟 帮 佢 嘅 kui Shöng hui lai pong k'ui ke' , he went up in order
to assist, or help him.

CCXIII.kwo' occupies sometimes the position of to, and has that meaning
when used with a Noun, or Pronoun governed by a Verb, as :

péi kwo'ngo, give it to me.

CCXIV.kwo' can, however, often be understood, the principle of position

shewing that the Noun, or Pronoun must be in a Dative Case.

Remark. That is to say ifngo follows such a Verb as 'péi, anyone can see
that it must mean to me. Ergo it is unnecessary to put in the kwo'.

CCXV. to' is used before Nouns and Pronouns in the sense of to arrive at,
or reach to, &c. , as :
>
佢 昨日 到 城 'k'ui tsok, yat, to sheng†, he arrived at Canton yesterday.
1 på Elk'ui mò tak, to', he could not reach to it.

CONJUNCTIONS.

CCXVI. With regard to Conjunctions the beginner in Cantonese colloquial

must try and do away with all his preconceived notions of joining sentences to
gether, and speak as a rule in short simple sentences, as far as possible, unconnected
by Conjunctions.

CCXVII. The use of a word to express " and " in English is not always
necessary by any means in Chinese, the juxtaposition of several words in a sentence
 110 CONJUNCTIONS .

CONJUNCTIONS.

implying often that there is a connection . A slight break in the voice between the
different words thus connected will serve to draw attention to the fact that the
words are joined together, as :—

Đề thi TE , 7 = { By ngo, ‘ ei, ‘c‘ni, ( to) hui kái lok , I, you (and) he
(all) went out.

CCXVIII. To prevent misapprehension when a number of names of people, or

things are thus joined together in a seemingly unconnected way, it is common to
insert after them words such as PA hám pá láng, all, hám, all ,

tò, and, or also &c. , and thus group them together, and show that they are
connected, as :

事 頭 , 事 頭 婆, 細 仔 喊 蜯 哈 去 澳門 sz² 'tau *, sz t'au

sp'o, sai' man 'tsai, hám ¿Pá láng hui’Ò’ -¿mún, the master, mistress (and) children
have all gone to Macao.

CCXIX . For the same reason t'ung, with, is used where in English “ and ”
would be employed, as :

English. He and I went. Chinese. ‡ 'ngo t'ung 'k'ui huï', he

went with me.

CCXX . With names of persons and things it is also common to introduce a

Numeral in the sentence immediately after the Nouns, which in English would
simply be connected by " and," as :—
-
English.—John, Thomas, Mary and I read the book. Chinese.- , Œ –
亞 八 , 亞 連 , 四個 (人) 讀 個 部 書 ngo, A' yat,, Α pát , Á'lín, sz' ko'

(yan) , tuk, ko' pò shii, I, A yat, A pat, A lin, four (persons) read that book.

CCXXI. Instead of a Conjunction being used the Verb is often repeated before,
or after, several Nouns whether they are Nominatives to the Verbs, or Objects, or
in the Dative Case.

#* # 4 , # ✯ ‘péi shui, ‘péi süt¸, ‘pei ko’ (po-léi

(ʊr ¿léi)-¿púi kwo' ‘ngo, give water, give ice, give a tumbler to me.

#PEK ³ngo ‘péi néi péi 'k'ui lo', I give it to you, and him.
Note. This last sentence is ambiguous, and rather bad Chinese, and may mean, I give
it to you to give to him. A Numeral introduced into the sentence will free it from this
ambiguity and put in in good style as in No. CXX, as :

我 俾 你 兩個 人 咯 Sngo pei Snúi Yong ko ¿yan lok。, I give it to you two.

 CONJUNCTIONS. 111

CONJUNCTIONS.

CCXXII. And is sometimes represented in Chinese by leng† when used

with numerals, as : —

−6 % ~ + yat, pák O leng† yat, shap , one hundred and ten.

CCXXIII . But leng is more often used to denote that a denomination has
been left out, and when twice repeated that two denominations have been left out.
In fact it often takes the place of the nought in the Arabic numerals, as :—

yat, löng leng† yat, fan, one tael and onefun.

- + IM ** - yat, shap ng löng leugt leng† yat,, fifteen taels and one lí.

CCXXIV. And is not required in a Chinese sentence when the different

dimensions of an object are given, as :—

五寸
£+長 £ 三寸 = + 闊 ng ts'ün' ch'öng sam ts'ün' fit,, five inches long (and) three
inches broad.

CCXXV. " And " is often left out between Numerals as in German, as :

-- + yat, pák, yat, shap, kau, one hundred and nineteen.

INTERJECTIONS, EXCLAMATORY PARTICLES AND THEIR TONAL VARIANTS.

CCXXVI. The following are some of the words used in Cantonese for Inter
jections.

¤у Á! Ah! Ho! What !

Á ! Ah! 'Ho! Indeed ! Oh!
Ai! Oh! Ho² ! Indeed ! →→
Ai! Alas! 嘷 Hò ! Ho !
Á ! Ah! Ho' ! Ho!
¿Ch'ai ! Tush ! Bosh ! Tut ! CHo ! Pooh!
Ch'e! 29 "" "" Hui ! Tut ! Hulloa ! (This must be pro
Ch'e²! 99 "" 19 nounced shortly .)
止
Ch'i ! "" "" 19 PF Hui ! or Hui' ! Ah ! (This must be
Ch'oi ! also pronounced ts'oi ! (used lengthened out in pronunciation).
by women) Tush ! Bosh ! Mai sheng ! Chut !
E²! Now! 也噉 呀 Mat, ‘koma ! What !
Ha! Ha! Indeed ! Oh ! B Ná ! There ! BB ná² ná² ! Now !
Há! What! Now !

T Ha ! Ah! Ne' ! There now !

He ! Tut ! (don't be afraid) 啊 O² ! Oh !
 Beats
112 CONJUNCTIONS AND FINALS.

CONJUNCTIONS.
'He! What ! Pai ! Alas !
Hai ! Here! Pi ! Tush (used by women.)
Hái ! Oh ! What a bother you are! Woi ! Hulloa there!
Hai ! Alas ! HR Wor² ! Hulloa !
Hng ! Dear me ! Fiddlesticks !

FINALS .

CCXXVII. Though the Final Particles so freely used in Chinese have in most
cases no exact meaning as separate words, yet they often throw a strong emphasis
upon the sentence, and express in the clearest manner whether it is Interrogative or
Affirmative-whether the speaker is simply assenting to some proposition that is
stated, or expressing surprise at it- whether a simple statement is being made, or
whether it is being stated in the most positive manner, and with all the emphasis
possible or whether the speaker is not very sure of what he says, and with this
uncertainty asks in an indirect manner whether it is so, or not. It will thus be
seen that such words as these express different feelings, and modulations of intensity
of such feelings, and bring out different shades of meaning as they are used singly,
or in combination (very much as stops are used in an organ to modulate, and
intensify the sound of the music. ) It will be seen that such words as these are
very difficult, or impossible even of translation into English where accent and
emphasis alone do their work to a great extent.
A proper use of these Finals will bring out one of the niceties of the language.
There is a great beauty in all these variations of meaning of a sentence , which is
often lost when little attention is paid to them. Certain English scholars of Chinese ,
who have devoted nearly all their attention to the fossilised book-language, and
despise, in their comparative ignorance of it, the living language -the colloquial
lose sight of all these, and many other beauties in the Cantonese colloquial .

It is curious, and most interesting to notice how small and insignificant a word
at the end of a sentence will change the meaning of the whole sentence, like the
rudder at the stern of the ship governing the motions of the whole vessel.

CCXXVIII. List of Finals, and their Tonal Variants.

1. A. p , interrogative, emphatic, or merely euphonic.

2. A' ,, emphatic, or merely euphonic.
3. Á², F, emphatic, more so than the last.
4. Chá,, cautionary, or restraining.
5. Chá,, stronger, or more urgent than the last.
 FINALS. 113

FINALS.

6. Cha' , HE, cautionary, or restraining , or delaying, but rarely implying

doubt. Item
, implying limitation." th
7. Che,, or
8. Cle' ,, implying limitation, &c.
9. Chá,, implying limitation, but stronger than the last.
10. Chi, emphatic.
11. ‘Cho , or ‘cho, u emphatic .
12. E, interrogative.
13. Ká,
emphatic-affirmative.
14. Ka' ,
15. Ke',, somewhat similar to the last, or simply euphonic.
16. Ko' ,, same as last.

17. Kwa,, implying doubt, or some degree of probability ; there is also an expectancy
of a reply sometimes expressed in it, —a reply which will solve the doubt, or intensify
the probability.
18. Kwa',, the same as last.
19. Kwo,
the same as last.
20. Kwo',,
21. Lá, emphatic, or simply euphonic.
22. La',, implying certainty, or simply cuphonic.
23. Lak,,, emphatic.
24. Le,, affirmative.
25. 'Le, ' , same as last.
26. Le' ,, imperative , or emphatically affirmative.
The best way to indicate the difference between these two series of Les
may be best illustrated by supposing a traveller was telling a tale the truth
of which he could see was doubted by his auditors. He might use any of
27. Le 哩 the second series of Finals in replying to any question put to him in which
28. Le, he could plainly see there was doubt felt by the questioner ; but supposing
29. Le², ', his tale concluded and corroborative evidence proving that his marvels were
truths , then the former series would be employed by him, their use giving
a slight trace ofjubilant triumph, which, if expressed in English colloquial,
might be, " There you see that's just what it is. "
30. Lo, " affirmative, or emphatic.
31. Lo' , " same as last.
32. Lok ,, the same as last, but intensified in its sense.
33. Má , simply interrogative, or interrogative combined with surprise .
34. Ma, , interrogative and expecting an affirmative reply.
114 FINALS.

FINALS.

35. Ma' , interrogative : asking certainly as to any matter.

36. Má, PA, same as last, or the meaning might be expressed by " (I told you so before),
now isn't it so?"

37. Má, interrogative, and expecting an affirmative reply.

38. Má², I , affirmatively-interrogative.
-"Is it so ?"
39. Me,, interrogative, or expressing some surprise as well , as—
40. Mo,
41. Mo, interrogative, implying doubt.
42. Mo' ,
43. Mo ,
Mo, J
simply interrogative, used after hearing anything said, having the sense of,
44. Mo , J
" Oh ! that's what it is, is it ?"
45. Mo² ,
46. Ná, JB
emphatically demonstrative.
47. Ná²,
那
48. Ne,
49. Ne, pul
emphatically demonstrative, used when one might say in English, " There
50. Ne',
now, what I said was true you see."
51. ' Ne ,
52. Ne², n
53. Ne, or more commonly ni, JE,
interrogative, or emphatically demonstrative.
54. Ne, or ni, }
55.0, 啊
strongly emphatically affirmative. The first is rarely used.
56.0 , 啊
57. 0², 啊
58. Pe' ,, interrogative .
59. Pe² ,, affirmative .
60. Po' . , very emphatic, used often after the final lo'.
61. w
',
a
62. Wá, denoting that the statement preceding it has been made by some one
before.
63. Wa²,
64. Wo',,
啾
65. Wo, same as above.
66. Wo² , p ,
67. Yá, Att affirmative.
68. Ya', H ,
69. Yá,
70. Yá, expressing slight surprise.
71. Ya², ot,
 FINALS . 115

FINALS.

72. Yák,,,
73. Yák , affirmative.

74. Yák,,,
75. Yo' ,
76. Yo², expressive of surprise.
:}

Note. Considerably more than half of the above Finals and their Variants do not
appear in any dictionary.

CCXXIX . No definite rule can be laid down as to when Finals are to be used,
or omitted. See CCXXX .

CCXXX. Use finals at the end of a third, or perhaps nearly a half of the
phrases and sentences (as well as after the same proportion of the single words)
that you use.

CCXXXI. Remember that it is of great importance to use appropriate ones.

The above list will show that they have a peculiar and often particular force and
meaning, which is worse than lost if wrong ones are made use of.

CCXXXII. If the same final is put into a shongping and

shöng' hui', the former has generally more emphasis of meaning than the latter.

CCXXXIII. The following combinations of hai' and pm hai² the

equivalents for yes and no in Chinese and a number of different Finals will give
some idea of the shades of meanings that a judicious use of these little words will
admit. A few of them it will be seen are synonymous, but it must be remembered
that it is well nigh impossible to give an exact rendering of the little shades of
difference that exist in their use in Chinese ; and the same particle used in different
connections is capable of giving different meanings.

Of course the learner will understand that the English words that appear
below, opposite the Chinese, do not all appear in the Chinese , but where a certain
state of feeling is given expression to in English in certain words, the same feeling
would probably cause the Chinese words that are opposite the English to be ut
tered. It is thus rather a free translation without which it would be impossible to
convey anything of the sense of these little enclitic particles.

1. 係 Hai² Yes, (affirmative) .

2. [ ‘Hai ? Yes ? (indicative of great surprise. )
3. 係 哩 Hai² Jo Yes, (you are right it is so.)
4. 係啊 Hai² o' Yes, (indeed it is so.)

5. 係 喴 Hai² ne Yes, (didn't I say it was so, or I told you so.)

 116 FINALS.

FINALS.

6. TH Hai² me? Yes? (yes ? Ol ! is it so ?)

7. 係 嗎 Hai² má ? Yes ? ('tis so, isn't it ?)

8.1 Hai' ma' ? Yes? (it is indeed so, is it not ?)
9. Hai' mo' ? Yes? (the same.)
10. 係吖 Ha². á Yes, ('tis so )
11. 係 呀 Ha² 臺 Yes, (it is so indeed .)
kwá It's so I think.
12. 係 啩 Ha² (kwa
13. 係啩 Hai kwd I think, yes-I think it so, is it not?
14. 係羅 Hai² lo Yes, all right.

15. 係 咯 Hai² lok。 Yes, that's it.

16. Hai lo' má' ? It's so, is it not, eh?

17. Hai' lo’¿me ? Oh ! it's 80, is it indeed?

18. Hai² lo' Yes, 'tis so.
係與
>
19. 係 囉啩 Hni² 103 kwid 'Tis so I think.

20. 係囉 啩 Hai² lo kwá It's so, isn't it?

21. 係 嗾 Haid e Indeed it's so ?

22. 係 唔係 呢 Hai² m hai² ni? There, isn't it so now ?

23. Hai²m hai² ne? Is it so, or not ? or simply Is it so ?

24. 係 唔係 呀 Hai' m hai a' ? Is it so, or not ? or simply Is it so ?
25. 係 唔係吖 Hai² m bai² á? There, didn't I tell you it was so.
26. 係 唔係 啊 Haim hai o' ? Do tell me is it so, or not
Remark -The above list is not exhaustive.

ON THE USE OF SOME OF THE FINALS.

CCXXXIV. , is generally spoken in a short sharp manner, while the

voice often at times lingers on a.. The more emphatic á is meant to be,
the shorter and sharper must be its pronunciation, while the converse is the case
with regard to 呀 ?
CCXXXV. When to use yá and 呀 .
1. ny á is used when say the
m
proposition enunciated is disputed, as for instance if one were to say, " You ay
say it was not hot yesterday, but it was very hot." 2. a' is used when a simple
statement is made, not in opposition to any expressed opinion such as given in
No. 1 above, or it is used when a strongly confirmatory statement is made. Fá
is used Interrogatively, but a never.
CCXXXVI. The Final cha' is often the final in phrases commencing with

mai, ¸m hò, &c. It often expresses what in English would be shewn

by the words " wait a bit," " yet a while," and " yet."
 FINALS AND SIMPLE DIRECTIONS. 117

FINALS.

CCXXXVII . The Final kwa' can be used alone, or with the emphatic
Finals lá, lo
', lok , but not with others. When so used it qualifies
this emphatic meaning, introducing an element of uncertainty, and possibly occa
sionally a half interrogative meaning is thrown in as well. This Final cannot be
used with Interrogative Finals, such as ¤á, á, má', me, mo'

and ni. The Finals given above comprise all with which it can be used.

CCXXXVIII. Some Affirmative and Interrogative Finals can be used together,

the Interrogative coming last.

CCXXXIX. The Final po' is used alone, or with lo', or lok。.

See also CXXXVI, Nos. 2 , and 4, CXLVI, and CXLVII .

A FEW SIMPLE DIRECTIONS FOR THE GUIDANCE OF THE BEGINNER.

CCXL . When there are several Subject Nominatives to a Verb, or several

Verbs to a Subject Nominative in English, distribute them in Chinese into short
sentences with one Subject alone to one Verb ; and put them separately if you are
asking questions, getting an answer to the first before putting the second, and so on.

CCXLI. Avoid dependent clauses as much as possible. Reduce every sentence,

that is not the most simple in its construction, to its original elements, and put each
as a simple sentence as above.

CCXLII. Do not put several contingencies to a Chinese at one and the same
time. Put one at a time, if they must be put ; but above all things avoid con
tingencies, or supposititious cases as much as possible. Some Chinese cannot under
stand them at all.

Remark. As the Chinese takes his food all minced up, or chopped into pieces, so he
takes his mental pabulum in small doses and cannot understand a long sentence. If he
assents seemingly to what you say, supposing you will persist in putting a long inquiry to
him, formed of several component sentences and contingent clauses, you will doubtless find he
has not grasped the whole in its entirety. He may assent or dissent, as the European
supposes, to what has been said, when at the same time the whole complicated sentence that
the foreigner has constructed with the greatest amount of ingenuity has gone in at one ear
and out at the other without having made any impression of the sense on his mind. He has
perhaps seized hold of the last clause in the sentence, and answered it without any regard to
what precedes it.
 118 SIMPLE DIRECTIONS AND FINAL DIRECTIONS.

SIMPLE DIRECTIONS.

CCXLIII. Omit in long sentences all subsidiary words where possible : --such
as ke' (often the sign of the possessive), téi' (the sign of the Plural),
ti, & c., & c.
Remark. These little words are often omitted with advantage in short phrases even.

CCXLIV. Unless it is wished to draw special attention to the fact that what
happened was in a Past Tense, or has just been completed, omit, as a general rule,
signs of such past time. The same holds good of Future time. In fact in Chinese
the Tenses need but little looking after : they generally take care of themselves.
Note. This rule holds especially good in long sentences where nearly everything is
sacrificed to conciseness.

CCXLV. In an Interrogative sentence begin by saying what you have to say

in Affirmative form, then put an Interrogative Final at the end of your sentence, or
repeat your sentence in a Negative form after the Affirmative form . Never attempt
to use Interrogative constructions as in English.

CCXLVI. As a rule when replying to a question take the question that has
been asked you, and simply put it in an Affirmative or Negative form, leaving out
when it is an Interrogative-Negative question the Negative or Affirmative part of
the question, as the case may be.

FINAL DIRECTIONS,

CCXLVII. Aim at simplicity of construction.

CCXLVIII . Avoid all complicated sentences.

CCXLIX. Avoid abrupt answers to questions.

CCL. Listen attentively to all you hear.

CCLI. Pick out all the words that are new to you ; find out their meanings
from your dictionary, or if you do not find them in your dictionary, which is more
than likely, go to what is a better source of information, the Chinese themselves ;
then when you know what they mean, use them yourself.

CCLII. Remember that imitation is a strong point in learning Chinese.

CCLIII. Do not be afraid to speak at all times in Chinese.

CCLIV. Remember that it is considered impolite for a Chinese to laugh at
your mistakes, and consequently he will rarely do it ; and if a Foreigner laughs at
you remember that it is he that should feel ashamed with himself for laughing at
you when he probably still makes many mistakes, and not you for making a mistake
while the language is new to you.
&
FINAL DIRECTIONS. 119

FINAL DIRECTIONS.

CCLV. You cannot avoid making many mistakes at first.

CCLVI. Bungle on somehow at the very first rather than not speak at all.

CCLVII. Resolve that you shall speak Chinese, and you will do it.

CCLVIII. Ask those with whom you are in the habit of talking to tell you
when you are wrong.

CCLIX . When you can speak a little, take a newspaper published in English
-a local one is preferable - and tell your teacher the news in Chinese -beginning
with the local items first, as this will interest him, and you will be able to learn a
great many Chinese words in this way. At your first attempt you will find that it
seems well nigh impossible to put the English into Chinese, therefore be content
with merely giving your teacher a bare outline of the contents in your own words,
eschewing the leaders at first, and after a while you will find that you have more
confidence and a better command of words, then follow the newspaper more and
more until finally you give every word in the newspaper articles as far as possible.
Use your dictionary freely in this exercise.

CCLX. Learn as many synonymous words as possible.

CCLXI. Practise half a dozen different ways of saying the same thing in
Chinese. You will then find when speaking that if you are not understood when
saying anything, you will very likely be able to put it in another form which will
be intelligible.

CCLXII . Talk over what seem to you to be your mistakes with your
teacher, and find out if they are mistakes, and why they are mistakes, and what
is the right word, or right phrase, or right construction to use instead of that
you have used.

CCLXIII. Do not attempt to talk much with those who do not speak good
Cantonese at first. You will only get confused if you do.

CCLXIV. Speak to your servants in Chinese and make them speak to you in
Chinese. Listen to nothing from them in English, unless you find that you cannot
understand what has been said in Chinese, then , and only then, as a last resort
when you have used every other means to discover the meaning of the word.
When you have got the English of it then let the Chinese be repeated to you again ,

and be prepared for it next time.

CCLXV. Above all things have patience and plod on even if you seem to be
making no progress. A language that has taken the Chinese thousands of years to
develop is not mastered by you in a day.
 120 FINAL DIRECTIONS.

FINAL DIRECTIONS.

CCLXVI. Get a good teacher, and trust him rather than your dictionary, if
the two differ, as differ they must if he is a good teacher.

CCLXVII. Get some colloquial books, such as :—

" The Peep of Day " in Cantonese Colloquial.

"The New Testament " in Cantonese Colloquial.
" The Pilgrim's Progress " in Cantonese Colloquial.
" The Holy War " in Cantonese Colloquial.
" The Shing Yü Hau " in Cantonese Colloquial.
"The Bible History " in Cantonese Colloquial,
"Come to Jesus " in Cantonese Colloquial.
Parts ofthe " Old Testament " in Cantonese Colloquial, such as :
"The Book of Genesis."
"The Book of Ruth."
"The Book of Psalms," &c., &c., &c.

And let your teacher read them over to you until you can read them yourself,
then read them with him. You will find this course of reading of great assistance.
The purely native colloquial books you will find at first of little use compared with
those named above. When you can talk pretty well you may turn to them as well .

CCLXVIII. If you are free to follow your own course of study, then leave the
book language alone until you are well grounded in colloquial. You can find
sufficient variety by reading the books named above, and by writing. The latter
will be of great assistance in aiding the memory with new words learned.

Of course if you are wiser than Dame Nature, who insists that Chinese youngs
ters shall learn to speak Colloquial before they learn the book language, then you
will attempt the learning of two languages at the same time-two languages, be it
remembered, that are at the same time so similar and yet so dissimilar that it is
well nigh impossible to attempt to study the two at the same time without doing
great injury and injustice to one or other, or both. The colloquial generally suffers,
and the consequence, owing in a great measure to this initial mistake, is that we
can boast of but few good speakers of Chinese. Therefore, if possible, have nothing F
to do with the book language until you have attained a very good knowledge of
colloquial-say until you have worked over it (that is to say if you have been work
ing hard and well) for a year, or eighteen months.

CCLXIX. Do not be discouraged, however, from what has been said just above,
and do not suppose that you cannot speak Chinese until you have been at work for
months over it. You can begin to speak almost as soon as you begin to learn, and
 REESE LIBRARY
CF THE
05
FINAL DIRECTIONS. 121

FINAL DIRECTIONS.

in half, or a quarter of the time mentioned above you ought to be able to enter
easily into conversation with those about you, if you have worked with a will, and
at nothing else but colloquial.

CCLXX. Remember that the tones are of great importance, but at the same
time do not make them bugbears. Try to learn them well, and then do not keep
hesitating when you talk, as some have done, over nearly every word, while you
think of the proper tone to put it in. You must first learn the tone of the word
thoroughly, then you will utter it in the proper tone almost mechanically.

CCLXXI. Remember that the idioms are of as equal importance as the tones,
or of even, if that were possible, paramount importance.

CCLXXII. Mix with the Chinese as much as you can. Be very inquisitive
and very communicative .

CCLXXIII. Be careful in the use of the so-called Classifiers. They cannot be

used indiscriminately. Only use appropriate ones.

CCLXXIV. Remember that though the colloquial and so-called book language
are very distinct in many respects, different words being often used for the same
thing, yet that there is a neutral ground, as it were, between the two, and that
Chinese native scholars are also often inclined to use what are really book words
and phrases in common conversation. Therefore when the learner is sufficiently
familiar with good, simple, pure colloquial so as to be able to carry on a conversa
tion of some length in it, his attention should be turned to some of these book
words and phrases, so as not to be at a loss when conversing with scholars. At the
same time let him not get into the habit of using such words and phrases habitually
when simpler forms will as clearly express his meaning. If he desires to have a
good vigorous knowledge of the language, let him cultivate the colloquial element,
as in English he would the Anglo-Saxon element.

CCLXXV. As to dictionaries , the beginner should get the Author's Cantonese

Made Easy Vocabulary, which will be of use though not containing so many words.
as Dr. Chalmers' English-Cantonese Dictionary. For Cantonese-English ones, if
he is prepared to spend time and money on the learning of the language, he should
either get Dr. Williams' Tonic Dictionary, or the latest one, Dr. Eitel's Cantonese
Dictionary. Both are Cantonese-English Dictionaries.

CCLXXVI. As to companion books to study along with the present book,

some of the Author's other works will be found of great assistance, such for instance
as, "How to Speak Cantonese," and " Readings in Cantonese Colloquial. "
 122 FINAL DIRECTIONS,

FINAL DIRECTIONS.

CCLXXVII. Remember that the dictionaries are by no means free from mis
takes. As to pronunciation trust to good Cantonese speakers rather than to books ;
the same holds good of tones ; it holds good also to a certain extent with regard
to definitions. Let it be remembered that English-Chinese, or Chinese-English
Dictionary making is but in its infancy.
CCLXXVIII. Festina lente.

FINIS.
P
APPENDIX . 1

APPENDIX .

EXCURSUS 1.

CHINESE GRAMMAR.

As the Chinese ideas of Grammar as applied to their own language may con
duce to a fuller understanding of the structure of Chinese sentences, and the parts
that the different words play in the construction of such sentences, a short account
of it is here given. Owing to the peculiarities of the Chinese language it is much
simpler than English Grammar.

In the first place words are divided into shat, tsz², i.e. real, or full, or
significant words, and hui tsz , empty words, or particles .
The former "have a sense of their own independent of their use in any
particular sentence." The latter " are employed only for grammatical purposes, to
express relations between words, to connect sentences and clauses, and to complete
the sentence, so that it may be clear in meaning and elegant in form."

The next division the Chinese employ is that of 'sz tsz², dead words,
and wút, tsz , living words. The former are Nouns ; the latter are Verbs.

These are the grand divisions which the Chinese employ ; and in many respects
they appear to be better adapted for their language-a language in which a word
may be used as a Noun, an Adjective, or a Verb - than our English complex gram
matical distinctions.

EXCURSUS 2.

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE BOOK LANGUAGE AND CANTONESE COLLOQUIAL.

It it well that the Learner should understand clearly the differences between
the book and colloquial languages.

To begin with to state the difference broadly, the one may be said to be a dead
language while the other is a living one. The one is essentially the language of
books, of documents, and letters-the written language ; while the other is the
language of friendship, of commerce, of intercourse-the speech of the people- the
spoken language.
 2 APPENDIX .

The book language is handed down from a remote antiquity, and the closer it
assimilates (in its classical form at least) to the canons of antiquity, the finer it is
considered to be. It is a crystallised form of the language ; its genius is against
expansion ; while the colloquial is a present day language, and like all modern
spoken languages has a continual growing, advancing, radical element of slang,
and new words, and phrases opposed to the conservative element of the book
language, which is too dignified to descend to slang, and adopts new words in a
solemn and dignified manner. The book language is concise, terse, and sententious ;
the colloquial, though the same terms may be used when comparing it with modern
European languages, is diffuse when compared with the book language.

The book language is not understood without years of study, and even then
the more obscure the diction of its classical form, the more hidden its meaning, the
more is it prized and thought highly of ; the colloquial is understood by all from
infancy to old age, whether educated, or uneducated .

The colloquial may be divided into a lower, or simpler colloquial, and a higher
colloquial, or one approximating more to the book language in its use, to a greater
or less extent, of certain words, which are not simple colloquial words. The latter
Dr. Eitel has termed in his dictionary, " mixed," and it is not a bad term for them,
as it is a definition as well. The simple colloquial is used by everyone, and is
understood by everyone, the distinction between it and the higher colloquial consist
ing in the addition to the simple colloquial, which forms the basis or groundwork
of all speech in China, of a number of what might be termed " dictionary words,"
that is to put it in a general way words, which a Chinese child, or woman would
not understand. The more a man has dipped into books, or the more he wishes to
differentiate himself from the common herd, so much the more he uses these words.
It will therefore be seen that to learn Cantonese Colloquial thoroughly well it is
advisable to learn first the simpler colloquial, which forms the basis of the spoken
language, adding on a higher and higher superstructure, if time and circumstances
permit, in the way of a knowledge and use of " mixed " words, i.e. certain words,
strictly book language words, but which custom and habit have sanctioned the use
of in speech when those using them and those hearing them are sufficiently educated
either in books, or in the use of these words, to render their use intelligible.

It will be seen that with a good knowledge of the simple colloquial one can go
anywhere and be understood by anyone from the highest to the lowest, who speak
It will be noticed that only certain words belong to this
the dialect in its purity.
" mixed " class, and are capable of being used in the method explained above. It
would never do to begin talking in the book language-it is simply for books and
writing anymore than it would do for, say, a Frenchman to acquire his knowledge

106
 APPENDIX. 3

of English from Chaucer, or even Beowulf, and then air his Anglo-Saxon and old
English in modern London.

The book language has also several styles, the high classical almost as obscure to
the unaided student as a nebula to an amateur astronomer without a proper telescope,
and in some instances it is so obscure in its sense as to lead to the belief that the
explanations offered are little better than guesses at the truth, in the same way that
none of our telescopes are strong enough to resolve some of the distant star masses,
or clusters of nebulous matter, and analogy and common sense are the only guides.

There is likewise a simple book language, which is the best to use if one wishes
what he writes to be understood.

There is an official style, with all its set forms somewhat like ours, and forms
of address.

There is a corresponding style, set and formal, abounding in allusions, which

require years upon years of study to fully appreciate.
And a business style in which accounts and business are transacted .
Contracted forms of the characters are largely used in epistolary correspondence,
as well as in the business entries in mercantile books, and the making out of accounts.

In writing there is also a running hand, and there is also a grass hand, the
latter of which few Europeans trouble themselves about to any extent.

EXCURSUS 3.

THE REASONS WHY EUROPEANS AS A RULE ARE SUCH POOR SPEAKERS OF CANTONESE.

I. The language is so different from any European Language.

1st. In grammatical construction .
(a). There being no Numbers, or Cases to Nouns and Adjectives, and no Moods,
Tenses, Numbers, and Persons to Verbs.
Note This though really simplifying the language causes it to appear more difficult at
first, and makes it necessary for the learner to find different ways to mark, or denote these
differences, because a foreign learner of Chinese has been accustomed hitherto to use all the
complicated modes of expressing his meaning with which European languages abound. Euro
pean children in China if allowed equal facilities for learning Chinese as for learning English take
to the simpler language more readily, not having had any difficulties put in the way of its
acquisition by having learned a more complex system of declension and inflection .

(b). In the apparently free and easy way in which a word does duty as a Noun,
Adjective, Verb, or other part of speech as circumstances may demand.
Note. In English many words, though perhaps not so many as in Chinese, are of more
than one part of speech, but being familiar with them it does not strike us as peculiar, and
 4 APPENDIX .

furthermore our dictionaries state them to be of such or such a part of speech, whereas in most
of the dictionaries hitherto published, for the use of those learning Chinese, no parts of speech
are regularly given, and everything appears to be in confusion in that respect.

(c). The Prepositions and Conjunctions, which we have been accustomed to see in
daily use do not appear in Chinese in many cases. In some cases such words
are not needed in the latter language, and in other cases other particles utterly
unfamiliar in their application or use abound, some of which are untranslatable
into English. They therefore appear like unknown quantities with which we
work in the dark.
1

2nd. The idioms of the language are so different. -

This is owing :

(a). To the people being so differently conditioned that things do not appear the
same to them as to us.

(b). To what is really often a more logical way of putting a matter, but we having
been accustomed to an illogical way of putting the same thing from our infancy
upwards prefer it to the simpler mode. Chinese is essentially a language for
infants, for children, and for simplicity of thought, not only from its monosylla
bic character, but from the natural sequence with which incidents are related.
1
Of course this does not always hold good ; but it is often the case in Chinese
when it is not the case in English.

3rd . The words in the language do not always express exactly the same
meaning in one language as they do in the other. This difficulty does not only arise
when Chinese and English are compared, but applies to other languages as well.
Such being the case it is not surprising that we should find a similar state of affairs
when we come to compare English and Chinese.

(a). These differences are to be seen in the case of a certain Chinese word having
only a limited meaning compared with a word in English which is supposed to
represent it. Consequently some of the shades of meaning which the English
word covers will have to be represented in Chinese by another word, or other
words.

(b). The converse when a Chinese word embraces a far larger number of ideas than
the corresponding English word with its limited meaning can cover.

(c). Complications also may arise, such for instance as the following : —when a
certain Chinese word may be represented in English by one word, and also
may have one or two of the meanings, which another English word expresses,
but not all of them.

Note. This, however, is very much the same as (a.)

 ក
APPENDIX, 5

(d). The converse of (c.)

Note This is not surprising when it is remembered that there is scarcely a single English
word which is perfectly synonymous with another word. So-called synonyms have generally
some shade of difference of meaning.

(e) . Two apparently synonymous words will often be used together, when at other
times the one or the other will be used alone, and this usage or non-usage of

them together in an arbitrary manner, as it appears to the learner.

Note. The difficulties under (e.) are increased by the most of the dictionaries and
vocabularies not calling attention to this peculiar method of using words.

4th . It is most difficult to arrive at the correct pronunciation of the language.

(a). Because in some instances there is no possibility, or but little, of showing the
correct pronunciation by the use of an English alphabet . In some cases there
is no analogy in the pronunciation to that the learner has been accustomed to,
and there is but little possibility of representing a sound, which does not exist
in the English language when correctly pronounced.
Note. This is especially the case with the unaspirated consonants, k, p and t, which are
pronounced with a strong aspiration in English as correctly spoken. The dictionaries and
phrase books have helped to increase this difficulty by stating that k, p and t, are pronounced as
in English, when such is not the case. The way in which it is stated in such publications leads
the learner to suppose that such is the correct pronunciation of k, p and t, when unaspirated,
and it therefore would necessarily follow that when aspirated the letters k, p and t are, or should
be, pronounced stronger than in English, whereas in truth the case is that k, p and t when aspirated
in Cantonese correspond with the correct pronunciation of those consonants in English.
Note. These errors, as well as others, are due to the book-maker following in his
pronunciation the errors of some predecessor. [In such a case it is most amusing to see with
what dogmatic determination he will, when his error is pointed out to him, persist in saying
that his representation of the sounds is the correct one.] The reasons of his following the errors
of his predecessor are due to the following causes. In the first place he is as a general
rule a miserable speaker of Cantonese, mispronouncing many of the words he tries to utter,
and so having no correct standard he takes as his standard a previous book-maker, whom he
believes to be correct in every particular in pronunciation, and another reason is that the book
maker often has for his teacher a man who does not speak pure Cantonese and the impure
sounds come into his dictionary or book.

5th. The tones offer apparently a great difficulty to the beginner, and some
always find them difficult.
Note.-Doubtless the difficulty would be decreased in many cases if they were properly
tackled at the first, and tackled with the idea that they must and can be mastered.
 B
6 APPENDIX.

The difficulty is owing :

? (a). To there being nothing similar in European languages.

(b). To people from different parts of the country giving different tones to the
same words.

(c). To different tones being given to certain words at certain times.

(d). To the majority of the dictionaries ignoring the patent fact that there are
more than eight tones in Cantonese, a mistake which leads the learner into
trying to fit every word into one or other of the tones to which it is supposed,
and stated to belong, whereas in truth and in fact it belongs to another tone
entirely ignored by the dictionary maker. *

6th. From the difficulties which stand in his way in trying to acquire the
language from the little assistance he derives from his teacher.

(a). To begin with, his teacher probably knows no language but his own, which he
has never had to learn in its entirety since his memory has been a sufficient
recording power to reflect the whole of his past life in review before him . He
has therefore no knowledge of the difficulties in the way of a learner, and does
not therefore render that sympathetic assistance which looks out for the
I
difficulties in the pupil's way and prepares him for them, or assists him out
of them .

(b). The teacher, finding that the learner does not pronounce the words correctly after
two or three trials, gives it up as a useless effort, and is content with mediocrity
on the part of his pupil from an idea that that is all that is attainable.

(c) . The teacher often has not the power, or ability to explain matters, so as to put
them within the grasp of his pupil. His explanations are given in words often
at the time unintelligible and unknown to his pupil, and his second or third
attempts after the first have failed are probably just as bad. 1
These difficulties are not meant to discourage the learner from his arduous task,
any more than the making of a chart is meant to discourage the captain from taking
a voyage. It is to be hoped that the pointing of them out will enable the learner to
overcome them more readily and successfully, than if he were not aware of them till
he suddenly came upon them, or gradually learnt about them by experience.

* Dr. Eitel's dictionary is an exception, as he follows Mr. Parker's guidance to a large extent
with regard to the tones, and Mr. Parker is evidently a competent guide in such matters. Dr.
Chalmers' English-Cantonese Dictionary also gives many of the Third, or Colloquial Rising Tones.
The Author's Vocabulary also contains these tones.
 INDEX. 1

INDEX

TO SECOND, OR GRAMMATICAL , PART

OF

CANTONESE MADE EASY.

THE ROMAN NUMBERS REFER TO THE SECTIONS, AND THE FIGURES TO THE PAGES.

A Article used before Classifier of persons, XXXV,

A'XXX , Note, 43. 44.
Adjectives formed from Nouns, LXVIII, 62. At not used before Time, CCIII , 107.
Adjectives, position of, LX, 59. Auxiliary words used with Verbs, CXXXV, 85.
Adjectives, position of, with Classifier, XLIII-LII,
46-48. B

Adjectives, Two, with Classifier, XLVI-XLIX, 46,

By, CCIV, CCV, 107.
Adjective used attributively, LX, 59.
Adjective used predicatively, LX, 59. C
Adverbs, Comparison of, CLXXIV, 101.
Adverbs of Manner, CLXXXIII , 103. Cardinal Numerals, Part 1 , 3.
Adverbs of Place, CLXXIX, 102 . Case shown by position, XI, 38.
Adverbs, Position of, CLXXV et. seq. , 101 et. seq. Case, No, in Chinese, X, 38 .
Adverbs of Time, CLXXV et. seq., 101 et. seq. ChíŹsign of Possessive , XVIII, 39.
Adverbs used to denote Time instead of Tense , Chung , LXII, 60.
CXXIII et. seq., 80 el. seq. Ch'ut,, Idiomatic use of, CLXIX, 99.
After, CCI, CCII, 107. Classifier, Definition of, XXXVI-XXXIX, 44.
And left out, CCXVII , CCXXIV, CCXXV, 110. Classifier dropped in Plural, LII , LIII , 48 .
And, Other words used instead of, CCXVIII Classifier, Every Noun has appropriate, XXXVIII,
CCXXII, 110. 44.
Answer, Same words used in, as in question, Classifiers, Genuine, XXXIX, 44.
CXXXVII , 86. Classifier used instead of Indefinite Article, LV, 49.
Any left out, CIX , Note 1 , 75. Classifier, Mistakes in use of, XXXVIII, 44.
Article omitted, XXXIV, 44. Classifiers , List of, LVI et. seq., 49 et. seq.
Article, No, used before half, XXXIV, 44. Clas fier, Position of, XL-LIV, 45.
 2 INDEX.

Classifier used after Noun, XLI , XLII, 45. Distributive Numerals, LXXXIV, 67.
Classifier used alone, LIV, 48. Distinctions in the use of tai " to be worth,"
Classifier used with ui, LI, 48. CLXXI, 99.
Comparative formed by ĺti, LXI, 59. Division of month into three, LXXVII , 65. 1
Comparative formed with shöng , LXVI, Re
mark, 60. E
Comparative, kang' used for, LXII, 60.
Comparative of Adjectives, LXI-LXV, 59. Emphasis, CXXXIV, 84.

Comparative of Adverbs, CLXXIV, 101. Euphemisms used for death, CLVI, 98.
Comparative of Equality, LXIII, 60. Expressions denoting time, LXXXVI , 68 .

Comparative, Qualified , LXI, note, LXII, 60.

Comparative, Repeated, LXIV, LXV, 60. F
Comparative, repeated, Use of yüt, with,
LXV, 60. Finals, CCXXVII et. seq ., 128 et. seq.
Finals, List of, CCXXVIII , 112 et, seq.
Compass, Points of, XXVI, 42.
Future Tense, CXXII, CXXIII, No. 3, 80.
Conjugation, No, in Chinese , I, 36.
Conjunction in Subjunctive often understood,
CXVIII, 78. G
Conjunctions, not used, CCXVI, 109.
Gender, XIX et, seq., 39 et. seq.
D Gender, context shews, XIX, 39.
I
Geuder, not inherent to Chinese word, XXV, 41 .
Dates, LXXV et. seq., 64.
Gender, not necessary condition of Chinese word,
Dates, Inversion of, LXXV, 65.
XXV, 41 .
Dates, ch'o used with , LXXVI , 65 . Gender of names of animals, XXIII, 40.
Dates, housed with, LXXVIII , 66. Gender of names of birds, XXIII, 40.
Dative placed between two Verbs, XIII , 38. Gender of names of human species, XX-XXII ,
Days of the week, LXXII , LXXIII, 67.
XXIII, Note, 39.
Declension of Personal Pronouns, XC, 69.
Gender, often not used when necessary in English,
Demonstrative Adjective Pronoun with Classifier,
XXV, 41 .
XLV, XLVII, L, LII, LIII, 46. Gender used to prevent confusion, XXV, 41.
Demonstrative Pronouns , C, et. seq. , 73 et. seq.
Gerunds, CXXI, 80.
Difference between " he scolded me," and " he said
to me," XI, Note, 38 . H
Difference between Phe shik , and AH chí,
CLXXII, 100. Half, XXXI, 43.
Difference between "to buy," and " to sell," Hángt , Idiomatic uses of, CLVIII, CLXIX,
CLXXIII, 100. 93, 99.
Distributives and Indefinites, CIX, et. seq. , 75 et. Héi Idiomatic uses of, CLIX, 93.
seq. Housed with dates, LXXVIII , 66,
 INDEX . 3

Hoi , Idiomatic uses of, CLX, 94. L

Hui' , Idiomatic uses of, CLXIII, 96. Laiused for " for," &c., CCXII, 109.
Lai , Idiomatic uses of CLXIII , 96.
I
Large half, XXXI, 43.
Imperative (mood), CXVI, CXXVIII, 78, 84. Lengt , Uses of CCXXII, CCXXIII, 111 .
Impersonals, CVII, 75. Lò used for Masculine , XXII , 40.
Indicative, CXVI, 78. Lok,, Uses of, CLXII, 95.
Inferior named before Superior, XXIII, Remark, Long month, LXXXI , 66.
41.
Infinitive, CXVI, CXXVII, 78, 83. M

Infinitive, No Preposition before, CLIV, 90.

Marry, to, Different words used for, CLXX, 99.
"In order to," or " for," CCXII, 109.
Meaning shows Mood, CIX , 79.
Interrogation, In, sentence is same as in Affirma
Month divided into three, LXXVII, 65.
tive, CXXXVI, No. 4, Note, 85.
Month, Long, LXXXI, 66.
Interrogatives, CIII et. seq. , 74 et. seq.
Month, Short, LXXXI, 66.
Interrogative formed with rising intonation ,
Moods, CXV, CXXVIII, 78, 83.
CXXXVI, No. 1 , 35.
More, CLXXXVIII, 104.
Interrogative-Negative, CXXXVI, No. 3,
More, or less, LXXIII, 64.
CXXXVIII, 85.
Interrogative Particles, CXXXVI , No. 2, 85. See N
also List of Finals, CCXXVIII, 112 et, seq.
Interrogative Pronouns, XCII et seq. , 71 et. seq. Ná applied to women, XXIII , Note, 40.
Interrogative Sentences, CXXXVI-CXLI, 85. Náused for Feminine, XXIII , 40 .

Intonation, rising, Interrogative formed with, Nám used for Masculine Gender, XX, 39 .
CXXXVI, No. 1, 85. Negative following Verb, CXLI, 87.
Negative, Position of, CXL-CXLIV, 86, 87.
K
Negative precedes Verb, CXL, 86.
Ke' sign of Possessive, XV, 38. Negative used with if, of course, consequently,
Ke' understood, XVI, 39. CXC, 105.
Ko' used for Definite Article, XXXIII, 43. New and old, not old and new, LXIX, 62.
Ko' used without Classifier, LI, 48. New Year's day, LXXX, 66.
Kom噉 or kom ' yöng* , Position of, New Year's eve, LXXIX, 66.
CLXXXV, CLXXXVI, 104. No, CXLV, 87.
Kuused for Masculine, XXIII , 40. No one, CXLIX , 89.
Kung used for Masculine, XXI, XXIII, 39, Not, Do, CL, 89.
40. Nothing, CXLVIII, 88.
Kwo’ 過 uses of, CCXIII, CCXIV, 109. Noun, same, either Masculine or Feminine, XIX,
Kwo' t'au follows Adjective, CLXXXIX , 39.
104. Nuiused for Feminine Gender, XX, 39.
 4 INDEX.

Number in Verbs, CXXVI , el. seq. , 82 et. seq. Phrase, A, used to express Plural, VIII, 37
Numeral Adjectives, LXX et. seq., 62 et. seq. Plural formed by reduplication of Noun, VII, 37.
Numeral Adverbs, LXXXV, 67. Plural of Demonstrative Pronoun, CI et seq., 73.
Numerals, Cardinal, Part I, 3. Plural of Interrogative Pronoun, XCIV, XCVIII,
Numeral often used when no plural would other 71.
wise be shewn, IX, 37. Plural of Personal Pronoun, LXXXVIII, 68. Į
Numeral used for Article must have Classifier, Plural shewn by general context, V, 36.
XXXIII, Note, 43. Plural shewn by qualifying words, V, 36.
Numeral used with Classifier, XLVIII, XLIX, Plural, Sign of, VI, 37 .
LIII, 47. Plural understood from sense, IV, 36.
Po used for Feminine, XXI, XXII, 39, 40.
0 Position, everything in Chinese sentence, II, 36.
Position often shows the part of speech, II, 36.
Object, Position of, XII, 38. Position of Object, XII , 38 .
Object, Position of indirect, CLV, 90. Position ofPreposition , CXCIII et seq. , 105 et. seq.
Object, Position of, with two Verbs, CLIII, 90. Position of Subject, XII, 38.
Object taking precedence of other words, XIV, Position takes place of Declension and Conjugation,
38. II, 36.
Object placed between two Verbs, XIII, 38. Possessive Case, XV-XVIII, 38, 39.
Obvious meaning shews Case, XI, 38. Possessive Case of Interrogatives, XCIII, XCVII,
Of, CCVII, CCVIII, 108. 71.
Ordinal Numerals, LXXIV, 64. Possessive of Personal Pronoun, LXXXIX, 69.
Postpositions, CXCIX, 106.

P Predicatively, Adjective used, LX, 59.

Preposition, No, before Infinitive, CLIV, 90.
Preposition, Position of, CXCIII et. seq., 105 et. seq.
Pák, ye* 1 , XXI, 40 .
Participles, CXX, 29. Preposition understood, CXCVII, CCXI, 106.
Particles, Interrog ative, CXXXV I , No. 2 , 85. See Preposit ion with " to sit, " CCX, 108.

also List of Finals, CCXXVIII, 112. Present Tense, CXXII, CXXIII, No. 1 , 80.
Passive Voice, CXIII, CXIV, CXXXIII, 77. Pronoun, Interrogative, XCII et. seq., 71 et. seq.

Past Tense, CXXII, No. 2, CXXIV, 80, 81. Pronoun to be repeated in answer, CXXXIX, 86.
Past time shewn by changing the tone, CXXIV,
CXXV, 81 , 82. R
Person in Verbs, CXXVI , et. seq., 82 et. seq.
Personal Pronoun left out, LXXXVII, 68. Reflective Pronoun and Noun, XCI, 70.
Personal Pronouns preceding Noun in Apposition, Relationship, terms for, Peculiar use of, XXVII, 42.
XVII, 39. Relatives, XCIX, 73.
Personal Pronoun preceding Noun in Possessive, Rendering of Relatives and Interrogatives, CVIII,
XVII, 39. 75.
 INDEX. 5

S
Téi sign of Plural, VI, 37.
Ten understood , LXX, Note, 63.
Self, CX et. seq., 76 et. seq.
Tenses, CXV, CXXII et. seq., 78, 80 et, seq.
Self immediately follows Personal Pronoun, CXII, Than with a Comparative, LXVII, 61 .
Note, 77.
Time, Ambiguity regarding, LXXI, 63.
Sense shews Gender, XIX, 39.
Time, Phrases denoting, LXXII, 64.
Sentences, Interrogative, CXXXVI-CXLI, 85.
Titles come after name, XXIX, 43.
Sentence same in Interrogative as in Affirmative,
To, CLXXXIX, 104.
CXXXVI, No. 4, Note, 85 .
To , Position of, CLXXXIV, 104.
Shöng , Uses of CLXI , 95.
To' Ell . Use of, CCXV, 109.
Short mouth, LXXXI, 66.
Tones of Personal Pronoun, XCI, Note 2 , 70.
Sign of Plural, VI, 37.
Tsai in combination, XXIII, 41 .
Singular and Plural, No difference between, III, 36
Tsai 1 used as diminutive, XXIII, Note , 41 .
Sin Sháng , Use of, XXVIII , 43 .
'Tso , Idiomatic uses of, CLXIV, 96.
Sit, to, Preposition with, CCX, 108 .
Tung , Use of, CCIX, 108.
Síú-pún' , XXXI, 43.
Subject always precedes Verb, CLII, 89 . V
Subject, Position of, CLII, 89.
Subjunctive, Conjunction in, often understood, Verbs, Impersonal forms of, CXXX-CXXXII, 84.
CXVIII, 78 ; CXVII et. seq. , 78 et, seq. Verbs left out, CLI, 89.
Subjunctive Mood, CXXIX, 84. Verbs used in combination, CXV, 78.
Superior named before Inferior, XXIII , Remark, Voice, Active, CXIII, CXXVIII, 77 , 83, 84.
41 .
Superlative formed with chi' , LXVI, 60. W
Superlative formed with kik,, LXVI, 60.
Well ; Very well, CXLVI, 88.
Superlative formed with shong , LXVI, 60.
When Nouns are rendered Masculine, or Feminine,
Superlative formed with ' ting π , LXVI, 60.
XIX, 39.
Superlative of Adjectives, LXVI et. seq. , 60 et. seq
Surnames precede other names, XXX, 43. Words denoting relationship placed after name,

Sz . Use of, CLXV, 97. XXVII, 42.

Sz mái Bili . XXVIII, Note, 43.

Y

T
Yat, - used instead of Article, XXXIII, 43.
Tá , Idiomatic uses of, CLVII , 90. Yau , Idiomatic uses of, CLXVII, CLXVIII ,
Túi²-pún' , XXXI, 43. 98, 99.

Ták, tsai ' follows Adjective , CLXXXVII , Ye applied to males, XXIII , Note, 40 .
101. Yes, CXLV, 87.
'Tang IX, Note, 37. Younger named first, XXIII, Reinaık, 41 .
F
REES
CE THE
UNIVERSIT T
CALIFORNIA
1

1
 ADVERTISEMENTS. I

OTHER WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR.

CANTONESE MADE EASY :

A Book of Single Sentences in the Cantonese Dialect with Free and Literal Trans
lations and Directions for the Rendering of English
Grammatical Forms into Chinese.
BY
J. DYER BALL, M.RA.S., &c,
OF HER MAJESTY'S CIVIL SERVICE, HONGKONG.

Price, $2.00

THIS BOOK HAS BEEN INTRODUCED INTO THE HONGKONG CIVIL SERVICE EXAMINATION SCHEME.

EXTRACTS FROM NOTICES OF THE ABOVE WORK.

Mr. Ball has conferred a great boon on all beginners in Cantonese Colloquial. The
good books on the subject are scarce and out of print ; the books that do exist are com
pilations of pretentious rubbish, full of English idioms repeated ad nauseam. We have
had an opportunity of examining Mr. Ball's work and we most cordially recommend it.
Unlike his previous work on Hakka, it gives the tones, the pronunciation according to
Sir William Jones' system, and the Chinese characters. We can say that as far
as our examination has extended it is worthy of Mr. Ball's reputation as a master of
Cantonese Colloquial .'- China Review, Vol. XI. , p. 258.
This little work, bound in a stout paper wrapper, will be found to supply a want
long felt by students of Cantonese . In the excellently worded explanatory preface very
great stress is laid upon the acquisition of correct tones. After these re
marks on tones a few lines are devoted to the grammar of the Chinese language ; then
follows an explanation of the final particles, or finals, the remarks on the use of which
appear to be very sensible. * * The preface is followed by an introduction of
some five pages in length containing exercises in tones and a lengthy syllabary, or direc
tions for pronouncing Chinese sounds when represented by Roman letters. Then follow
the numerals and a series of useful dialogues. * * * * In these dialogues a literal
as well as free translation of the Chinese sentence is given . After the sen
tences comes a list of classifiers. * * . * Following the list of classifiers comes
some original and really admirable work in the shape of cleverly written and exhaustive
directions for rendering English grammatical forms into Chinese. * * * * We
now come to the list of finals, or final particles, to the use of which the writer has
 II ADVERTISEMENTS.

evidently given very great attention, and we do not remember having previously seen
anything like so exhaustive a list, or such sensible directions for the use of these finals.
This is followed up by some final directions , and directions for the guidance of the be
ginner. * * * In conclusion we may say that Mr. Ball's work, being the only
one worth a second glance which is procurable, we strongly recommend it to students,
not only beginners, but even somewhat advanced students, of Cantonese colloquial.—
Daily Press, 7th September, 1883.

We say without hesitation that his work far surpasses that of Dennys, for example,
in the matter of idiom, and that his command of words, and his perception of delicate
shades of meaning are much above the average of European attainment in Canton colloquial .
In these respects the volume before us makes a valuable addition to the existing aids to
beginners ; and might be found useful to some of the more venerable and learned Sino
logists .' * * * * Mr Ball's Notes on classifiers and grammar will be found very
valuable. - China Mail, 10th September, 1883 .
1
In the work now before us, compiled and edited by Mr. J. Dyer Ball, M.R.A.S. , etc. ,
who, from his long experience amongst the Cantonese and from his long study of their
language, is eminently fitted for the task which he has imposed upon himself, we find an
almost unlimited variety in a comparatively small compass-the work contains little
more than 100 pages inclusive of preface and introduction -wherewith the beginner may
be guided. * * * * Mr. Ball has endeavored to give such expressive volubility to his
work as far as his studies, learning, researches and long experience in China have en
abled him to do. * * * * Of the work itself, taken as a whole we can say that it
is a most admirable compilation . For an advanced sinologue there are very
many valuable hints given. We approve * * of Mr. Ball's basis of
arrangement in the fifteen lessons, and really commend the book for an advanced student
to whom the work will prove in a number of ways a valuable addition towards the tend
ing of the improvement in his mode of construing Chinese phrases and sentences in the
Cantonese. * * * The work is got up in a neat form and is well printed . - Hong
kong Telegraph, 12th Sept. , 1883.

Now that the Franco -Chinese question is occupying so much public attention there
will doubtless be many cadets, missionary students, and philologists turning their
1
thoughts towards the East, and in some instances they will be anxious to know what are
the languages chiefly spoken, and where reliable text-books may be obtained . I am
glad to be able at this emergency to call the attention of such enquirers to a new work,
by Mr. J. Dyer Ball, which has just been published in Hongkong under the title of
Cantonese Made Easy. The dialect of Canton is the most important of South China ;
and as it contains fewer provincialisms than almost any other Chinese dialect, and em
ploys the classical characters entirely in writing, the knowledge of this sub- language, so
to speak, is indispensable to any one who intends taking a position in the East. Mr. J.
Dyer Ball has rendered good service in his timely publication . Born in China , of Euro
pean parentage, favoured with exceptional advantages for the acquisition of the dialects
of China, having a natural gift for this particular work, and being employed in Her
Majesty's Civil Service as Interpreter for the Supreme Court, he has had every oppor

1
 ADVERTISEMENTS. III

*
tunity to gain an accurate knowledge of Cantonese. * * The difficult questions
relating to tones, classifiers, finals, &c. , are treated with a masterly hand . -Academy,
12th January, 1884 .
* * * For the sake of your readers in Oxford and elsewhere who may be
studying philology, or preparing for cadetships and civil service in the East I call atten
tion to a new work on the Chinese language. The book is entitled Cautonese Made Easy
and has been prepared by Mr. J. Dyer Ball, M.R.A.S. , Interpreter to the Supreme Court,
Hongkong. Mr. Ball was born in China, and speaks the language like a native. He
has spent his life chiefly in the East and I can add my testimony to that of numerous
reviewers respecting the excellency of his book. - Bunbury Guardian, 10th January,
1884.

THE CANTONESE-MADE-EASY VOCABULARY.

Price : One Dollar .

A Small Dictionary in English and Cantonese, containing only Words and Phrases
used in the Spoken Language, with Classifiers indicated for each Noun and Definitions
of the Different Shades of Meaning, as well as Notes on the Different uses of Words
where Ambiguity might otherwise arise.
The work should be very useful to students of the Cantonese Dialect. - China
Mail, 26th July, 1886.
Mr. J. Dyer Ball, author of ' Easy Sentences in the Hakka Dialect,' ' Cantonese
Made Easy ,' &c. , has just issued a companion work to these useful publications to stu
dents of Chinese. The words and phrases appear to have been most
carefully collected and arranged, and we doubt not that this little dictionary will ade
quately fulfil the aims of the compiler.-Hongkong Telegraph, 27th July, 1886.
The author originally intended to attach the vocabulary to his work ' Cantonese
Made Easy ;' he has somewhat enlarged its scope, not confining it to words contained in
those lessons alone, but giving an exhaustive list of different shades of the English
meaning, to save the beginner from falling into mistakes to which he would otherwise be
liable. The vocabulary seems to have been most carefully compiled, and it cannot fail
to prove most useful to students, especially beginners. - Hongkong Daily Press, 29th
July, 1886.
We may state that we have here a very neatly got up vocabulary of the most
common terms which a beginner is likely to stand in need of. The
rendering of the terms selected appear to be given in good idiomatic colloquial style.
As the author gives, for the English words selected by him, the cor
responding Chinese characters together with their pronunciation and tones, the little
book is sure to prove useful. - China Review, July and August, 1886 .
This book will prove useful to persons desirous of learning the Cantonese dialect. -
Chinese Recorder and Missionary Journal, Nov. 1886.
Here it will not be out of place to mention that everything possible is being done to
lighten the labours of merchants, cadets, missionaries, and students, in their study of
 IV ADVERTISEMENTS.

that difficult language, the Chinese. The author has just forwarded to us a copy of
The Cantonese- Made- Easy Vocabulary ' (printed in Hongkong, on sale at Messrs .
Trübner and Co. , London, 1 dollar), by J. Dyer Ball, Esq., M.R.A.S. , &c . Mr. Ball is
one of the most accomplished linguists in Hongkong, in consequence of which we find him
occupying the important post of Interpreter in the Supreme Court ; and no more able pen
could be found for the work of simplifying and popularising the Chinese tongue.
There are many people in England as well as abroad to whom Mr. Ball's work will
be a boon. If gives first the English words in alphabetical order, then the Chinese
equivalents, and finally a transliteration of the Chinese words, so that those who do not
understand the characters may still be able to tell at a glance what is the Cantonese
equivalent of the word before them. Thus the word Any is stated to be an adj. and adv.,
then follows the Chinese word , and finally its pronunciation mat, so that mat is the Chi
nese equivalent of any ; yan stands for man, kiu is the verb to call, and so on . Numerous
notes are added where there is any danger of the learner being misled by the ambiguity
of terms, and altogether the book is a capital Vade-mecum for the young student .- Retford
and Gainsborough Times, Worksop and Newark Weekly News, 24th Dec. , 1886 .
While dealing with China it will not be out of place to mention another work for
which future learners of that curious language will be grateful. This is The Cantonese
Made-Easy Vocabulary ' by J. Dyer Ball, M.R.A.S. , of H. M. Civil Service, Hongkong.
The author is one of the best foreign speakers of Chinese we have ever had the good
fortune to meet.

Born and brought up in the East, he can converse as readily in Cantonese as in Eng
lish, and is consequently a most reliable authority on such critical points as Tone and
Classifiers, which are the bugbears of every beginner in Chinese. The volume will also be
valuable to the philologist, even though he may know little or nothing of the Celestial
tongue, since every Chinese character is represented by the equivalent sound in English
letters. -English paper.

AN ENGLISH- CANTONESE POCKET VOCABULARY.

BY

J. DYER BALL, M.R.A.S., & c.

0

Price, Seventy- Five Cents .

Notices by the Press.

Mr. J. DYER BALL, the chief interpreter of the Supreme Court and the author of
Easy Sentences in the Hakka Dialect, Cantonese made Easy, and The Cantonese- Made
Easy Vocabulary, has just issued An English- Cantonese Vocabulary.
It is meant * for the use of strangers, tourists, or even residents,
who, from want of time, are unable to master the intricacies of the language, but
who, at the same time, feel a desire to pick up a few words, so as not to be in
 ADVERTISEMENTS.
V

the position of deaf mutes when entirely surrounded by natives. Those who
have any knowledge of the subject will readily appreciate Mr. BALL'S object in
compiling this limited vocabulary, the want for which has been felt, severely felt
we might say, ever since the Colony was founded . To say the least of them, tonic
marks are decidedly confusing unless they are seriously studied , and their entire absence
from this vocabulary will alone prove a recommendation . Mr. BALL'S book makes no
pretensions to oust those vocabularies which are already in existence ; it merely makes an
attempt to supply a demand hitherto unprovided for.
It is sufficiently copious to enable any one to make himself or herself understood in the
ordinary transactions of everyday life ; and it is just possible that it may awaken a desire
in some persons to know more of the language. Mr. BALL has very wisely issued the
book at a low price, 75 cents a copy, and its merit and cheapness should ensure an exten
sive sale. - China Mail, 22nd September, 1886 .

Mr. J. DYER BALL'S English- Cantonese Pocket Vocabulary ' is quite a novelty in
its way, and is the first publication we have seen in which some knowledge of Chinese
is rendered possible without the use of Chinese characters . The sounds of the Chinese
words in this little work are represented by English spelling, in exactly the same
fashion adopted in many rudimentary treatises on the French and other foreign
languages.
The plan adopted by Mr. DYER BALL is very simple,
and we think an effective one. He wished to provide a method by which travellers
and others, who may not consider the acquisition of Cantonese a game worth the can
dle, without any very serious study, can acquire a sufficient acquaintance with the
vernacular to be understood if unhappily isolated amongst non- English speaking Chi
nese, Mr. BALL has done his work in his customary careful and painstaking fashion ,
and we imagine this little book will command a ready sale. - Hongkong Telegraph , 23rd
September , 1886 .

We have received a copy of another of those useful aids to the acquisition of the
Chinese colloquial for which Mr. DYER BALL is becoming noted . This last work is
entitled ' An English- Cantonese Pocket Vocabulary .' It contains common words and
phrases, printed without the Chinese characters or tonic marks, and the sounds of the
Chinese words are represented by an English spelling as far as practicable, while the
author in his preface gives some very simple directions how to overcome the difficulties of
pronunciation. The little book is not intended for those who intend to make a serious
study of Chinese ; it is intended to enable the English resident or tourist to pick up a
sufficient vocabulary to make known his wishes or wants to the natives, and to under
stand something of what is going on around him when surrounded by Chinese.
The pamphlet will supply a want and its study is likely to lead to further exploration
in the same direction . - Hongkong Daily Press , 24th September, 1886.

The pamphlet is published for the benefit of tourists or residents who have no time
to master the intricacies of the Cantonese dialect, and who are deterred from the task
when they take up other books on the subject bristling with tonic and other diacritical
marks. Mr. Ball labours therefore here, as in his other pamphlets, to make an intrin
sically difficult subject easy . We think the book has its merits by its extreme simplicity
 VI ADVERTISEMENTS.

and by the judicious selection of a stock of the most ordinary and popular words and
phrases. The spelling may prove haudy enough for the purposes
stated. -China Review, Nov. and Dec. , 1886 .

EASY SENTENCES IN THE HAKKA DIALECT.

WITH A VOCABULARY.

Price : $ 1.

EXTRACTS FROM NOTICES OF THE ABOVE WORK.

Easy Sentences in the Hakka Dialect is the title of a small work just published by
Mr. J. Dyer Ball, Interpreter of the Supreme Court of Hongkong. It is, for the most
part, as the author says in the introduction, an adaptation of Giles' Handbook of the
Swatow Dialect, and will prove as useful to those entering on the study of Hakka as
Mr. Giles' book has proved in the case of the dialect spoken at Swatow. An extensive
Vocabulary is appended.'-Daily Press, 28th October, 1881 .
' Mr. J. Dyer Ball, the efficient interpreter of Chinese in the Supreme Court here,
has published a neat little Handbook entitled Easy Sentences in the Hakka Dialect, with
a Vocabulary. The author has taken the Handbook of the Swatow Dialect (by Mr. H. A.
Giles) as a basis, and indeed Mr. Ball freely acknowledges that the help he received from
that little book in his study of the Swatow Dialect suggested the brochure now given to
the public . Unlike most books of the kind, there are no Chinese characters given for
the Easy Sentences,' the collection of phrases being Romanized Phonetically so as to
give to the beginner the equivalent sounds in Chinese. The sentences given appear to
be well arranged, and cover as much ground as is ever likely to be required by those
desirous of attaining to a rough colloquial knowledge of Hakka. Mr. Ball frankly tells
all others to go to a teacher, and indeed he strongly advises even the learner to go hand
in hand with the teacher in his uphill work from the very beginning .'—China Mail, 22nd
October, 1881.
A very handy little volume In the preface to his
useful pamphlet, Mr. Ball states that his work is for the most part a translation of Giles'
Handbook ofthe Swatow Dialect. Chinese is admittedly a difficult study to
Europeans, but, as Mr. Ball states, there is no reason why with a little trouble, they
should not pick up sufficient conversational knowledge so as to be able to understand
what goes on about them as well as to make themselves understood . For this purpose
Mr. Ball's compilation will answer every requirement. The sentences are judiciously
arranged , and the method of conveying a correct method of pronunciation is apparently
very clear and simple. The book is very well printed, and as it is published at a very
low price, will no doubt obtain an extensive cireulation.' •-Hongkong
Telegraph, 22nd October, 1881 .
 ADVERTISEMENTS. VII

' Easy Sentences in the Hakka Dialect, with a Vocabulary. Translated by J. Dyer
Ball, Hongkong, 1881. This title indicates the character of the book. It contains 57
pages and fourteen chapters besides the vocabulary. The subjects of the chapters are
designated thus :-Lesson I. Domestic. II. to V. General. VI. Relationship. VII .
Opposites. VIII . Monetary. IX. , X. Commercial . XI. Medical. XII. Ecclesiastical.
XIII. Nautical. XIV. Judicial. It thus contains a wide range of subjects. We cor
dially recommend it to all students of the Hakka Dialect.' * Chinese Re
corder and Missionary Journal, Nov. -Dec. , 1881.

THE ABOVE WORKS ARE ON SALE.

IN HONGKONG ,
At Messrs. KELLY & WALSH'S, W. W. BREWER'S, and LANE, CRAWFORD
& Co.'s, Queen's Road.

IN SHANGHAI , IN YOKOHAMA,
At Messrs. KELLY & WALSH'S. At Messrs. KELLY & WALSH'S.

IN LONDON,
At Messrs. TRÜBNER & Co.'s, 57 and 59 Ludgate Hill.

IN THE SANDWICH ISLANDS

Copies may be obtained on applying to Mr. F. DAMON, Honolulu, Hawaiian Islands.

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