Mathematics for Ke EngineeringUNIT 10 ron PP » odes, eu une Pee Canaan as erence me eve lene ener eee ee ae sah my dd ale | uzatinetc nes toe solder ieee | dina ngotrg cores ‘pace ‘See Assessment actu 10, page 21 —_ a re — = eae ieageracmthes tacos | Tenge andeat on (Cayeut areas ug ina scenic st, | Vita a scene lt, sae commas | sate ne satis ond | greater nensing ase iat iste flit nse temse | ct, panel aioe pee imei iets sr Agessent cv 104, | atenseregent Seefsesonent activi 101, | page ‘Swe Assess act 11, page poe nvm Propping ‘a, imagens esaih aden | rene pap nd lsh Ines eo coven te gle at gon pit nan ales egeng cet | eng ie ‘See esesemenatiy 1.1, | See essen! city 10.1, page page Pa ee Fede of rctaneson) | Fras the nl and tages gn i, cajun pes ges a sn gine cates. See Assessment acti 102, ae 28 ria dl Fndteoiunes trecagear | Fifth olureslegdrobecs [i omg | Seller nd Fad hele eens gor ee entan mencanarey | esmanenpnringconet | wlunetalahstoa ip ene cote Ste asesoettactivy 12, | sonar nerpeeig oc ‘See Assessment setity 12, | pane ‘See sess ain 102, pat page st co ie = rojoarthoex'oin — fHengaindiyonedte [empanadas seed timicccgtiapes | henisagiegtsc ronan | énesor dads dct- \antalelorseintes teem ones rargesng coe. | agbitiais wat enpneng | sneant mine tls See Assessment ety 102, ‘aanergrtng cee. pent s ‘Sue sessment act 102, age Z32 EEEIF tnt opoxie maui sis Ba FE Fsan How you will be assessed ond present experimen ‘alolate areas and volumes le tangles using basic trigonom rect use of your scentfic electronic ealevlator ond present answers tothe specified degree of accuracyey TU Introduction. » Sac! htop youl ear sou arthmeic ante wat berate sed when ong ON ns jatens eaemeenm | Use ofa basic calculator RROMPERERENE The basic coleulstor contains keys fox adit [+] subtraction [-1 multipieation [x] anc EEE | cicion|>), Thoris also an equals cere fan use the basic aleulator for acing [elfor giving the answer to. caleulation. You iumns of turbers such asthe prices ona ee Components Ist. You can ato use it to take numbers away from each other. You might use thatnhen finding out how much money i left your bark account after paying abil Sometimes the price of timbers given as the cost per metre. You this by the numberof metres wanted to work out the cost need to multiply ‘The division key is useful if you want te dvide something up into @ numberof equal parts. You can also use it to work out the average speed for a joumey by dividing the fistance tavelled by the time taken W Addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of whole numbers Whale numbers can be positive (+) or negative (-), You can think of money in a savings oer ‘count a being positive. you spend it your account wl al zero and f you cary cn spending ft nll become negative and need to be repaid. We almays put the (-) Sign before negative rurbers but we donot always put the (+) sign before positive umber. umber does nat have asign before iyo 1 sub When you add tot mutiph and divide numbers, there are four basic rules 1 When adding two postive numbers add their absolute values together Sometimes we prefix the answer wth a (+) sign but more often we lave tout Forexample: 14+5+6=12(orscmetimes +12) eee me Nonameial When adding wo negative nuribe's ad ter absolute vlues together and prox fale ofseunbeyrpsdassl the ansmerwith a (+} sign ‘oon For example: (-4) +34 0 =-8 ‘The rackets help us to show clearly thot the numbers are negative To find the sum of ai re. of postive and negative rurnbers, add together the bvclute values ofthe postive numbers, then add together the absolute values of the negative numbers, Now subtract the smaller total from the larger one and pref your answer with the sign of the laiger number Forenample: 2+ (245 +(-187+(-8) = 907 — For example: 6 +(-7)44+(-8)= 10+ (15) = {15 ~ 10)= ear iegmingMathematics fr Engng 3 When you multioly o divide numbers with ike signs, the answer will aways be postive, Forexample: 6%3~ 418and 142-47 Forexample: (-A) x (-5) = +20 and (-15) + (-3) = +5 Remember ~ multiplying or dividing two negative numbers always gives a positive “4 When you mutiplyor did numbers wth ure sigs, the ansue wil abvaysbe negate. Forexemple: 5 x (-8)= ~30 and (-12)+3 =~ For example: (-8)x3 = 24 and 20 + (-4) [om 5 ) Fractions and percentages Fractions aval les between two whole numbers we can express iin the form of fraeion or decimal For nstance hafvay between 2 and3is 24 oF 25. In decal numbers ‘he iter between whole numbesis pl up int 10 ad these can be tarther subdivided into 10 depending onthe degra of accurayrequited Sine apn the mete system of measurement, the use of decimal nubs nthe Uk as become almost universal in cance and engiowering Percentages “ble 10.1 Fac, decimals ond A percentage (is fection that hasbeen converted to huncvedths. To batoes loth. simply tke your Faction or decimal number and multiply by 100, aS See : : For expe express 7 aa prconage: 10) 25% nich means ae a 25 hundredths is For example, express 0.35 as « percentage: 0.35 x 100 = 35% which means L 0125 125% 35 hundredths < Some common aon adhe nal dial amb an one peremgen we shown nal Youle hat ooo oe seca ‘numbers have been rmultpied by 100 to express them as percentages, Fy oe ea 2 eee 3 cos 6 i ao cea oma) Use of scientific calculator “The ation, subtraction, mulpletionand dvsion of whole and decimal numbers Canbe dane very quay ing» sient electronic calla In addition to the pls +1, minus [1 multiply [x dvi fo} and equals [=] keys, you lao need te kays marked [EXP] or [10] and [ENG] and the keys fr solving problems in wigonomety that are marked [sn] [cs] and tar) ‘Also useful are the keys marked (and I for opening and losing baskets. You wil find out what these ond some other keys are used for as you progres with your maths, Lengthy calculations and the ‘BODMAS' rule When you caring out a lengthy calculation involving addition, subtraction, mltiication Guison and porssly poner and oot, is essential that you doin the following order. 41 Work out any terms that ae in Brackets, 2 Werk out any powers oF roots. (Sometimes called ‘Order’ +3 Werk out any Divisions 4 Work out any Multipications 5 Work out any Adaitions. {6 Work ut any Subtraction. “Tiss sometimes called the BODMAS rule and its the procedure that your scientific lectroniccaleulator is programmed tafollow This order of working is sometimes scan elton called precedence. Look tthe following ealeulation: 4=2*6 493 {f you work through it inthe order itis writin the answer comes to 7 but you do the sore on you calculator it comes to -5, This is quite a big cifference but your calculator incorrect, There are no brackets, powere or roots so, following the BODMAS rule the multiplication and dvsion should be cone frst A 2x64 949R4= 2430-5 Powers and roots shee \When & number has been multiplied ky itself a number of times we say that it has, Preceane theoreti Presnen tec) been rand power Whar uma mule by tal wy tha tas bo ied aquared and fits mulinor by Rtelfagein we say thet thas been eubed, Taking the Pome teranercfiin number 2 aban example, we writ a seus BaDx204 Ba2x2x2-8 We can canty on doing this for examgle Baax2x2K2~16 Horo we say that we have resed the umber 2t0 the power of 4 When we write 2 the number two i called the base end the number 4s called the index. The plural of inden s indices, When the index s 1, this just means the nurnberitsl je. 2! = Zand 3) oSand goon. When the index is ere it does not matter what number the base i the answer's always 1,€.g.2°= 1, = 1,6" 1 and soon. 2 cea agonigMathemais fr Egneing When we add together or subtract aiferent numbers that have tobe raed toa Power, we apply the BODMAS rule. We aise each ane separately and then do the addition or mukiplication Forexample: 34+ 4°= (3x 3%3}4 (4x4) = 274 16-43 Forexample: 6) 5!= (6x 6)~ (5x 5x 5)~ 36-125 = -89 ‘The same applies if we are multiplying or dividing diferent numbers that are rised to a power, Forexample: 2x4 = 2x 2% 2) 4x4) Bx 16= 128 Forexample: 3+2°-GX3«3)=@x=27 +4~675 |, however we have to multiply powers of the same number (same base) we can add the indices together and then rige the number to this power, Forexemple: 3x3 = 349 343x3%9%3-283 Forerample: 4% 4= 0-4 m 4 xa xd 4 = 256 Note that 4s taken to be inthis last example \When we are dividing powers ofthe same number we can subtract the indices before ‘ising the number to this power. Forexample: 3+ 3° = 30-)-3=3x3%3-27 For example: +4 — 4-4) = 4 tis quite posible to have negative indices. The reciprocal ofa number alwys hes the index 1. TA 0 Forexample: b= 1-351. SAI gc AU Ser me ges Sy ee oa We can do the same with reciprocals of numbers thet are raised to 3 pom hats greater than Forenarpc 3-24, 04.5 a9 tandoon ‘When you went to add, subtract, multiply or divide nurnbers with negative indices, you ‘need to change them back to reciprocal form before carving out the operations, aN una Sie eee pn a FerSierele: S28 on oh aaa zs ~0037 #0062007? to dat txred ede y 1 jinniae ee ae 2 ax” 2x2x2u2 Aiea nie iG 7 By 7000851 G38) ‘The square root ofa numbers a velue that when multiplied by itself equals thet umber Because 2x 2= 4, the square root of 42, But could also be (2), because you will cal that (~2) (-2)= 4. The square rots often wtten as Va or 42 ‘and as you can see there are two possible for the square oot of any number A ‘umber auch 9s 4s called a perfect square because its square root isa whole number. Other perfect squares are 9,16, 25,3649 and so.on ‘You can of course have cube roots and roots to higher powers. Whatever the case, the index is always written asa fraction. Forexample: 27° isthe cube root of 27 which is 3, le.axae3-27ct tg )” Substituting numerical values into simple engineering formulae “There are lots of standard formulae that engineers use to calculte things such sinface area, volume, expansion, stress, sletial resistance, power rating and s0 on. When uring an electronic calculator to evaluate these formulae i isimpartant to enter the numbers correctly and use the core:t order of working. Cece Cleulate the tensile stress in a tierodof 50 mm diameter crose-sect carrying load of 1 KN using the formule: jon when Tensile load (1 Terie sess ~ Tersectonal rea) ‘State your answerin kPe, correct to 3 igificant figures Fist we need to calculate the cross-sectional aves, A in square mates 5010°F 4 a A= 196% 108 me? A= ‘To onterx directly on your calculator ute the 2nd function of the 101 key [Now calelate tho tensile stress w _ 15x10 Tensile sess =~ FoR “Teraile stress = 765 « 10 Pa or 765 KPA J Reasonable answers and approximations Sometimes me need to make a quick stimate ofan amount of material that wil be required or the time that a particulr task wl take. You can do this by founding ocimal numbers up or down fo the nearest whole number and making a rough mental Calculation. tis sometimes called a ‘bal- park igure’ ts also useful to do this when Solving problems, so that f the value you abtain from your ealeuator tums outta be ‘ery liforent, you wll know ta recheck your calculationMatboats fo Enis Ec ‘An automated machine produces @ componertin 1 minute 28 seconds ata cost of 48p. Whet wll be a) the approximate houtly production rate, 6 the approximate ost of making a batch of 72, cl the percentage error inthe hourly rate and inthe ‘ost due tothe approximations? 9) Finding approximate hourly srodction rate if time is rounded up to 1.5 min er component Approximate hourly rate = 60 + 1.5 = 60x 3 = 40 components per hour by Finding the approximate cost ofbatch f cat is rounded up to 50p or £08 per ‘component and the batch size is rounded down to 70 Approximate cost = 05 x 70 = £35, «) Finding sctual hourly production rate Time per component = ©2428 = 4.47 min ‘Actual hourly ate = 60+ 1.47 = 40.8 components per hour Finding % error eror= Finding actual cost per botch ‘Actual cost = 048 x 72 ~ £3456 Finding % error (3456 -35)x100, 3456 ‘As you can see, theres nat much between the two but the ‘ballpark figures’ can be arrived at quickly without the use of a calculator %etror 127%roa) Algebraic methods Pee) (araiuction ‘igebra isa branch of matomatis hat uses a misure of numbers anit, The ters Peete represent numbers whose values we net know andare trying fnd We often use ters Corer toreprecent snc uanies for ntance, for force, Lor ength an V fr voltage, The teen isters we se mest often torepreset unkown quails are xandy nave have spect esate ways nding their values, ate Sane F Linear equations and engineering formulae eet Transposing linear equations ee. len express scientific laws and principles as mathematical formulae, also known BEERS 5 ecustons, They giv us the relationship between cifferent physical quanttios, Doe Depending on which ofthe physical quantties we require to solve a problem, formula or equation may need tobe changed round to make that quantity the subject. The process In some formule the quantities may be multiplied or died and there may be roots “rampatn-mapubten ot —_an powers present, In others the quantties may be added or subwacted, {rena er engin ‘omistomskebeaarsty” The general ule with formulae in whies the quantities ae multiplied andor divided is Rimghedeabie ht toy maybe transposed by mtyng or ding each side by the quant that reeds to be moved. ts rather ike ba ancing the kitchen For example: Make vthe subjoct ofthe fala To get vonits own, ek oy ide och side byts0 that itcan be cancel on the right-hand side For example: Make Rthe subject of te formula v R “To get Ron its own, begin mul righthand side. VR & Thisleaves = ¥ ing each side by Reo that it ean be cancelled on the ® Now divide each side by 130 that it can be cancelled onthe lefthand sie, fot Thisleaves RY nt 0c sietgeninMathats forgoing ‘The genera ule with formulae in which the quantities are added and/or subtracted is that they may be transposed by adding or subtracting from each side te quantity that needs to be moved. For example: Make # the subject af the formule Bogin by subtracting ufrom each side so that a lft by itself on the right-hand side, (eat This leaves vu = at "Now divide both sides by ts0 that it can be cancelled onthe righthand side vou ic This leaves: Solving linear equations Using these transposition methods we will now be abe to solve some simple linear ‘equations ofthe form you might find in engineering o find the value ofthe unknown quantity. Remember, equations are lke the kitchen scales. Whatever you do to one side, you must do tothe other to make them balance Tenn Find the value ofthe unknown quantity in the Begin by subtracting 3 from each side. fellowing equation: x+3-3-8-3 x+3-8 This gives x=5 Finsthe value ofthe unknown quantity mn the equation: Now subtract 11 from each side, m+ 11 = 35m Ime1t=11=35-11 Begin by adding mo both sides o that itonly appeats. This gives 7m = 24 ‘on one side ofthe equation Finally divide each side by 7 to obtain the value of m 6m-411¢ m= 35—m+iy Im _24 ‘The values of mcancel outentherighthandsde, lowing: =X 7 Im+11=35 “This ghes m~ 3.43 (corract to 3 significant figures) Now multiply each side by 3 xd 4x 3— 288 Begin by mutiphyng both sides byt This gies 12 = 2t eel Finaly vide ech side by2 aubiiize Re Ths guesa~ 2 ae This gives 6= tor t=6 mCea Find the value of xin the equation: = 78-29 Begin by multiphying the brocketed terms by 7 3x~ 56~ 14x Now adel tx to nach side Bt Tce 54110 “This gives 17x= 55 Finally, vide each side by 17. R55 wT This gives x = 229 (corectto3 significant figures) )” Simple engineering formulae “Tete ae quite alot of simple linear ecustions and formule that we ue in engineering. ‘ery etn we have to transpose them to make the unkown quantity the subject. We can hen putin the known values ae calculate the value the unkown quantity Cee Tronspowe the electrical formula V= to make the current [amps the subject: Caleulate its value ifthe voltage V~ 12 volts and the resistance R = 7.5 ohms. ‘Transposing the formula Bogin by dividing both sides of the equation by Rto make I the subject. Ten Transpose the uniform motion formula s= Sturt to make velocity, u, the subject, Determine thevalue of u given that = 1259, v= 10.5 meand t= 18s ‘Teansposing the formula ‘Begin by multiplying each side by 2. 1 2xs=2x Lust “TWisloaves 25=(u+ wie Now divide each side by ¢ 25 _ wav Dg Bt eC feRtogsig v v this qves & = lori= % Calculating the currant Now putin the values V= 12 volts and R =7.5 ohms 1% = 8 = 1bamos Thiseaes 2-6 Finally subtract vfrom each side. a This leaves 22 — v t 125 m, v= 10.5 ms"'and t= 185 105 wank 25 oun Bay Evaluating uwhen © 2x125 18 = 339 me” Complex engineering formulae ‘More complex formulae may contain powers and roots. Where these occur you may have to raise both sides of the formula toa power or take the root of eech side as 2 step to isolating the required subject Ia Transpose the electrical formula to make the capacitance Cfarade the subject. Dn l porte Find the value of Cubon stored chage = 0015 coulombs and thevatage V= 12D vlts. ‘Tanspesing the formula Begin by multiying both sides ofthe equation by 2. 1 ne Bx} Ve Bxt Cv This leaves OV= CV! cc example 10.13 Transpose the mechanical formula v =v +2as to make the starting velocity ums'the subjact nd find is value ‘then the final velocity v= 12:me" the acceleration a= 15m and the distance travelled s = 40m, “Transposing the formula Begin by subtracting 2as from each side so that is lefty itself on the righthand side = 208-2 + 2as ~ 2as Tengo he conten sforwoy foal m= ahoneiataroacythenkien Dewi te vaeetvohonat te ston dt gy 37701 nee ln Tero the fra Bean ia bstebym pico ai This leaves 5 = gh Soo athemais fr Eninaing Now cide both key ox _ at wy @ corn? Eolatng Cutan = 001 codenbs m= 120. 210m Chenging this o engineering notation gives (C= 125 «10 frads o 125 micraferacs This leaves v'—2as-= ut "Now take the square root of each side tas =P This gles u= V7 Zea Evalueting uwhen v= 12s" 9=1.5ms-*andls= 40m o> FDIS} = 4.90 ms" (corect to 3 significant figures) ‘Now multiply each side by 2 to isolate von the lefchand sie, cea Tiss v= 20h Final tke the square oot ath ide We = Seah This leaves v= 75h Evalting ven g=981 sand =m ve EROBINST v= 100 ms"*(corectto 3 significant igures) mChained calculations Chained calculations are caeulatione which evoke performing a number af operations on your scientfe electonc calculator onthe way to an answer. They might contain powers nd roots: the key marked li'l and is eeeand function [] wil help you wit these xy Evaluate the following ealeuation: “The value shown on your calculator willbe 551 * 10 (9.254 2.757 x (1025-375) Now work out 650? using the following sequence of Pat BOOM Actuate near wong outehe)) a ous oneal noes bel enoheniga nostic ‘brackets and removing ther, {61{51(0} (6) (INI (31 [=11ENG] 56x 6507 The value shown on your calculator willbe 8.66 Now work out S6*using the following sequence af __-_Youcen naw complete the calculation by multiphying keys. Your value will bein engineering notation, these valies together, making use of the [10] key. {1161x1151 -11ENG] 551 x10! x 865=.477 x10" Evaluate the fellowing calculation: “The value shown on your calculator willbe 175 (ozsx372¥ Now woik out 36.7 using the fellowing sequence of 621-1557 keys. Your value will agen be in engineering notation, Follow the BODMAS rule and beginby working out the s ee eee 1B]L6] J 61 311-1 ENG] as “The value shown on your calculator willbe 49.0 x 102 ae ‘You can now comet the calculation by diving, Make Fe een ae keys. Your value will be in engineering notation. wap BT (9111 Ibe} WM FAN L-IIENGI ” Engineering calculations Sonne ue caleltions thet we have cred out are the sort you might arcu imanginceng We ate row going todo some more ofthe kind thet Yu ght soon trenunterin you engineering science tues, eco 2G EDF inigCee Making use ofthe formula V= R, calculate the current, Lin the series cuit shown in Figure 10.1. Calculate also ‘the potential clerences V, and V, across each ofthe F i 4 {i zy» Flee 101 Rowe cit CCaleuating the eurent Begin by finding the total resistance, ofthe circuit RoR +Ra5+8 R= 130 ‘gas ata pressure of 100 kPa and volume 1.5m? '5 compressed into a volume of 0.25 m® During the process its temperature rises fom 300K to 750K. Calculate its final pressure using the formule BM ee as To make p, the subject ofthe formule, mutiny each side by T, and divide each side by Dae A carol mass 900g is wavelling as speed of 12rnson ‘level road when the brakes are applied and itis slowed oun smoothly toa speed of 3m over a stance of 15m. Calculate te force applied by the brakes, Begin by calculating the work done, W, during the braking process, This is equal othe change in kinetic ‘energy given by the formula a 2 = v2) ire ens we 0022-3 W608 x 104J0rs088) athenats fr Enienng, Next calculate the curtent, lamps valk Dividing each side by gives v ei ei » t= 2-1 stamps Using the eurento find the voltages V, and V, valk, Vietsaxs Vem Vw 158% 8-123 vols Tvoks Check to show that these ade up tothe supply voltage 7.1 +123=20 and so the values ore correct eu eM i Se OO Re 10010154750, + 300x025, p= 15% 10'Paor.5 MPa The work done is also the braking force, F, meltipied by the distance travelled, Wes Divide both sides by « W ero p= OBx10" 5 F405 10'N oF 405 kN, 2Toric Graphical methods er) uotion ‘There are a numberof ferent ways in which numerical information canbe displayed. It can ea be istedin the form ofa table, lean ass be shown on a bar char, where the heights ofthe ee Calum might show production figures for succeeting months. Sometimesa pie chart is BOSE sed ith the allerentsicos showing sta glance. 3, ow mialimwney's sing spent in IEE th ciferent cepartments of company. can also be sspayed inthe form ofa gph = ‘nis EE MEENE i: thorethod we shallow be looking: era tar when two things are related it fs useful to plot a graph thet shows how ‘each other a they change. We can picture the way that two variable on do this with Sometin they affec quantities are related by potting thai values on a graph, We o ate gathored during an experiment. The quantity whose change we can controls led the dependent variable and the quantity that is changing with iis called the independent variable Peet a eee eiflereee ie PneaetTe Plotting points on a graph eae We usvolly plot the dependent vaiable onthe horizontal scale Pee: (the xis) and the independent Yavable onthe vertical scale (he feibe—aanty at jeans) shown in Figure 102. ria angy Tne eot tard ana ate Goohcamumclsedos ard fone of he variables itive, on this generaly plotted onthe Eg Capi veble-aeite _hoiontal eae ss drprgroe won Wl i The points on your graph should Sao beceretulyplottedandmaked 9 ee et, ingpencllwthasmallcess Scroutclomosnhe or adotsurrounded ey a small Sepa wi Soc Youmoy Indthaetw points | aes ae ao Scin-tesamaonagm donot qitele ona stig ine ue SECURIT. or asmocth aune. Check that pg 102 std cae te toma bt Youhaveploted them corecly ref grhpapr stn pis ee tere ‘Sui none coe eum thow oh tote ints ahold ae ar hat atest hath i any of ther sam to be wick displaced. Some seater may bbe due to errors in recording toking readings. When you are satisfied thatthe points have been correctly plotted, raw line or curve of best it that pases through or 3s close to es meny points es possible, 26 TCs EmrMathematics fr Engng » Plotting a proportional relationship When 9 graphs sesight line passing trough the erg we say that here is «proportional relationship between the veables andthe lw or equation ‘oanacting them i ofthe frm y= mo ‘The term mis cae! the gradient or slope ofthe graph, For relations such a ths itis lo called the constant of proportionality that connects Oe to variables. To nd the grad, caw a large tangle on the oraph and, using the scales, rite on the values «and b ofthe vertical ond horizontal sides (se Figure 103, You can then find the gradient, using he foram = & Figure 103 Gaphshonog 3 propartina socom ¥ Plotting a linear relationship When a graph isa straight line that does not poss ‘through the origin wo say that there is linear relationship between the two variables, The aw fr equation connecting them is now ofthe form yomre ‘The gradient, r,s found inthe same way [see Figure 104). cis the value of Ue intercept on the vertical or y-axis. addition to showing how the ‘wo variables are related you can sometimes find ‘extra information from the area between the graph and the horizontal or x-axis For example, f you are plotting force exerted against distance moved by an ‘object, the area under the graph i the work done. H you ae posting velocity against ime, the area under the graph gives the distance travelled. 75 100 125 150 175 200[oad nm EH oi ‘The graph (Figure 105) is astsightline ofthe form a The intercept c= 40 N. This hows thatthe springs c ‘lote-coiled and aload of ADNistequredbeforethe — & coils start to seperate ra emi) a The gradient m= B= OF 179 Nm This is the s stifines of the spring al The law connecting the two 1 vatiables is W = 1.79 + 40 ‘Ts see ww we ‘sn gre 105 Gph olan eer Plotting a non-linear relationship ‘We sometimes fd thatquatites are inversely proportional. This means hat 2s one of them increas, the other one ecieases by ¢ proportional amount. such caves the quarter ae related by alow of the form y= 6 where cis constant. When @ graph is plotted for quantities thet vary inversely, the result is a curve as shown in Figure 108. >| A. gat that obeys Boyle's law bohaves in this way, With such 2 ges aa increase ints absolute pressure, pauses its volume, Pata 408 Gh seg nity Vo decrease in inverse proportion, provided its temperature remains constent. Pressure and volume are connected by the law pV whore cis a constant that depencs onthe particular gas and its mass “The cuve that sults when quantitiessuch 2s these are plotted hase special name, iri called a rectangular hyperbola, “ble 10:3 shows readings of absolute pressure, p, ofa gas andits volume, V produced during a tet earied out at a constant temperature BO 15 20 25 30 35 40 a5 50 Pe 25 147 125 10 083 O71 043 05 050Nathemats fr riearng Plot a graph ofthe two variables and frm it determine the law that connects ther, 254Pa From point (1)0n Figure 107, p, and V, =0.59 ddd 20 pV, = 425x059 = 25 kPam- From point 2)on Figure 107, 2, = 1.25 kPa and V, =20m ad 509, ¥,=125 2025 kom Since pV, = p,¥,= 25 the lw that connects the two veriables is pV = 25 kPam” ses ‘owe Another example of 2 non-linear relationship is quantities that vary according toa square law. That is to say that one quartty is proportional tothe square ofthe other. The low is ofthe form y= ax, ‘whore ais constant. The curve appears as shown in Figure 108 Atypical example of ths knd of behaviours the power consumption inanelectnccreut ven by the formula P= FR Hee, the arto 2nd Bho cro restore, the conto Ancther ample theknetc energy of moving body gienty the formula E= my Here, vis the vloiy and the ! m,which's hal the mar of body isthe constant Fee 108 Gach Table 104 shows readings of current owing in ckeut and is poner consumption B Ee 02 04 06 o7 08 09 10 12 eae + 16 36 49 64 81 100 148 Plot a graph of the two variables and show that they are connected by a square law of tie form P= FR Sz] 9Hae aguas ofthe form = 8 then FoR From point (1) on Figure 109, P, = 2 and, = 0445 8 Fee weds0 f= gage = 109 From point zon Figure 109, &,= 121 and |, = 10954 ade 2 -n00 8 - 8-100, helawt Since = ~ 100, elon that 2 io connects the two variables is P= 107 Figure 109 Graph ot pone cunt \When regular increments in one variable produce increasingly large increments inthe other we say that we have exporential growth. Alternatively, when regu ‘decrements in one variable produce ever smaller decrements inthe other, we sy that ‘wo have exponential decay. We get examples ofthis in electrical anc mechanical systems and also in nature Cm For instance the human population ofthe world has risen exponentially over she Centuries apart from a few hiceups due to wars, plagues and farine. tthe some time tne have seen an exponential decay in the population of some animals, such os the [Asian tiger and giant pands, which aetheatened with extinction. When the figures are plotted on graphs me call hem natural growth and decay curves. They appeer {8 shown in Figure 10.10. [Natural growth and decoy curves have characteristic equations that relate the two ‘arlablee, They are y = ae" and y ~ ae”. The constant a can have any postive or negative value but the constant e is special and abvays has the value 2.718, Just ike = 73:142 a constant peculiar tothe cieuar measurement, so e= 2718's o constant peculiar to natural growth and decay graphs. roe ] ne LS eeponentatgewth —* (biesconentaeay Figure 1010 Gap frat growth rd deny rm Ce gingathats fo Engieting, 12). diesel engine cylinder contains 0.125 m? of air tthe start ofits compression stroke this is compressed into volume of 7.35 x 10-?m? at ‘the end ofthe stroke, calculate is compression ratio earect ta 3 significant figures An engineering component costs £2.25 and buyer raquies abatch of 110. ‘What wil be the cost fa discount of 15% i allowed fr this quantity? Give your answer corwet to 2 decimal places, 2 A gantry crane moving at 1.0 ms" accelerates uniformly to velocity of 2.751" in a time of 12s, What is its acceleration? Give your answer corect 10 Significant figures 3 Avehicle traveling ata steady speed stars to accelerate, Is velocity is recorded at one-second intervals and the readings are shown inthe following table, PE ae See cats Plot a graph of velocity v, against ime t. Fram the graph, determine the velocity ofthe vehicle as it stated to accelerate, the acceleration of the vehicle fand the law that connects the two variables, vand t 4 For diferent length ofthe cantilever shown in Figure 10.1, lis the loadat the pot of ane TT shown inthe following table N To EN ESM Eso ies 057 040 027 024 021 a1 Plot a graph of length, L, agains load-carrying capacity, W, and determine the low that connects the two, mroa VCE TE Darl compound shapes Introduction Engineers very aten need to calculate the area of sheet material required fr 2 product, and ‘then use the area to werk out the cost They alsa need ta know the cross-sectlonal area of ar loaded components so that they can caleslate the stress in the material, The calculation of me floor area is very important when designing workshap and otic space wnereregutatons, in’ 7 “state how much space each person shoud have at their workstation. ce Ser CnC A tad een) ements )” Measurement of area Re ‘Mensuration isthe branch of mathorsics desing with measurement, in particular the he eaouremert of ereas and volumes. n engineering we may be required to calula Treo of sheet metal requited fr a prodictorthe volume ofa containing vessel such asa Storage tork or boiler The shapes tha; we have to deel with may be simple or complex OD Honore ti oten possible o break a enauration problem down into a numberof imple Manarton the bas shapes or volumes, These can then be salculated and totalled up to solve the problem. Foto doing i) peas ‘Aceas ace generally measured in square metres (except for very small areas where wo may uses of and tha are centimetres em) cr square millmetres (re and very large areas ro measured inhectaes vo) Ahectare is 10,000 or 10° square metres, Regular shapes By regular shapes we mean squares, rectangles, wiangles. finding thir areas ar shown in Figure 10.12 Compound shapes ‘Other shapes maybe split up into ther elements. For instanco, a rhombus and parallelogram can be rearranged into e square and rectangle as shown in Figure 10.13 1 irl. Te formulae for T t ss ane h icin agent cee =ner igus 1012 Aes frag stapes Fae 1019 Ana ofa shombis poland ape mt RDF Eenigathemasfr sping AAs can be seen, a rhombus and a parallelogram ate rather like a distorted square and rectangle. the tisngular area shown by the dotted line i removed form the right, hand side and attached to the left-hand side, thie converts both shapes into rectangles ‘Their fees can then be found by multiplying the base by the perpendicular height ‘A trapezium is four-sided figure with two sides tht re parallel and two that are not. The vertical dotted ines intersect the sloping sides 3 their midpoint Ifthe ‘wlangular comer sections are removed and reattached tothe upperside, this results in rectangle whose length i the average ofthe two parallal sides. The area is found by ‘multiplying the average length by the distance between the paralel sides, The cross-section ofan |section beam can be solt into thee rectangles whose separate sress can be added together as shown in Worked! example 1023, Other complex shapes are regularly encountered in shest matal work, The panels that sre sed to make washing machines, ovens and cookers regulary contain holes, triangular off-cuts and curves Tees ' Calculate the cross-sectional area ofthe Lsection beam shown in Figure 10.14, All the dimensions are in millimetres. Finding the total area of rectangles A Total of Areas A = 275 x 20 = 3,000 ne? Finding the total area of rectangle B ‘Area 8 = 80x 25 = 2.000 mm? Finding the total area ofthe section “otal area ~ 3,000 + 2000 = 5,000 mm? eae Fe Ee oro tsb peeecte= Emo 119 408-132 Cloke stare eae fuse Finding loo area of A ‘Area of A= Area of ectangle Area of triangle © ‘Area of A= (20> 18)~20.4 Area of A= 339.4 ms? Finding area of semi-circulr floor area 1 sean eatB= Seen bane | 2» _] ‘Area of B= 127.2 m? Fane 1015 Foo san of wakshop Finding ttal floor rea “otal floor area = Area of A+ Area of 8 Total floor area = 239.6 + 1272 Total floor ata = 466.8 m? Feng wef vnc fact = 4 tom xhoP! Volumes of regular and compound = PUTMAN ety (ec x Introduction BMAD The yciune oa ys theamountt pce toc. Wels sometimes caicic MEM czpocity nthe case of storage tank tis the volume of iui require lit completely Enginers often have to make this kind ofealuation and als calculate the vlume of rmoten metal required to make castings J” Measurement of volume for solving engineering problems Large volumes ae gerraly measured cubie mete fr), For smaller volumes we tay use lies and for stil smaller volumes we may use cub centimetres (. +t m= 1000 ves 10" 1 fre = 100 em? (10° em) n= 1000000 em? (10 em?) Regular objects By regular objects we mean rectangular prizms, cylinder, cones and spheres. “The formulae for finding their vlurmes ae shown in Figure 10.16, fecengdepimtoune=cbe fev =mher MED Ganevane Mer GP sete = rE Compound objects Compound cbjects are most often made up fom 2 ‘umber of regular objects. Some of these are shown in Figure 10.7 Seperating compound objects into the cylindrical conical end spherical pats of which they are mad, land :aleulating ther separate volumes, enables the gue 1047 Compound nec total volume tobe found, 2k RCH ingathenats fr rising Worked example 10.25 Figure 10:18 shows a cross-section tough a concrete bbeam whose lengths 25 m.Coleulate the volume of concrete in cubic metres required 10 cast the beam. i Finding cross-sectional area of beam in square metres ‘cea of cross-section = Area of outer square ~ Aree ‘of to semicicles (equal toa full cic) ‘Area of oss sector Besx09)-(Exn=029) nea cfcomanion «0205-008 de shoomancion=01534n8 Pg ila ees Volume required = Cross-sectional area Length Volume required = 0.1834 x 25 Volume requiced = 0.384 mn (to 3 significant figures) pus 10 Cae The pressure vessel shown in Figure 10.19 has a cylinchical contre section and hemispherical onde, Calculate ts volume. Figure 10.89 Pete veil Finding volume of central eyinrical ection nd) _ nxtS?x21 lume of centre cynical section = EH _ Mat S'x21 Volume of centre finda secton = e Volume of centre cylindrical section = 3:71 m Fring ota of hrisheresl ends equal tat cf spher) Yolume of hemispherical ends ~ of hemispherical ends + Volume of hemispherical ends ~1.77 m! Finding total volume of pressure vessel ‘Total volume = Volume of centre section + Volume of ends Total volume = 371 +177 = 55m? || What is the cubic capacity of a container? @ 2 Matis formar the volume of cinder of dometr and eight 1? 2 Walshe ferula othe value ot sper rads “4 How may lize are neeina ciemire?BTC Un Introduction “Trigonometry is the study ol the relationship between te sides and anoles of triangles. Itisat east 2000 years ag, ts name coring from we Greek words mesring ‘engl eT measurement. Over th cenluriesit hasbeen used by astronomers and scientist, endfor MRTOTES pvigatin at sa, san portant tele engineers and we snl be ooking at some of > Bae applications We use trigonometry cuite lt in engineering dasign to caleulate dimensions and tnglea. Building ond land surveyors alzo use it to calculate distances and heights. Some tiangles hve special ames, as shown in Figure 10.20. baa er Heceoneererrny erent BEAUBUIIMMI or ccuiictorl tangle the sides ae ll ofthe same length and al ofthe anales are ree ‘equal, An isosceles triangle has two sides the same lenath and two ofits angles are triangle the sides are all unequal. We sha 08 ‘mostly be dealing ith Perec fight angled triangles a shown in Figue | reece es Nypee ne noes de Crangieaed re tie opie heat we. ‘As you probably know, the crcumferarce ofa cicle canbe divided up into 340 degrees Opporie he ie hat {G60 Whatever the Kind of tangle, the intemal angles akways add up to 180". Inthe spent ona cts seh chy angled tiangle we have one ang rust alo add up to 9". ee a that is 90° and so the ather two intemal angles cgi imoporstaaee, We often use tha Greek leter 6 (theta to identity eee dn angle, asin Figute 102. The longestside ofthe a Reams erin, ingles called the hypotenuse. The side avay fom bg sgacentstcenetatt the ange dis caled the opposite sie ac the other (mumeftescarereethe side next to the angle 8is called the djacent side. Monae 26 ic Fextognngathents fr Engines, )” Pythagoras’ theorem (Over 2,00 years ago an living in anciont Greece, Pythagoras discovered the relationship between the sides of 2 right-angled tangle, He discovered that f you ‘make each side ofthe triangle the side of a square, a in Figure 10.2, the area of the square onthe hypotenuse is equal tothe sum ofthe areas ofthe squares on the other two sides, This means that c= af + BF oven Va? Pythagoras theorem comes in very useful for finding out the length of aside of Tight-angled tangle when we know the length ofthe other two sides. ‘An easy vay to construct aright-angled tangle on paper is to use the 3,4, S method. Note that 3+ = 5s0the sides of your tangle wil be in these relative lenge, Begin by drawing the hypotenuse 5 units lng, then set your eampesses to 4 units and strike an arc‘rom one end of the hypotenuse. Now set your compasses to 3 units and strike another arc fom the other end of the hypotenuse: Where tho two arcs intersect, you have the point ofthe ight angle andl cen draw in the two Faw 1022 Pith her remaining sides ¥ Trigonometric functions ome An acute angle i one that less than 90". The angles ot A and & ln Fige 10.23 are acute angles. Angle C's 90° and the sides, ‘opposite the angles A Band Care ° < lettered a, band « eae owe 1023 Rahtnged vn rottn Tangent of an angle The ratio of the side a, opposite the angle to side b eckocent oth angle Ais known as the tangent ofthe ang. kis usualy writen ot xo done posite side 10" A ~ Sacent side tan A ‘You can find the tangent of any anle on your electronic calculator by enteting the umber of degrees and pressing the tan key. you know the angle and ether ofthe sides aor b, you can find the other one, Altemativelyifyou know both the opposite {and adjacent sides you cancalelate the tangent ofthe angle A and obtain te value In degrees by pressing [shift ta).conmiNUED Inthe triangle ABC ° shown in Figure 1028, caleulate the angle Bt the angle at B ‘andthe length of the Iysternee, = os Fee 102 vine AC Finding tangent of angle at 15 tant fo Sine of an angle Finding value of angle foy pressing [shit] tanD An 2098" Finding argle at 8 A+ B+C= 180" B= tag" - C- A= 180" - 90° 30:96" Bas" Finding value of hypotenuse, c using Pythagoras! ‘theorem co Vorb = Fist" 22mm “The ratio ofthe sida 2, opposite the angle Ato side ¢, the hypotenuse, is known as thesine of the angle Its usually written as sin A for shor. aw oppesisie mn hypotenuse sin A= z ipcense apc pee 1028 Riga rae You can find the sine of any angle on your electronic calculator by entering the number of degrees and pressing the [sn key. Fyou know tho angle and either ofthe sides 2 or you can find the other one. Alternatively fyou know both the opposite side and the Fypotenuse you con celeuate the sineo! the angle A and obtain ts value in degrees by pressing shi inl Inthe tangle ABC ° shown in Figure 10.25, aloo the length of Me.» the ides band and hoon a8 y . Gee sacs tran? arias nn a 2h © Sin ~ sino 2 e= BL a4am Finding side b mace ae aRLFLE mig pee end ~ ana 21 Rouen ‘Checking the answers using Pythagoras theorem on are? ~ EP 2m, i, the answers checkout Fincing angle at B A+ 8+C= 160" B= "aor A- Co 180°- 30° 90" o=0" [Atiangle suchas this ie known asa 40"-30" wang ‘You should note that with such a tiange the hypotenuse is always twice the length ofthe shortest sideCosine of an angle The aio ofthe side b adjacent tothe ange A.t0 side the hypotenuse, is known es the cosine ofthe angle it sual witton a6 08 A for shor. caer side cosa= hypotenuse Mathrats fo Engine Fee 10.27 Rote anies ane notte ’ ‘You can find the cosine of any angle on your electronic caleuatarby entering the umber of degrees and pressing the [cos key. you know the angle A and either ‘ofthe sides b orc, you can find the other one. Alternatively, if you know both the adjacent side and the hypatenuse you can calculate the cosine of the angle A ‘ond obtain ts value in dagrees by pressing shift coe. CD Inthe tangle ABC shown in Figure 1128, calculate the cas length ofthe sides e band cand the . angle at 8 7 Fae 1028 Tange AC Finding side b cosan® b= ccos A= 45 coe 25° b= 450906 408m Finding side sin = 2 a= csin = 45 in 25" 2-45 *0423~190m Checking the answers using Pythagoras’ theorem on ETE = FO a0 6= 45m, ic. the anowars check out Finding angle at Ae B+ C= 160" B= 180" -A~ C= 180° ~25°- 99° B65) Trigonometric relationship ‘As you now know, the tangent, sine andicosine of the angle at Aare calelated 2s follows. ne tnAs2 sna 2 cona= ‘ | or Dividing sin Aby cos A gives sin = in % a4 xE sper male yee 1020 aged ie cord ae This isthe same as tan A and so we have the relationship: ‘You will nt make much practical use ofthis relationship immediately but you mey fnd that it comes in useful in future studies. Figure 10.30 shows a trengular sheet metal panel, Caleulate the angle at Cand the lengths of each ofits sides. Finding angle aC A+ B+ C= 100" 190° - A B= 180" 20° - 30° * cot Figs 10.0 anges tap caning inthe dttedtines 0D ges tw ight angled ingles ABD and CBD, as show in Figur 103 Finding dance AD tan20° = 22 nD ob. _ 0 saa To 40= 13781 Finding dtance CO “ ge 1031 Wang shat etal pn wih dosti 2D dons 0 & Finding length of side AB Finding length of side BC BO 80 c= «20mm sn 20° = 52 sin sor = 8 wo so B Finding lenath of side AC 80 50 __s00 AC = AD~ CD= 1374-420 A8> Saar BC~ SNS ~ nS AC 954 mm AB= 1442 8C=653 mm 2m Hic Fa oieegMathers fr Engineering ka oe Figure 10.32 shows a roof wus, Calculate the lengths of the outer members AB, Cand AC and the inner members ED and OF Consider triangle ABD to find the length of hl ‘member AB and distance AD ignore member ED). gtr 1032 Rol wee Consider viangle D8C to find lenath of memher ons ingle OF 8nd Bend Gateon BCopeve enon 20 . ae ea at oF cos D= BE DF DBcos D = 3 con 40 | fi DF=230m Sn ‘The total length of member AC can now also be found. ACAD + DC~ 252 + 358 i AC 610m The outer tangles aright-angled vingle wth the anole Bibeing 90. You can now check that your answers fr AB, Consider triangle ED8 to find length of intemal member ED. o cos D= EF sD = DB cos D = 3cos 5 ED=193m be 3 : snc- 2 .oc- 28. Cand AC oe cmect by oping Pythagoras’ theorem. i Pears z AC'=610'= 372 Da be 3 Bear OSaieerala ace AB + BC 392° + 467 C= 358 m “The answers are corect“These are exomples of the types of activities you cau find in an assignment for learning aim 8. 4) Calculate the area of the panel shown in Figure 10.33, 2 Calculate the volume ofthe vasa shown in Figure 1034 Fie 1036 Ave 2 Calculate the length ofeach member in p the oof russ shown in Figure 1035, asm mo gue 1038 A rots aac HcEmiigAndrew Griffin Air conditioning systems engineer liam employed by » company that ‘supplies and maintains fl a conditioning equipment to office buildings and hospital My responsibiltes include meeting with ‘customers to identify theirneeds and suggest m the most appropriate eating, ventilation and aie conditioning systems. We then have further meetings to ciscuss the estimated cost of the equipment, installation and planned maintenance All ofthe costs have tobe totaled up as accurately as possible, ‘making allowances for problems that might anise dung insalon, ‘As yu might imagine, tis involves qute abit of maths, Areas, = 2 volumes, installation times, percentages and unit costal come fon Gieatritesceotecmcccs ce” die nia handle ererthing and some ofthe woxk has to be done by hand using the desktop calculator. four tender is What communication skits do you accepted we can then craw up detaied production, Bhink are required in Andrew's job? instalation and maintenance schedules, nd ths What topics that we have covered involves even more cleulatons and use of do you think would be the mest graphics important in estimating the cos o I work as part of team and can ahvays call aproduct? ‘on hecho to solve any tick problms ould you enjoy norking as par of enjoy my work and t gies ue al gest a highly hile! team of enginee satisfaction when a customer accents How can you improve your a new tense communication sls?