Chapter VIII

Set expressions - Phraseology

1.1. Introduction
1.1. Introduction
1.1. A Phraseological Unit?
Definition:
• A phraseological unit is a stable (fixed) word group consisting of two
or more words whose combination is integrated as a unit with a
specialised meaning of the whole.

• A stable word group

• Functioning as a single unit
• Speacialised meaning
1.2. Main characteristics
• Phraseological units or idioms are characterized by the double sense:
• the current meanings of constituent words build up certain picture,
• but the actual meaning of the whole unit has little or nothing to do with that
picture in itself creating an entirely new image
1.2. Main characteristics
• Synonyms  tints and colours of the vocabulary.
• Phraseology  picture gallery
• vivid and amusing sketches of the nation’s customs, traditions and prejudices
• recollections of its past history,
• scraps of folk songs and fairy-tales
1.1. Main characteristics
Examples:
to break the ice
to meet the deadline
crocodile tears
1.1. Introduction
Examples:
• Break the ice
Meaning: To end conflict or initiate friendship.
Origin: This phrase originates from the 1580s, referring to the
carving of ice to create passages for ships on trade routes.
Oftentimes, the ships would get stuck in the ice during the winter.
The receiving country would send small ships to ‘break the ice’ in
order to make way for the trade ships.
(https://www.theintrepidguide.com/english-idioms-and-their-origins/)
1.1. Introduction
Examples:
• to meet a deadline
Meaning: To finish something in time.
Origin: This phrase has sinister origins, first appearing during the
American Civil War (1861-1865). A line was drawn 20 feet from the
inside wall of the stockade where Federal prisoners of war were kept.
This line set the boundaries for the prisoners and was known as a
deadline because any prisoner who attempted to cross it was shot.
(https://www.theintrepidguide.com/english-idioms-and-their-origins/)
1.1. Introduction
• crocodile tears
Meaning: a display of superficial or false, fake sadness
Origin: from a book called “The Travels of Sir John Mandeville” (14th
century). The book includes a description of crocodiles that notes,
“These serpents sley men, and eate them weeping, and they have no
tongue.” While factually inaccurate, Mandeville’s account of weeping
reptiles later found its way into the works of Shakespeare, and
“crocodile tears” became an idiom as early as the 16th century.
(https://www.history.com/news/10-common-sayings-with-historical-origins)
1.2. Main characteristic
• “… idiom is an established and essential element that, used with care,
ornaments and enriches the language.”
Book of English Idioms, V. H. Collins
• “used with care”?
• Speech overloaded with idioms
→ loses its freshness and originality
• Idioms are ready-made speech units
• and wear out when continually repeated
→ Losing their colour and becoming trite cliches
2.1. PU or free word group?
Semantic criterion
• Consider the following jokes:
A: I hate people who talk behind your back.
B: Yes, especially at the movies.

A: What would you do if you were in my shoes?

B: Polish them!
→ Free word groups or phraseological units?
→ Literal meaning vs. transferred meaning
2.1. Semantic criterion
 Semantic criterion:
• The meaning of phraseological groups is something new and far
removed from the current meanings of constituents.
• “a meaning resulting from a peculiar chemical combination of words”, V. V.
Vinogradov.
• This semantic shift is not a mere change of meanings of each separate
constituent part of the unit.
→ Phraseological units are said to be characterized by semantic unity
2.1. Semantic criterion
• Semantic unity:
• Phraseological units: word groups that convey a single notion, according to
traditional approach
• in free word-groups: each meaningful component stands for “a separate notion”
• Both words and phraseological units possess semantic unity
• Words: structural unity
• Phraseological units: no structural unity despite being combinations of words
2.1. Semantic criterion
• Semantic criterion is used as a major one in distinguishing
phraseological units from free word-groups.
• “A phraseological unit is a stable word-group characterized by a
completely or partially transferred meaning”
• A definition by Professor A. V. Koonin.
 Degree of semantic change in a phraseological unit may vary (“completely or
partially”)
• Semantic change affects either
• The whole word-group
• Only one of its components
2.1. Semantic criterion
• E.g.: Semantic change affecting the whole word-group
• to skate on thin ice: to put oneself in a dangerous position; to take risk
• to wear one’s heart on one’s sleeve: to expose, so that everyone knows, one’s
most intimate feelings
• Semantic change affecting only one component:
• Phraseological units in which:
• One of the components preserves its current meaning
• The other is used in a transferred meaning
• E.g.:
• to lose/keep one’s temper
• to fly into a temper
• to fall ill
• to fall in love
2.1. Semantic criterion
• “idiom”:
• Phraseological units with completely transferred meanings
• The meaning of the whole unit does not correspond to the current meanings of the
components
• Is regarded by many scholars as
• The essence of phraseology
• The major focus of interest in phraseology research
2.2. Structural criterion
• Structural criterion brings forth pronounced distinctive features
• Characterising phraseological units
• Contrasting phraseological units to free word-groups
→ Structural invariability
• Essential feature of phraseological units
• Expresses in:
• Restriction in substitution
• Restriction in introducing any additional components
• Grammatical invariability
2.2. Structural criterion
a) Restriction in substitution:
• No word can be substituted for any meaningful component of a
phraseological unit without destroying its sense.
E.g.:
• to give somebody the cold shoulder: to treat somebody coldly, to ignore or cut
him dead
• to give somebody the warm shoulder
• to give somebody the cold elbow
• a bee in somebody’s bonnet
• a bee in his hat
• a bee in his cap
2.2. Structural criterion
a) Restriction in substitution:
• No word can be substituted for any meaningful component of a
phraseological unit without destroying its sense.
• In free word-groups, substitution
• does not present any dangers
• does not lead to any serious consequences
2.2. Structural criterion
b) Restriction in introducing any additional components:
• In the phraseological unit, no (or very limited) additional components
can be introduced.
E.g.:
• to carry coals to Newcastle
• to carry coals quickly to Newcastle
• to carry tons of coals to Newcastle
• the white elephant
• the big white elephant
• the beautiful white elephant
2.2. Structural criterion
b) Restriction in introducing any additional components :
• In a phraseological unit, no additional components can be introduced.
• In free word-groups, such changes can be made without affecting the
general meaning of the utterance.
2.2. Structural criterion
b) Restriction in introducing any additional components :
• In a phraseological unit, no additional components can be introduced.
• Yet, such restrictions are less regular
• to build a castle in the air
• “While dressing for dinner, she built for herself a most magnificent castle in the air of
which she was the mistress…”, Vanity Fair by W. M. Thackeray
• In fiction, such variations on idioms created for stylistic purposes are not a
rare thing
• In oral speech, phraseological units mostly preserve their traditional
structures
2.2. Structural criterion
c) Grammatical invariability:
• Grammar cannot be changed in the phraseological unit.
E.g.:
• to find fault with somebody
• The teacher always finds faults with the boy
• from head to foot
• From head to feet he was immaculately dressed
2.2. Structural criterion
c) Grammatical invariability :
• Grammar cannot be changed in the phraseological unit.
• Yet again, there are exceptions to the rule and these are more
numerous than the previous restriction
• to build a castle in the air
• to build castles in the air
• a skeleton in the cupboard: a shameful or dangerous family secret
• I’m sure they have skeletons in every cupboard!
• a black sheep: a disreputable member of a family
• the blackest sheep of the family
3. Principles of classification
• Phraseological unit is a complex phenomenon with a number of
important features
→ Can be approached from different points of view.
 A considerably number of different classification systems
• devised by different scholars
• based on different principles
3.1. The traditional principle
• The traditional and oldest principle for classifying phraseological units
is based on their original content and might be alluded to as
“thematic”.
• Idioms are classified according to their sources of origin (E.g. English
Idioms by L. P. Smith, London, 1922):
• idioms used by
• sailors, fishermen, soldiers, hunters and
• associated with
• domestic and wild animals and birds, agriculture and cooking.
• idioms drawn from sports, arts, etc.
3.1. The traditional principle
• This principle is sometimes called “etymological”?
• We usually mean something different when we speak of the etymology of
words
• Idioms borrowed from other languages are only a relative small part of
Smith’s classification system.
• The general principle is not etymological
3.1. The traditional principle
• Word-groups associated with the sea and the life of seamen
• Are especially numerous in English vocabulary
• Developed metaphorical meanings, which
• Have no longer any association with the sea or sailors
• E.g.:
• to be all at sea: to be unable to understand
• to weather (to ride out) the storm: to overcome difficulties
• to bow to the storm: to give in
• Direct associations with sea faring in all these idioms have been severed
• Distant memories of sea romance and adventure sill linger in some of them
3.1. The traditional principle
• The thematic principle of classifying phraseological units has a real
merit
• but it does not take into consideration the linguistics characteristic features of
the phraseological units
3.2. Semantic principle
• Semantic characteristics are of immense importance in phraseological
units
• The classification system is founded on the degree of semantic
cohesion between components of a phraseological unit.
• Units with a partially transferred meaning show the weakest cohesion
between their components.
• The more distant the meaning of a phraseological unit from the current
meaning of its constituent parts, the greater is its degree of semantic
cohesion.
→ The phraseological units are classified into three classes
• Phraseological combinations
• Phraseological unities
• Phraseological fusions
3.2. Semantic principle
a) Phraseological combinations:
• are word-groups with a partially changed meaning.
• clearly motivated: the meaning of the unit can be easily deduced
from the meanings of its constituents
• E.g.:
• to be at one’s wits’ end
• to be good at something
• to be a good hand at something
3.2. Semantic principle
b) Phraseological unities :
• are word-groups with a completely changed meaning.
• the meaning of the unit does not correspond to the meanings of its
constituent parts
• motivated: the meaning of the unit can be easily deduced from the
meanings of its constituents
• The metaphor, on which the shift of meaning is based, is clear and
transparent
• E.g.:
• to stick to one’s guns: to be true to one’s view or convictions, a gunner or gun-
crew do not desert their guns even if a battle seems lost
• to lose one’s heart to somebody: to fall in love
3.2. Semantic principle
c) Phraseological fusions :
• are word-groups with a completely changed meaning.
• demotivated: their meaning cannot be deduced from the meanings of
the constituent parts
• The metaphor, on which the shift of meaning is based, has lost its clarity and
is obscure
• E.g.:
• to come a cropper: to come to disaster
• to leave somebody in the lurch: to abandon a friend when he is in trouble
3.2. Semantic principle
 Conclusion:
• This classification system does not take into account the structural
characteristics of phraseological units
• The border-line separating unities from fusions is vague and even
subjective.
The same phraseological unit may
• Appear motivated to one person → labelled as a unity.
• Appear demotivated to another → regarded as a fusion.
 The more profound one’s command of the language and one’s knowledge of
its history, the fewer fusions one is likely to discover in it
3.3. The structural principle
I. Phraseological units functioning like nouns:
• N+N:
• maiden name: the surname of a woman before she was married
• brains trust: ‘a committee of experts' or ‘a number of reputedly well-informed
persons chosen questions of general interest without preparation'.
• N's + N :
• cat's paw : one who is used for the convenience of a cleverer and stronger person
(the expression comes from a fable in which a monkey wanting to eat some
chestnuts that were on a hot stove, but not wishing to burn himself while getting
them, seized a cat and holding its paw in his own used it to knock the chestnuts to
the ground);
• Hobson's choice: a phraseological unit used when there is no choice at all, when a
person has to take what offered or nothing (Thomas Hobson, a 17th century London
stableman, made every person hiring horses take the next in order).
3.3. The structural principle
I. Phraseological units functioning like nouns:
• Ns’ + N: ladies' man ‘one who makes special effort to charm or please
women’.
• N + prep + N: the arm of the law.
• N + A: knight errant (the phrase is to-day applied to any chivalrous
man ready to help and protect oppressed and helpless people)
• N + and +N:
• lord and master: 'husband’
• all the world and his wife: ‘everybody’
• ways and means: 'methods of overcoming difficulties’.
3.3. The structural principle
I. Phraseological units functioning like nouns:
• A + N:
• green room: ‘the general reception room of a theatre' (it is said that formerly
such rooms had their walls coloured green to relieve the strain on the actors'
eyes after the stage lights)
• high tea: ‘an evening meal which combines meat or some similar extra dish
will the usual tea'.
• N + subordinate clause: ships that pass in the night ‘chance
acquaintances'.
3.3. The structural principle
II. Phraseological units functioning like verbs:
• V + N: to take advantage
• V + postpositive: to give up
• V + and + V: to pick and choose
• V + (one’s) + N + (prep): to snap one's fingers at
• V + one + N: to give one the bird 'to fire somebody’
• V + subordinate clause: to see how the land lies 'to discover the state
of affairs’
3.3. The structural principle
III. Phraseological units functioning like adjectives:
• A + and + A: high and mighty
• (as) + A + as +N:
• as old as the hills
• as mad as a hatter
3.3. The structural principle
IV. Phraseological units functioning like adverbs:
• A big group containing many different types of units, some of them
with a high frequency index, neutral in style and devoid of
expressiveness, others expressive.
• N+N: tooth and nail
• Prep + N: by heart, of course
• Adv + prep + A +N: once in a blue moon
• Prep + N + or + N: by hook or by crook
• Conjunction + clause: before one can say Jack Robinson .
3.3. The structural principle
V. Phraseological units functioning like prepositions:
• prep + N + prep: in consequence of
• It should be noted that the type is often but not always characterised
by the absence of article.
• Compare: by reason of :: on the ground of .
3.3. The structural principle
VI. Phraseological units functioning like interjections:
• These are often structured as imperative sentences :
• Bless (one's) soul!
• God bless me!
• Hang it (all)!
• Take your time!
• This review can only be brief and very general but it will not be
difficult or the reader to supply the missing links.
• The list of types gives a clear notion of the contradictory nature of
phraseological units: structured like phrases they function like words.
3.3. The structural principle
VII. Phraseological units functioning like sentences:
• This type differs from all the types given above in so far as it is impossible
to find its equivalent among the parts of speech.
• Sentences that can be treated as complete formulas,
• such as How do you do? or I beg your pardon
• They
• are not equivalent to words in distribution
• are semantically analysable.
• Very often such formulas, formally identical to sentences, are in reality
used only as insertions into other sentences:
• the cap fits ‘the statement is true’
• "He called me a liar." - “Well, you should know if the cap fits."
4. Proverbs, sayings, familiar quotations and
clichés
• The place of Proverbs, sayings and familiar quotations and with
respect to set expressions is a controversial issue
4.1. Proverbs
• A proverb is a short familiar epigrammatic saying expressing popular
wisdom, a truth or a moral lesson in a concise and imaginative way.
4.1. Proverbs
• Proverbs have much in common with set expressions
• their lexical components are also constant,
• Their meaning is traditional and mostly figurative,
• they are introduced into speech ready-made.
• Some scholars are against that
• Proverbs are independent units of communication.
• N. N. Amosova even considers them as riddles and children’s counts.
• Riddles and counts are not as included into utterances in the process of
communication whereas proverbs are.
• Whether they are included into an utterance as independent sentences or as part of
sentences is immaterial.
→ If we follow that line of reasoning, we shall have to exclude all
interjections such as hang it (all) because they are also syntactically
independent
4.1. Proverbs
• Proverbs often form the basis of set expressions
E.g.:
• the last straw breaks the camel's back
• the last straw
• a drowning will clutch at a straw
• to clutch of straw
• it is useless to lock the stable door when the steed is stolen
• to lock the stable door
4.1. Proverbs
• Both set expressions and proverbs are sometimes split and changed
for humorous purposes:
• All is not gold that glitters combines with a allusion to the set expression
golden age
• It will be an age not perhaps of gold, but at least of glitter

• But I laughed and said, “Don't you worry, Professor, I'm not pulling her
ladyship's leg. I wouldn't do such a thing. I have too much respect for that
charming limb” (CARY)
• Daring compliment meant to shock the sense of bourgeouis propriety

• Holy terror, she is - least not so holy, I suppose, but a terror all right.
(RATTIGAN)
• Sometimes the speaker notices the lack of logic in a set expression and checks himself
4.1. Proverbs
• Both set expressions and proverbs are sometimes split and changed
for humorous purposes:
• A living dog is better than a dead lion (from Ecclesiastes)
• A dead ass is better than a living lion (Hazlitt’s thought)
• Hazlitt was unable to appreciate a writer till he was dead

• marry into money

• she had married into conversation
• A A. Huxley’s character, who prided herself on her conversation
4.1. Proverbs
• Proverbs created in folklore
• they are studied by folklorists
→ Lexicology does not deal more fully with the peculiarities of these
But?
• in treating units introduced into the act communication ready-made
→ we cannot avoid touching upon them too
4.2. Familiar quotations
• Their origin is different from proverbs’.
• They come from literature
• By and by they become part and parcel of the language
→ many people using them do not even know that they are drawing
even when they are aware of quotation from Shakespeare
4.2. Familiar quotations
• Quotations from classical sources were once a recognized feature of
public speech.
• Now they are even regarded as bad form because they are
unintelligible to those without a classical education.
4.2. Familiar quotations
• A number of classical tags nevertheless survive in educated speech of
many countries:
• ad hoc 'for this special reason’
• bona fide ‘in good faith’
• cum grano salis 'with a grain of salt’
• mutatis mutandis 'with necessary changes'
→ As long as they keep their Latin form they do not belong to English
vocabulary.
4.2. Familiar quotations
• Many of them, however, show various degrees of assimilation:
• viva voce: oral examination
• which may be used as an adjective, an adverb and a verb.
• Viva voce examination is colloquially shortened into viva (noun and verb)
4.3. Clichés
• Some quotations are so often used that they come to be considered
clichés
• Clichés comes from the printing trade
• The cliché: a metal block used for printing pictures and turning them
out in great numbers
→ used to denote phrases that
• have become hackneyed and stale
• are constantly and mechanically repeated
• have lost their original expressiveness
→ better avoided
4.3. Clichés
• The following are perhaps the most generally recognized:
• the acid test
• ample opportunities
• astronomical figures
• the arms of Morpheus
• to break the ice
• consigned to oblivion
• the irony of fate
• to sleep the sleep of the just
• stand shoulder to shoulder
• swan song
• etc.
4.3. Clichés
• Empty and worn-out but pompous phrases often become mere
verbiage used as a poor compensation for a lack of thought or
precision :
• to blaze a trail
• consummate art
• consummate skill
• heights of tragedy
• lofty flight of imagination
• etc.
4.3. Clichés
• The so-called journalese has its own set of overworked phrases:
• to usher in a new age
• to prove a boon to mankind
• to pave the way to a bright new world
• to spell the doom of civilization
• etc.