Networks Fundemantals 1

Lecture 1 Protocols Basics

Network Protocols
A network protocol is similar to a human protocol, except that the entities exchanging

messages and taking actions are hardware or software components of some device (for

example, computer, smartphone, tablet, router, or other network-capable device). All

activity in the Internet that involves two or more communicating remote entities is governed

by a protocol.

For example, hardware-implemented protocols in two physically connected computers

control the flow of bits on the “wire” between the two network interface cards; congestion-

control protocols in end systems control the rate at which packets are transmitted between

sender and receiver; protocols in routers determine a packet’s path from source to

destination. Protocols are running everywhere in the Internet.

As an example of a computer network protocol with which you are probably familiar,

consider what happens when you make a request to a Web server, that is, when you type the

URL of a Web page into your Web browser. Your computer will send a connection request

message to the Web server and wait for a reply. The Web server will eventually receive your

connection request message and return a connection reply message. Knowing that it is now

OK to request the Web document, your computer then sends the name of the Web page it

wants to fetch from that Web server in a GET message. Finally, the Web server returns the

Web page (file) to your computer.

Given the human and networking examples above, the exchange of messages and the actions

taken when these messages are sent and received are the key defining elements of a protocol:
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A protocol defines the format and the order of messages exchanged between two or more

communicating entities, as well as the actions taken on the transmission and/or receipt of a

message or other event.

Layered Architecture
• The separation into smaller more manageable functions is known as layering.

• Layered architecture simplifies the network design.

• It is easy to debug network applications in a layered architecture environment.

• The network management is easier due to the layered architecture.

• Network layers follow a set of rules, called protocol.

• The protocol defines the format of the data being exchanged, and the control

and timing for the handshake between layers.

OSI Reference Model

that computer networks be organized around seven layers, called the Open Systems

Interconnection (OSI) model.

The OSI model describes how information or data makes its way from application programs

through a network medium to another application program located on another network.

The OSI reference model divides the problem of moving information between computers

over a network medium into SEVEN smaller and more manageable problems. The seven

layers of the OSI reference model, shown in the Fig. below:

• The process of breaking up the functions or tasks of networking into layers reduces
complexity.

• Each layer provides a service to the layer above it in the protocol specification.

• Each layer communicates with the same layer’s software or hardware on other
computers.

• The lower 4 layers (transport, network, data link and physical —Layers 4, 3, 2, and
1) are concerned with the flow of data from end to end through the network.

• The upper three layers of the OSI model (application, presentation and session—
Layers 7, 6 and 5) are orientated more toward services to the applications.

• Data is encapsulated with the necessary protocol information as it moves down the
layers before network transit.
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Lecture 1 Protocols Basics

OSI Seven Layers

1. Physical Layer

• Provides physical interface for transmission of information.

• Defines rules by which bits (with in the frame) are passed from one system to another
on a physical communication medium.

• Covers all - mechanical, electrical, functional and procedural - aspects for physical
communication.

• Such characteristics as voltage levels, timing of voltage changes, physical data rates,
maximum transmission distances, physical connectors, and other similar attributes are
defined by physical layer specifications.

• For example, Ethernet has many physical-layer protocols: one for twisted-pair copper
wire, another for coaxial cable, another for fiber, and so on. In each case, a bit is moved
across the link in a different way.

2. Data Link Layer

• Data link layer attempts to provide reliable communication over the physical layer
interface.

• Breaks the outgoing data into frames and reassemble the received frames.

• Create and detect frame boundaries.

• Handle errors by implementing an acknowledgement and retransmission scheme.

• Supports points-to-point as well as broadcast communication.

• Supports simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex communication.

• Examples of link layer protocols include Ethernet, WiFi, and the cable access
network’s protocol.
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3. Network Layer

• The network layer is responsible for moving network-layer packets known as

• Implements routing of packets through the network, it contains numerous routing

• Defines the most optimum path the packet should take from the source to the
destination

• Defines logical addressing so that any endpoint can be identified, (it contains the IP
protocol).

• Handles congestion in the network.

• Facilitates interconnection between heterogeneous networks (Internetworking).

• The network layer also defines how to fragment a packet into smaller packets to
accommodate different media.

4. Transport Layer

• Purpose of this layer is to provide a reliable mechanism for the exchange of data
between two processes in different computers.

• Provides connectionless (UDP) or connection oriented (TCP) services.

• Breaks long messages into shorter segments and provides a congestion-control

• Provides flow control (that is, sender/receiver speed matching).

• Ensures that the data units are delivered error free and in sequence.

• Ensures that there is no loss or duplication of data units.

• Multiplex multiple connection over a single channel.

5. Session Layer

• Session layer provides mechanism for controlling the dialogue between the two end
systems. It defines how to start, control and end conversations (called sessions) between
applications.

• This layer requests for a logical connection to be established on an end-user’s request.

• Any necessary log-in or password validation is also handled by this layer.

• Session layer is also responsible for terminating the connection.

• This layer provides services like dialogue discipline which can be full duplex or half
duplex.

• Session layer can also provide check-pointing mechanism such that if a failure of
some sort occurs between checkpoints, all data can be retransmitted from the last
checkpoint.

6. Presentation Layer

• Presentation layer defines the format in which the data is to be exchanged between
the two communicating entities. (Interpret the meaning of data exchanged).

• Also handles data compression and data encryption (cryptography).

7. Application Layer

• Application layer interacts with application programs and is the highest level of OSI
model. (The data information in this layer will be referred to as a message).

• Application layer contains management functions to support distributed applications.

• Examples of application layer are applications such as Web document request and
transfer, file transfer, electronic mail, and remote login etc.
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Lecture 1 Protocols Basics

• Translation of human-friendly names for Internet end systems like www.ietf.org to a