INTRODUCTION TO NETWORKING & NETWORK

DEVICES
Basics of Networking
A computer network consists of a collection of computers, printers and other
equipment that is connected together so that they can communicate with each
other. The figure below gives an example of a network in a school comprising
of a local area network or LAN connecting computers with each other, the
internet, and various servers.

Broadly speaking, there are two types of network configuration, peer-to-peer

networks and client/server networks.

Peer-to-peer networks are more commonly implemented where less than ten
computers are involved and where strict security is not necessary. All
computers have the same status, hence the term 'peer', and they communicate
with each other on an equal footing. Files, such as word processing or
spreadsheet documents, can be shared across the network and all the computers
on the network can share devices, such as printers or scanners, which are
connected to any one computer.
Client/server networks are more suitable for larger networks. A central
computer, or 'server', acts as the storage location for files and applications
shared on the network. Usually the server is a higher than average performance
computer. The server also controls the network access of the other computers
which are referred to as the 'client' computers. Typically, teachers and students
in a school will use the client computers for their work and only the network
administrator (usually a designated staff member) will have access rights to the
server.

Components of a Network
A computer network comprises the following components:

• A minimum of at least 2 computers

• Cables that connect the computers to each other, although wireless
communication is becoming more common (see Advice Sheet 20 for
more information)
• A network interface device on each computer (this is called a
network interface card or NIC)
• A ‘Switch’ used to switch the data from one point to another. Hubs
are out dated and are little used for new installations.
• Network operating system software

CATEGORIES OF NETWORKS
Networks can broadly be grouped into three. They are;

Local Area Network (LAN): this is the network of computer that provides
coverage within a building. Computers within an office or building that is
interconnected to share information. Here no public regulatory body's
permission is required for the connection.
Metropolitan Area Network (MAN): These are networks that cover a city. It
can be seen as various LAN connected within a city to share information. Here
public regulatory body's permission is required.
Wide Area Network (WAN): These are networks that cover a very large
geographical area, say a nation, continent, or the entire globe.

Wireless Networks
The term 'wireless network' refers to two or more computers
communicating using standard network rules or protocols, but without
the use of cabling to connect the computers together. Instead, the
computers use wireless radio signals to send information from one to the
other. A wireless local area network (WLAN) consists of two key
components: an access point (also called a base station) and a wireless
card. Information can be transmitted between these two components as
long as they are fairly close together (up to 100 metres indoors or 350
metres outdoors).

Wireless Access point or Wireless Base-station

Suppliers would need to visit the students and conduct a site survey. This
will determine the number of base stations you need and the best place(s)
to locate them. A site survey will also enable each supplier to provide
you with a detailed quote. It is important to contact a number of different
suppliers as prices, equipment and opinions may vary. When the term
'wireless network' is used today, it usually refers to a wireless local area
network or WLAN. A WLAN can be installed as the sole network in a
school or building. However, it can also be used to extend an existing
wired network to areas where wiring would be too difficult or too
expensive to implement, or to areas located away from the main network
or main building. Wireless networks can be configured to provide the
same network functionality as wired networks, ranging from simple peer
-to-peer configurations to large-scale networks accommodating hundreds
of users.

Desktop PC Wireless LAN card Laptop PC wireless Card

Wireless LAN card

What are the advantages and disadvantages of a Wireless LAN?

Wireless LANs have advantages and disadvantages when compared
with wired LANs. A wireless LAN will make it simple to add or
move workstations, and to install access points to provide
connectivity in areas where it is difficult to lay cable. Temporary or
semi- permanent buildings that are in range of an access point can be
wirelessly connected to a LAN to give these buildings connectivity.
Where computer labs are used in students, the computers (laptops)
could be put on a mobile cart and wheeled from classroom to
classroom, providing they are in range of access points. Wired
network points would be needed for each of the access points.

A WLAN has some specific advantages:

1. It is easier to add or remove workstations.

2. It is easier to provide connectivity in areas where it is difficult to

lay cable.

3. Installation can be fast and easy and can eliminate the need to
pull cable through walls and ceilings.

4. Access to the network can be from anywhere in the school

within range of an access point.

5. Portable or semi-permanent buildings can be connected

using a wireless LAN
 6. Where laptops are used, the ‘computer suite’ can be moved
from classroom to classroom on mobile carts

7. While the initial investment required for wireless LAN hardware

can be similar to the cost of wired LAN hardware, installation
expenses can be significantly lower
8. Where a school is located on more than one site (such as on two
sides of a road), it is possible with directional antennae, to avoid
digging trenches under roads to connect the sites
9. In historic buildings where traditional cabling would compromise
the façade, a wireless LAN can avoid drilling holes in walls

10.Long-term cost benefits can be found in dynamic

environments requiring frequent moves and changes

11.They allow the possibility of individual student allocation of

wireless devices that move around the school with the student.

WLANs also have some disadvantages:

1. As the number of computers using the network increases, the

data transfer rate to each computer will decrease accordingly

2. As standards change, it may be necessary to replace wireless

cards and/or access points
 3. Lower wireless bandwidth means some applications such as
video streaming will be more effective on a wired LAN

4. Security is more difficult to guarantee, and requires

configuration

5. Devices will only operate at a limited distance from an access

point, with the distance determined by the standard used and
buildings and other obstacles between the access point and the
user

6. A wired LAN is most likely to be required to provide a backbone

to the wireless LAN; a wireless LAN should be a supplement to
a wired LAN and not a complete solution
7. Long-term cost benefits are harder to achieve in static
environments that require few moves and changes

8. It is easier to make a wired network ‘future proof’ for high

data transfer.

Basic Advantages of Using Computer Networks

There are many possible advantages in using networks. The basic
ones are:

a. the sharing of resources (e.g. computers and staff) and information.

b. the provision of local facilities without the loss of central control.

c. the even distribution of work.
d. improved communication facilities.

OVERVIEW OF NETWORK DEVICES

All but the most basic of networks require devices to provide connectivity and
functionality. Understanding how these networking devices operate and
identifying the functions they perform are essential skills for any network
administrator and requirements for a Network+ candidate.

Understanding Network Devices

Repeater: Its job is to regenerate the signal over the same network before the
signal becomes too weak or corrupted so as to extend the length to which the
signal can be transmitted over the same network. An important point to be noted
about repeaters is that they do not amplify the signal. When the signal becomes
weak, they copy the signal bit by bit and regenerate it at the original strength. It is
a 2 port device.
Repeaters work against attenuation by repeating signals that they receive on a
network, cleaning and regenerating the digital transmission in the process.
Attenuation is the degradation of signal clarity.
 Fig.1 how a repeater works

Hubs: At the bottom of the networking food chain, so to speak, are hubs. Hubs
are used in networks that use twisted-pair cabling to connect devices. Hubs can
also be joined together to create larger networks. Hubs are simple devices that
direct data packets to all devices connected to the hub, regardless of whether the
data package is destined for the device. This makes them inefficient devices and
can create a performance bottleneck on busy networks.
In its most basic form, a hub does nothing except provide a pathway for the
electrical signals to travel along. Such a device is called a passive hub. Far more
common nowadays is an active hub, which, as well as providing a path for the
data signals, regenerates the signal before it forwards it to all of the connected
devices. A hub does not perform any processing on the data that it forwards, nor
does it perform any error checking. Hubs come in a variety of shapes and sizes.
Small hubs with five or eight connection ports are commonly referred to as
workgroup hubs. Others can accommodate larger numbers of devices (normally
up to 32). These are referred to as high-density devices. Because hubs don’t
perform any processing, they do little except enable communication between
connected devices.
Regeneration of the signal aside, the basic function of a hub is to take data from
one of the connected devices and forward it to all the other ports on the hub. This
method of operation is inefficient because, in most cases, the data is intended for
only one of the connected devices.

Fig.2 how a hub works

Due to the inefficiencies of the hub system and the constantly increasing demand
for more bandwidth, hubs are slowly but surely being replaced with switches.

Switches: On the surface, a switch looks much like a hub. Despite their similar
appearance, switches are far more efficient than hubs and are far more desirable
for today’s network environments.

Fig.3 A switch

Rather than forwarding data to all the connected ports, a switch forwards data
only to the port on which the destination system is connected. It looks at the
Media Access Control (MAC) addresses of the devices connected to it to
determine the correct port. A MAC address is a unique number that is stamped
into every NIC. By forwarding data only to the system to which the data is
addressed, the switch decreases the amount of traffic on each network link
dramatically. In effect, the switch literally channels (or switches, if you prefer)
data between the ports.

Fig.4 how a switch works

In a LAN collisions occur on the network when two devices attempt to transmit at
the same time. Such collisions cause the performance of the network to degrade.
By channeling data only to the connections that should receive it, switches reduce
the number of collisions that occur on the network. As a result, switches provide
significant performance improvements over hubs.

Switches can also further improve performance over the performance of hubs by
using a mechanism called full-duplex. On a standard network connection, the
communication between the system and the switch or hub is said to be half-
duplex. In a half-duplex connection, data can be either sent or received on the
wire but not at the same time. Because switches manage the data flow on the
connection, a switch can operate in full-duplex mode—it can send and receive
data on the connection at the same time. In a full-duplex connection, the
maximum data throughput is double that for a half-duplex connection—for
example, 10Mbps becomes 20Mbps, and 100 Mbps becomes 200Mbps. As you
can imagine, the difference in performance between a 100 Mbps network
connection and a 200Mbps connection is considerable.
Switching Methods
Switches use three methods to deal with data as it arrives:

. Cut-through—in a cut-through configuration, the switch begins to forward

the packet as soon as it is received. No error checking is performed on the
packet, so the packet is moved through quickly. The downside of cut-through
is that because the integrity of the packet is not checked, the switch can
propagate errors.

. Store-and-forward—in a store-and-forward configuration, the switch waits

to receive the entire packet before beginning to forward it. It also performs
basic error checking.

. Fragment-free—Building on the speed advantages of cut-through switching,

fragment-free switching works by reading only the part of the packet that
enables it to identify fragments of a transmission.

As you might expect, the store-and-forward process takes longer than the cut-
through method, but it is more reliable. In addition, the delay caused by
store-and-forward switching increase as the packet size increases. The delay
caused by cut-through switching is always the same— only the address
portion of the packet is read, and this is always the same size, regardless of
the size of the data packet. The difference in delay between the two protocols
is high. On average, cut-through switching is 30 times faster than store-and-
forward switching.

It might seem that cut-through switching is the obvious choice, but today’s
switches are fast enough to be able to use store-and-forward switching and
 still deliver high performance levels. On some managed switches, you can
select the switching method you want to use.

Bridges: Bridges are networking devices that connect networks. Sometimes it is

necessary to divide networks into subnets to reduce the amount of traffic on each
larger subnet or for security reasons. Once divided, the bridge connects the two
subnets and manages the traffic flow between them. Today, network switches
have largely replaced bridges.

A bridge functions by blocking or forwarding data, based on the destination MAC

address written into each frame of data. If the bridge believes the destination
address is on a network other than that from which the data was received, it can
forward the data to the other networks to which it is connected. If the address is
not on the other side of the bridge, the data is blocked from passing. Bridges
“learn” the MAC addresses of devices on connected networks by “listening” to
network traffic and recording the network from which the traffic originates.

The advantages of bridges are simple and significant. By preventing unnecessary

traffic from crossing onto other network segments, a bridge can dramatically
reduce the amount of network traffic on a segment. Bridges also make it possible
to isolate a busy network from a not-so-busy one, thereby preventing pollution
from busy nodes.
 Fig.5 how a bridge works

Bridge Implementation Considerations

Although implementing bridges can offer huge improvements in performance,
you must factor in a number of considerations. The first is bridge placement.
Generally, you should follow the 80/20 rule for bridge placement: 80% of the
traffic should not cross the bridge, and 20% of the traffic should be on the other
side of the bridge. The rule is easy to understand, but accurately determining the
correct location for the bridge to accommodate the rule is another matter.

Another, potentially more serious, consideration is bridging loops, which can be

created when more than one bridge is used on a network. Multiple bridges can
provide fault tolerance or improve performance. Bridging loops occur when
multiple bridges become confused about where devices are on the network.

Types of Bridges
Three types of bridges are used in networks. You don’t need detailed knowledge
of how each bridge works, but you should have an overview:

. Transparent bridge—a transparent bridge is invisible to the other devices on

the network. Transparent bridges perform only the function of blocking or
forwarding data based on the MAC address; the devices on the network are
 oblivious to these bridges’ existence. Transparent bridges are by far the most
popular types of bridges.

. Translational bridge—a translational bridge can convert from one

networking system to another. As you might have guessed, it translates the
data it receives. Translational bridges are useful for connecting two different
networks, such as Ethernet and Token Ring networks. Depending on the
direction of travel, a translational bridge can add or remove information and
fields from the frame as needed.

. Source-route bridge—source-route bridges were designed by IBM for use on

Token Ring networks. The source-route bridge derives its name from the fact
that the entire route of the frame is embedded within the frame. This allows
the bridge to make specific decisions about how the frame should be
forwarded through the network. The diminishing popularity of Token Ring
makes the chances that you’ll work with a source-route bridge very slim.

Routers: Routers are an increasingly common sight in any network

environment, from a small home office that uses one to connect to an Internet
service provider (ISP) to a corporate IT environment where racks of routers
manage data communication with disparate remote sites. Routers make
internetworking possible, and in view of this, they warrant detailed attention.

Routers are network devices that literally route data around the network. By
examining data as it arrives, the router can determine the destination address for
the data; then, by using tables of defined routes, the router determines the best
way for the data to continue its journey. Unlike bridges and switches, which use
the hardware-configured MAC address to determine the destination of the data,
routers use the software-configured network address to make decisions. This
approach makes routers more functional than bridges or switches, and it also
makes them more complex because they have to work harder to determine the
information. Figure 3.12 shows basically how a router functions.

The basic requirement for a router is that it must have at least two network
interfaces. If they are LAN interfaces, the router can manage and route the
information between two LAN segments. More commonly, a router is used to
provide connectivity across wide area network (WAN) links.

Fig.6 A router

Gateways: The term gateway is applied to any device, system, or software

application that can perform the function of translating data from one format to
another. The key feature of a gateway is that it converts the format of the data, not
the data itself.

You can use gateway functionality in many ways. For example, a router that can
route data from an IPX network to an IP network is, technically, a gateway. The
same can be said of a translational bridge that converts from an Ethernet network
to a Token Ring network and back again.

Software gateways can be found everywhere. Many companies use an email

system such as Microsoft Exchange or Novell GroupWise. These systems
transmit mail internally in a certain format. When email needs to be sent across
the Internet to users using a different email system, the email must be converted to
another format, usually to Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP). This
conversion process is performed by a software gateway.

Another good (and often used) example of a gateway involves the Systems
Network Architecture (SNA) gateway, which converts the data format used on a
PC to that used on an IBM mainframe or minicomputer. A system that acts as an
SNA gateway sits between the client PC and the mainframe and translates
requests and replies from both directions.

Fig.7 how gateway works

No matter what their use, gateways slow the flow of data and can therefore
potentially become bottlenecks. The conversion from one data format to another
takes time, and so the flow of data through a gateway is always slower than the
flow of data without one.

Note: Don’t confuse a gateway with the term default gateway. The term default
gateway refers to a router to which all network transmissions not destined for the
local network are sent.

Modem: Modem is a contraction of the terms modulator and demodulator.

Modems perform a simple function: They translate digital signals from a
computer into analog signals that can travel across conventional phone lines. The
modem modulates the signal at the sending end and demodulates at the receiving
end.

Modems provide a relatively slow method of communication. In fact, the fastest

modem available on the market today has a maximum speed of 56Kbps. Compare
that to the speed of a 10Mbps network connection, and you’ll find that the modem
is approximately 180 times slower. That makes modems okay for browsing web
pages or occasionally downloading small files but wholly unsuitable for
downloading large files. As a result, many people prefer to use other remote
access methods, including ISDN (which is discussed later in this chapter, in the
section “ISDN Terminal Adapters”) and cable/DSL access.

Modems are available as internal devices that plug into expansion slots in a
system; external devices that plug into serial or USB ports; PCMCIA cards
designed for use in laptops; and specialized devices designed for use in systems
such as handheld computers. In addition, many laptops now come with integrated
modems. For large-scale modem implementations, such as at an ISP, rack-
mounted modems are also available.
Fig.8 An internal modem and PCMCIA modem
Network Interface Cards (NICs): NICs—sometimes called network cards
—are the mechanisms by which computers connect to a network. NICs come in
all shapes and sizes, and they come in prices to suit all budgets. Consider the
following when buying a NIC:

Network compatibility—perhaps this is a little obvious, but sometimes people

order the wrong type of NIC for the network. Given the prevalence of Ethernet
networks, you are likely to have to specify network compatibility only when
buying a NIC for another networking system.

Bus compatibility—newly purchased NICs will almost certainly use the

Peripheral Component Interconnect (PCI) bus, although if you are replacing a card
in an older system, you might have to specify an Industry Standard Architecture
(ISA) bus card instead. If the card you are buying is PCI, check to see what kind
of PCI interface is being used. Many high-end server systems now come with 64-
bit PCI slots; if you have them, it is definitely worth taking advantage of the extra
performance they offer. Such 64-bit PCI slots can be easily identified because they
are the same color and width as 32-bit PCI slots but are longer. 64-bit slots are
referred to as PCI-X and are backward compatible with 32-bit PCI. Figure 3.18
shows 32-bit PCI slots on a system board.

Port compatibility—generally a NIC has only one port, for twisted-pair cabling.
If you want some other connectivity, you need to be sure to specify your card
accordingly; for example, you might need a fiber-optic or coaxial cable port.

Hardware compatibility—Before installing a network card into a system, you

must verify compatibility between the network card and the operating system on
the PC in which you are installing the NIC. If you are using good-quality network
cards from a recognized manufacturer, such verification should be little more than
a formality.
Types of Network Interfaces
Network interfaces come as add-in expansion cards or as PCMCIA cards used in
laptop systems. In some cases, rather than have an add-in NIC, the network
interface is embedded into the motherboard. Fig.9 shows an example of an add-in
NIC, Fig.10 shows a PCMCIA network card, and Fig.11 shows a built-in network
interface in a laptop system.

Fig.9

Fig.10
 Fig.11

A network interface typically has at least two LEDs that indicate certain
conditions:

. Link light—This LED indicates whether a network connection exists between

the card and the network. An unlit link light is an indicator that something is
awry with the network cable or connection.

. Activity light—This LED indicates network activity. Under normal

conditions, the light should flicker sporadically and often. Constant
flickering may indicate a very busy network or a problem somewhere on the
network that is worth investigating.

. Speed light—This LED indicates that the interface is connected at a certain

speed. This feature is normally found on Ethernet NICs that operate at
10Mbps/100Mbps— and then only on certain cards.
INTERRELATIONSHIP BETWEEN NETWORK DEVICES
AND THE OSI MODEL
AN OVERVIEW OF THE OSI MODEL

Fig.12 The OSI Model

The Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) model is a reference tool for

understanding data communications between any two networked systems. It
divides the communications processes into seven layers. Each layer both performs
specific functions to support the layers above it and offers services to the layers
below it. The three lowest layers focus on passing traffic through the network to
an end system. The top four layers come into play in the end system to complete
the process.

The Open System Interconnection model is a seven-layer structure that specifies

the requirements for communications between two computers. The ISO
(International Organization for Standardization) standard 7498-1 defined this
model. This model allows all network elements to operate together, no matter who
created the protocols and what computer vendor supports them.

The main benefits of the OSI model include the following:

• Helps users understand the big picture of networking

• Helps users understand how hardware and software elements function
together
• Makes troubleshooting easier by separating networks into manageable
pieces
• Defines terms that networking professionals can use to compare basic
functional relationships on different networks
• Helps users understand new technologies as they are developed • Aids in
interpreting vendor explanations of product functionality

Layer 1 – The Physical Layer

Fig.13
The physical layer of the OSI model defines connector and interface
specifications, as well as the medium (cable) requirements. Electrical, mechanical,
functional, and procedural specifications are provided for sending a bit stream on
a computer network.

Components of the physical layer include:

• Cabling system components

• Adapters that connect media to physical interfaces
• Connector design and pin assignments
• Hub, repeater, and patch panel specifications
• Wireless system components
• Parallel SCSI (Small Computer System Interface)
• Network Interface Card (NIC)

In a LAN environment, Category 5e UTP (Unshielded Twisted Pair) cable is

generally used for the physical layer for individual device connections. Fiber optic
cabling is often used for the physical layer in a vertical or riser backbone link. The
IEEE, EIA/TIA, ANSI, and other similar standards bodies developed standards for
this layer.
Layer 2 – The Data Link Layer

Fig.14

Layer 2 of the OSI model provides the following functions:

• Allows a device to access the network to send and receive messages

• Offers a physical address so a device’s data can be sent on the network
• Works with a device’s networking software when sending and receiving
messages
• Provides error-detection capability

Common networking components that function at layer 2 include:

• Network interface cards

 • Ethernet and Token Ring switches
• Bridges

NICs have a layer 2 or MAC address. A switch uses this address to filter and
forward traffic, helping relieve congestion and collisions on a network segment.

Bridges and switches function in a similar fashion; however, bridging is normally

a software program on a CPU, while switches use Application-Specific Integrated
Circuits (ASICs) to perform the task in dedicated hardware, which is much faster.

Layer 3 – The Network Layer

Fig.15

Routers communicate with one another using routing protocols, such as Routing
Information Protocol (RIP) and Open version of Shortest Path First (OSPF), to
learn of other networks that are present and to calculate the best way to reach each
network based on a variety of criteria (such as the path with the fewest routers).
Routers and other networked systems make these routing decisions at the network
layer.

When passing packets between different networks, it may become necessary to

adjust their outbound size to one that is compatible with the layer 2 protocol that
is being used. The network layer accomplishes this via a process known as
fragmentation. A router’s network layer is usually responsible for doing the
fragmentation.

All reassembly of fragmented packets happens at the network layer of the final
destination system.

Two of the additional functions of the network layer are diagnostics and the
reporting of logical variations in normal network operation. While the network
layer diagnostics may be initiated by any networked system, the system
discovering the variation reports it to the original sender of the packet that is
found to be outside normal network operation.

The variation reporting exception is content validation calculations. If the

calculation done by the receiving system does not match the value sent by the
originating system, the receiver discards the related packet with no report to the
sender. Retransmission is left to a higher layer’s protocol.

Some basic security functionality can also be set up by filtering traffic using layer
3 addressing on routers or other similar devices.

Layer 4 – The Transport Layer

Fig.16

Layer 4, the transport layer of the OSI model, offers end-to-end communication
between end devices through a network. Depending on the application, the
transport layer either offers reliable, connection-oriented or connectionless, best-
effort communications.

Some of the functions offered by the transport layer include:

• Application identification
• Client-side entity identification
• Confirmation that the entire message arrived intact
• Segmentation of data for network transport
• Control of data flow to prevent memory overruns
• Establishment and maintenance of both ends of virtual circuits
• Transmission-error detection
• Realignment of segmented data in the correct order on the receiving side
• Multiplexing or sharing of multiple sessions over a single physical link

The most common transport layer protocols are the connection-oriented TCP
Transmission Control Protocol ( TCP) and the connectionless UDP User
Datagram Protocol (UDP ).
Layer 5 – The Session Layer

Fig.17

Layer 5, the session layer, provides various services, including tracking the
number of bytes that each end of the session has acknowledged receiving from the
other end of the session.This session layer allows applications functioning on
devices to establish, manage, and terminate a dialog through a network. Session
layer functionality includes:

• Virtual connection between application entities

• Synchronization of data flow
• Creation of dialog units
• Connection parameter negotiations
• Partitioning of services into functional groups
• Acknowledgements of data received during a session
• Retransmission of data if it is not received by a device
Layer 6 – The Presentation Layer
Layer 6, the presentation layer, is responsible for how an application formats the
data to be sent out onto the network. The presentation layer basically allows an
application to read (or understand) the message.

Fig.18

Examples of presentation layer functionality include:

• Encryption and decryption of a message for security

• Compression and expansion of a message so that it travels efficiently
• Graphics formatting
• Content translation
• System-specific translation
Layer 7 – The Application Layer

Fig.19

Layer 7, the application layer, provides an interface for the end user operating a
device connected to a network. This layer is what the user sees, in terms of
loading an application (such as Web browser or e-mail); that is, this application
layer is the data the user views while using these applications.

Examples of application layer functionality include:

• Support for file transfers

• Ability to print on a network
• Electronic mail
• Electronic messaging
• Browsing the World Wide Web