CSC 4315: WIRELESS NETWORKS AND PROTOCOLS

Compiled: By Dr. Babangida Zubairu

 CSC 4315: WIRELESS NETWORKS AND PROTOCOLS
LECTURE NOTE PART I

1.0.0 What is a Network?

A network is nothing more than two or more computers connected to each other so that they can
exchange information, such as e-mail messages or documents, or share resources, such as disk
storage or printers.

Figure 1: Computer Networks

Connection is made via:

 Electrical cables that carry the information in the form of electrical signals.
 Fiber-optic cables let computers communicate at extremely high speeds by using impulses
of light.
 Wireless networks let computers communicate by using radio signals, so the computers
aren’t restricted by physical cables.

In addition to the hardware that comprises the network, a network also requires special software
to enable communications. In the early days of networking, you had to add this software to each
computer on the network. Nowadays, network support is built in to all major operating systems.

2.0.0 Wireless Network

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With wireless networking, you don’t need cables to connect your computers. Instead, wireless
networks use radio waves to send and receive network signals. As a result, a computer can connect
to a wireless network at any location in your home or office.

Wireless networks are especially useful for notebook computers. After all, the main benefit of a
notebook computer is that you can carry it around with you wherever you go. At work, you can
use your notebook computer at your desk, in the conference room, in the break room, or even out
in the parking lot. At home, you can use it in the bedroom, kitchen, den, game room, or out by the
pool. With wireless networking, your notebook computer can be connected to the network, no
matter where you take it.

A wireless Network is a network that uses radio signals rather than direct cable connections to
exchange information. A computer with a wireless network connection is like a cell phone. Just as
you don’t have to be connected to a phone line to use a cell phone, you don’t have to be connected
to a network cable to use a wireless networked computer. Wireless has the following tremendous
benefits:

 Portable: You can take your computing device anywhere in the house and be on the
network. Even if you have a huge house, you can interconnect wireless access points to
have a whole-home wireless network.
 Flexible: You’re not limited to where a jack is on the wall; you can network anywhere.
 Cost effective: Initiating wireless networking can be achieved cost-effectively, requiring
only a few hundred Naira for a budget-friendly setup.
 Clean: You don’t have to tear down walls or trip over wires when they come out from
underneath the carpeting

3.0.0 Comparison of Wired and Wireless Networks

Feature Wired Networks Wireless Networks

Transmission Uses physical cables (e.g., Uses radio waves for communication
Medium Ethernet cables, fiber-optic
cables)
Data Transfer Typically higher speeds Speeds may vary, generally lower than
Speed (Gigabit Ethernet, 10 wired networks, but improving with
Gigabit Ethernet) technologies like Wi-Fi 6 and 5G
Installation and Usually more complex due Generally easier to set up, minimal physical
Setup to the need for cable infrastructure required
installation

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Mobility Fixed, limited mobility due High mobility, devices can connect from
to physical cable constraints anywhere within the network range
Reliability More reliable with Susceptible to interference, signal loss, and
consistent and stable lower reliability compared to wired
connections networks
Security Generally more secure as Can be more susceptible to unauthorized
physical access is required access and interference, additional security
measures needed
Cost Initial setup costs can be Generally lower initial setup costs, but
higher due to cable ongoing expenses for equipment
installation
Scalability Can be more challenging to Easier to expand and modify as there are no
expand or modify due to physical constraints
physical cables
Interference Less susceptible to Susceptible to interference from other
interference as it uses wireless devices, physical obstacles, and
dedicated cables environmental factors
Environmental Requires materials for Generally considered more environmentally
Impact cables, potentially more friendly due to fewer physical materials
resource-intensive

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 Figure 2: Wireless Network

We can identify the following elements in a wireless network from figure 2:

 Wireless hosts. As in the case of wired networks, hosts are the end-system devices that
run applications. A wireless host might be a laptop, palmtop, smartphone, or desktop
computer. The hosts themselves may or may not be mobile.
 Wireless links. A host connects to a base station (defined below) or to another wireless
host through a wireless communication link. Different wireless link technologies have
different transmission rates and can transmit over different distances. Figure 1 shows
two key characteristics (coverage area and link rate) of the more popular wireless
network standards.
 Base station. The base station is a key part of the wireless network infrastructure.
Unlike the wireless host and wireless link, a base station has no obvious counterpart in
a wired network. A base station is responsible for sending and receiving data (e.g.,
packets) to and from a wireless host that is associated with that base station. A base
station will often be responsible for coordinating the transmission of multiple wireless
hosts with which it is associated.

4.0.0 Wireless Network Characteristics

1. It uses radio waves for communication between the network nodes.

2. It offers a vast variety of uses by both business and home users.
3. It has different standards that vary in geographical range and performance.
4. It allows devices to be connected to the network while roaming around within the network
coverage.
5. It consists of wireless network elements such as access points, routers, and adapters
6. It decreases signal strength due to electromagnetic radiation attenuates as it passes through
matter (e.g., a radio signal passing through a wall). Even in free space, the signal will
disperse, resulting in decreased signal strength (sometimes referred to as path loss) as the
distance between sender and receiver increases.

5.0.0 Wireless network access modes

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 Wireless
Networks

Infrastructure Infrastructure less (Ad hoc

mode mode)

Wi-fi Cellular MANET,PAN,VANET,WSAN

5.1.0 Infrastructure mode

Infrastructure mode was designed to deal with security and scalability issues. In infrastructure
mode, wireless clients can communicate with each other, although an AP. Two infrastructure mode
implementations are in use:

 Basic Service Set (BSS)

 Extended Service Set (ESS)

In BSS mode, clients connect to an AP, which allows them to communicate with other clients or
LAN based resources. The WLAN is identified by a single SSID; however, each AP requires a
unique ID, called a Basic Service Set Identifier (BSSID), which is the MAC address of the AP’s
wireless card. This mode is commonly used for wireless clients that don’t roam, such as PCs.

In ESS mode, two or more BSSs are interconnected to allow for larger roaming distances. To make
this as transparent as possible to the clients, such as PDAs, laptops, or mobile phones, a single
SSID is used among all of the APs. Each AP, however, will have a unique BSSID.

5.1.1 Infrastructure mode coverage Areas

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A WLAN coverage area includes the physical area in which the Radio Frequency (RF) signal can
be sent and received. Two types of WLAN coverage’s are based on the two infrastructure mode
implementations:

 Basic Service Area (BSA)

 Extended Service Area (ESA)

The terms BSS and BSA, and ESS and ESA, can be confusing. BSS and ESS refer to the building
topology whereas BSA and ESA refer to the actual signal coverage

 With BSA, a single area called a cell is used to provide coverage for the WLAN clients
and AP
 With ESA, multiple cells are used to provide for additional coverage over larger distances
or to overcome areas that have or signal interference or degradation. When using ESA,
remember that each cell should use a different radio channel.

5.1.2 Station mobility type in a Wireless LAN

IEEE 802.11 defines three types of stations based on their mobility in a wireless LAN:

No-transition, BSS·transition, and ESS-transition mobility. A station with no transition mobility

is either stationary (not moving) or moving only inside a BSS. A station with BSS-transition
mobility can move from one BSS to another, but the movement is confined inside one ESS. A
station with ESS-transition mobility can move from one ESS to another. However, IEEE 802.11
does not guarantee that communication is continuous during the move.

5.2.0 Wi-Fi Networks

How Wi-Fi works, it all starts with a router, which is the device that connects to the internet and
broadcasts a signal. Then, devices like phones, laptops, and TVs connect to the router using Wi-
Fi antennas. The router and the devices use radio waves to send and receive data. The data is
broken down into small packets, which are then sent over the airwaves. Once the data reaches the
receiving device, it's reassembled and used by the device. The most common type of wireless
network is a Wi-Fi network, which operates on two main frequency bands: 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz ,
Wi-Fi uses a technology called IEEE 802.11, which has several standards, like 802.11a, 802.11b,
and 802.11x. Each standard uses a different frequency and has different capabilities.

Wi-Fi networks are great for connecting devices within a home or office, but they have limited
range. 2.4 GHz is more crowded and susceptible to interference. But it has a longer range, so it's
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good for large homes or offices. 5 GHz is less crowded, so it's better for high-speed applications.
But it has a shorter range, so it's better for smaller areas.

A 2.4 GHz router can have a range of about 150 feet (46 meters) indoors and 300 feet (91 meters)
outdoors. But this range can be affected by things like walls, floors, and other obstacles. It can also
be affected by other devices that use the 2.4 GHz frequency, like microwaves and cordless phones.
So, the actual range you'll get will depend on your specific environment.

While a 5 GHz routers have a shorter range than 2.4 GHz routers, typically about half the range,
the band is less crowded, so it's less likely to be affected by interference. And because it's less
crowded, it can provide faster speeds. So, if you're in a small space and you want the fastest speeds
possible, a 5 GHz router is a good option. But if you're in a large space or you need a long range,
a 2.4 GHz router might be better. A 5 GHz router has a range of about 75 feet (23 meters) indoors
and 150 feet (46 meters) outdoors. But again, this can vary depending on your environment.

A dual-band router is a router that supports both 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz. This gives you the best of
both worlds: the long range of 2.4 GHz and the fast speeds of 5 GHz. So, if you want to take
advantage of both bands, a dual-band router is a good option.

5.2.1 Understanding Wi-Fi Standards

Figure 4 illustrates the principal components of the 802.11 wireless LAN architecture. The
fundamental building block of the 802.11 architecture is the basic service set (BSS). A BSS
contains one or more wireless stations and a central base station, known as an access point (AP)
in 802.11 parlance. Figure 4 shows the AP in each of two BSSs connecting to an interconnection
device (such as a switch or router), which in turn leads to the Internet. In a typical home network,
there is one AP and one router (typically integrated together as one unit) that connects the BSS to
the Internet.

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 Figure 4: IEEE 802.11 LAN architecture

The most popular standards for wireless networks are the IEEE 802.11 standards. These standards
are essential wireless Ethernet standards and use many of the same networking techniques that the
cabled Ethernet standards (in other words, 802.3) use. The original 802.11 standard was adopted
in 1997. Two additions to the standard, 802.11a and 802.11b, were adopted in 1999. Also 802.11g
and 802.11n versions were added in 2003 and 2009 respectively.

The IEEE updates the 802.11 Wi-Fi standard every few years. Currently, the most commonly used
Wi-Fi standard is 802.11ac, while the next generation Wi-Fi standard, 802.11ax (Wi-Fi 6 and Wi-
Fi 6E). Now, the generation after 802.11ax is on the horizon, with IEEE 802.11be mooted for
launch around 2024/2025 (using the name Wi-Fi 7).

EEE Standard Wi-Fi Alliance Year Frequency Maximum Data

Name Released Rate
802.11a Wi-Fi 1 1999 5GHz 54Mbps
802.11b Wi-Fi 2 1999 2.4GHz 11Mbps
802.11g Wi-Fi 3 2003 2.4GHz 54Mbps
802.11n Wi-Fi 4 2009 2.4GHz & 5GHz 600Mbps
802.11ac Wi-Fi 5 2014 2.4GHz & 5GHz 1.3Gbps
802.11ax Wi-Fi 6 2019 2.4GHz & 5GHz 10-12Gbps
802.11ax-2021 Wi-Fi 6E 2021 2.4GHz, 5GHz, & 10-12Gbps
6GHz

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 801.11be Wi-Fi 7 2024/2025 2.4GHz, 5GHz, & 40Gbps
6GHz

5.2.2 Range in Wi-Fi Network

The range of a wireless network, indicating the maximum distance devices can communicate, is
influenced by various factors. Frequency bands play a role, with lower frequencies having better
obstacle penetration and longer range compared to higher frequencies. Transmit power, controlled
by regulatory limits, affects the reach of wireless signals, and antenna design, especially directional
antennas, can extend the range in specific directions. Obstacles like walls and interference from
electronic devices or neighboring networks impact signal quality and, consequently, the effective
range. Wireless standards and environmental conditions, including weather, contribute to
variations in range capabilities. Ultimately, regulatory limits set by authorities help manage
interference and ensure responsible use of the radio spectrum.

For example, suppose that Musa, Kala, and the Asabe all have wireless notebooks. Musa’s
computer is 200 feet away from Kala’s computer, and Kala’s computer is 200 feet away from
Asabe’s in the opposite direction. (See Figure 5.) In this case, Kala is able to access both Musa’s
computer and Asabe’s computer. But Musa can access only Kala’s computer, and Asabe can access
only Kala’s computer. In other words, Musa and Asabe won’t be able to access each other’s
computers because they’re outside of the 300-feet range limit. (This is starting to sound
suspiciously like an algebra problem. Now suppose that Musa starts walking to Kala Kala at 2
miles per hour, and Asabe starts running to Kala Kala at 4 miles per hour.

Figure 5: range in wireless network

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Although the normal range for 802.11g is 300 feet, the range may be less in actual practice.
Obstacles such as solid walls, bad weather, cordless phones, microwave ovens, backyard nuclear
reactors, and so on can all conspire together to reduce the effective range of a wireless adapter. If
you’re having trouble connecting to the network, sometimes just adjusting the antenna helps.

Also, wireless networks tend to slow down when the distance increases. 802.11g network devices
claim to operate at 54 Mbps, but they usually achieve that speed only at ranges of 100 feet or less.
At 300 feet, they often slow down to a crawl. You should also realize that when you’re at the edge
of the wireless device’s range, you’re more likely to suddenly lose your connection due to bad
weather.

In another example, suppose that Station A is transmitting to Station B. Suppose also that Station
C is transmitting to Station B. With the so called hidden terminal problem, physical obstructions
in the environment (for example, a mountain or a building) may prevent A and C from hearing
each other’s transmissions, even though A’s and C’s transmissions are indeed interfering at the
destination, B. This is shown in Figure 6. A second scenario that results in undetectable collisions
at the receiver results from the fading of a signal’s strength as it propagates through the wireless
medium.

Figure 6: Hidden terminal problem caused by obstacle

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5.2.3 Obstacles in wireless network

Wireless networks face several challenges that can impact their performance and reliability.
Interference, both from neighboring electronic devices and other Wi-Fi networks, can disrupt
signals, leading to reduced quality. Physical obstacles such as walls and buildings can attenuate or
block signals, while distance from access points and multipath fading contribute to signal
degradation. Congestion, caused by high network traffic or numerous connected devices, can result
in slower speeds. Adverse weather conditions like rain or snow can also affect signal strength.
Security concerns, including unauthorized access and hacking, pose threats to the integrity of
wireless networks. Device interference and the limited availability of frequency bands further
contribute to performance issues, especially in densely populated areas.

Overcoming these obstacles involves strategic network planning and implementation of advanced
technologies. Employing effective interference mitigation techniques, optimizing device
placement, and utilizing advanced security protocols help enhance network performance.
Additionally, addressing congestion through load balancing and utilizing available spectrum
efficiently are crucial for ensuring robust and reliable wireless connectivity.

5.2.4 Wireless Network Adapters

Each computer that will connect to your wireless network needs a wireless network adapter. The
wireless network adapter is similar to the network interface card (NIC) that’s used for a standard
Ethernet connection.

However, instead of having a cable connector on the back, a wireless network adapter has an
antenna. Just about all notebook computers come with wireless networking built in, so you don’t
have to add a separate wireless network adapter to a notebook computer. Desktop computers are a
different story: They typically do not have built-in wireless networking, so you’ll need to purchase
one of two types of wireless adapters:

 A wireless PCI card is a wireless network adapter that you install into an available slot
inside a desktop computer. In order to install this type of card, you need to take your
computer apart. So use this type of card only if you have the expertise and the nerves to
dig into your computer’s guts.

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  A wireless USB adapter is a separate box that plugs into a USB port on your computer.
Because the USB adapter is a separate device, it takes up extra desk space. However, you
can install it without taking your computer apart.

Figure 7: wireless network adapter

Unlike cabled networks, wireless networks don’t need a hub or switch. If all you want to do
is network a group of wireless computers, you just purchase a wireless adapter for each
computer, put them all within 300 feet of each other.

But what if you already have an existing cabled network? For example, suppose that you work
at an office with 15 computers all cabled up nicely, and you just want to add a couple of
wireless notebook computers to the network. Or suppose that you have two computers in your
house connected to each other with network cable, but you want to link up a computer in your
bedroom without pulling cable through the roof space.

That’s where a wireless access point, also known as a WAP, comes in. A WAP actually
performs two functions. First, it acts as a central connection point for all your computers that
have wireless network adapters. In effect, the WAP performs essentially the same function as
a hub or switch performs for a wired network. Second, the WAP links your wireless network
to your existing wired network so that your wired computer and your wireless computers get
along like one big happy family.

Wireless access points are sometimes just called access points, or APs. An access point is a
box that has an antenna (or often a pair of antennae) and an RJ-45 Ethernet port. You just plug
the access point into a network cable and then plug the other end of the cable into a hub or
switch, and your wireless network should be able to connect to your cabled network.

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 Figure 4 shows how an access point acts as a central connection point for wireless computers
and how it bridges your wireless network to your wired network.

5.2.5 Infrastructure based network setup

When you set up a wireless network with an access point, you are creating an infrastructure
mode network. It’s called infrastructure mode because the access point provides a permanent
infrastructure for the network. The access points are installed at fixed physical locations, so
the network has relatively stable boundaries. Whenever a mobile computer wanders into the
range of one of the access points, it has come into the sphere of the network and can connect

Figure 8: Infrastructure mode

An access point and all the wireless computers that are connected to it are referred to as a Basic
Service Set, or BSS. Each BSS is identified by a Service Set Identifier, or SSID. When you
configure an access point, you specify the SSID that you want to use. The SSID is often a
generic name such as wireless, or it can be a name that you create. Some access points use the
MAC address of the WAP as the SSID.

5.2.6 Multifunction WAPs

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Wireless access points often include other built-in features. For example, some access points
double as Ethernet hubs or switches. In that case, the access point will have more than one RJ-45
port. In addition, some access points include broadband cable or DSL firewall routers that enable
you to connect to the Internet. For example, Figure 8 shows a Linksys wireless access point router.
The device has includes the following features:

 An 802.11b wireless access point that lets me connect a notebook computer and a computer
located on the other side of the house because I didn’t want to run cable through the attic.
 A four-port 10/100 MHz switch that I can connect up to four computers to via twisted-pair
cable.
 A DSL/cable router that I connect to cable modem. This enables all the computers on the
network (cabled and wireless) to access the Internet.

Figure 9: Multifunction WAP

5.2.7 A router

A router is a three-layer device that routes packets based on their logical addresses (host-to-host
addressing). A router normally connects LANs and WANs in the Internet and has a routing table
that is used for making decisions about the route. The routing tables are normally dynamic and are
updated using routing protocols see figure 4 above.

5.2.8 Roaming

You can use two or more wireless access points to create a large wireless network in which
computer users can roam from area to area and still be connected to the wireless network. As the
user moves out of the range of one access point, another access point automatically picks up the
user and takes over without interrupting the user’s network service.

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To set up two or more access points for roaming, you must carefully place the WAPs so that all
areas of the office or building that are being networked are in range of at least one of the WAPs.
Then, just make sure that all the computers and access points use the same SSID and channel.

Two or more access points joined for the purposes of roaming, along with all the wireless
computers connected to any of the access points, form what’s called an Extended Service Set, or
ESS. The access points in the ESS are usually connected to a wired network.

One of the current limitations of roaming is that each access point in an ESS must be on the same
TCP/IP subnet. That way, a computer that roams from one access point to another within the ESS
retains the same IP address. If the access points had a different subnet, a roaming computer would
have to change IP addresses when it moved from one access point to another.

5.2.9 Wireless bridging

Another use for wireless access points is to bridge separate subnets that can’t easily be connected
by cable. For example, suppose that you have two office buildings that are only about 50 feet apart.
To run cable from one building to the other, you’d have to bury conduit — a potentially expensive
job. Because the buildings are so close, though, you can probably connect them with a pair of
wireless access points that function as a wireless bridge between the two networks. Connect one
of the access points to the first network and the other access point to the second network. Then,
configure both access points to use the same SSID and channel.

5.2.10 Channels and Association

In 802.11, each wireless station needs to associate with an AP before it can send or receive
network-layer data. Although all of the 802.11 standards use association. When a network
administrator installs an AP, the administrator assigns a one or two-word Service Set Identifier
(SSID) to the access point. The administrator must also assign a channel number to the AP.

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Figure 10: Active and passive scanning for access points

The process of scanning channels and listening for beacon frames is known as passive scanning
(see Figure 10a). A wireless host can also perform active scanning, by broadcasting a probe frame
that will be received by all APs within the wireless host’s range, as shown in Figure 9b. APs
respond to the probe request frame with a probe response frame. The wireless host can then choose
the AP with which to associate from among the responding APs.

After selecting the AP with which to associate, the wireless host sends an association request frame
to the AP, and the AP responds with an association response frame.

5.3.0 Cellular Networks

5.3.0 Cellular networks

A cellular network is a type of wireless network that covers a wide area by using multiple cells.
Each cell has a base station, which transmits and receives data from the devices in its range. When
a device moves out of the range of one cell, it's handed off to another cell. The cells are connected
to a core network, which routes the data to and from the internet. This is how cellular networks
can provide coverage over a wide area

A cellular network is a radio network distributed over land through cells where each cell includes
a fixed location transceiver known as base station. These cells together provide radio coverage
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over larger geographical areas. User equipment (UE), such as mobile phones, is therefore able to
communicate even if the equipment is moving through cells during transmission.

The network uses a system of interconnected transceivers (cell sites) to provide wireless
communication services to mobile devices, such as smartphones, tablets, and other wireless-
enabled devices. The network is divided into geographical areas called cells, each served by a cell
site or base station. The concept of cellular networks allows for efficient use of limited radio
frequency spectrum by reusing frequencies in different cells, thus increasing the overall capacity
and coverage of the network.

Figure 11: Cellular Networks operations

From figure 11, each cell contains a base transceiver station (BTS) that transmits signals to and
receives signals from the mobile stations in its cell. The coverage area of a cell depends on many
factors, including the transmitting power of the BTS, the transmitting power of the user devices,
obstructing buildings in the cell, and the height of base station antennas. The cellular network’s
Base Station Controller (BSC) will typically service several tens of base transceiver stations. The
role of the BSC is to allocate BTS radio channels to mobile subscribers, perform paging (finding

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the cell in which a mobile user is resident), and perform handoff of mobile users. The base station
controller and its controlled base transceiver stations collectively constitute a GSM base station
system (BSS).

The mobile switching center (MSC) plays the central role in user authorization and accounting
(e.g., determining whether a mobile device is allowed to connect to the cellular network), call
establishment and tear- down, and handoff. A single MSC will typically contain up to five BSCs,
resulting in approximately 200K subscribers per MSC. A cellular provider’s network will have a
number of MSCs, with special MSCs known as gateway MSCs connecting the provider’s cellular
network to the larger public telephone network

Feature Cellular Network Wi-Fi Network

Connection Wireless connection through Wireless connection within a limited
Type cellular towers and antennas. range using radio waves.
Infrastructure Requires a network of cellular Typically uses a router connected to a
towers and base stations. wired internet connection.
Coverage Area Wide coverage area, available in Limited coverage area, generally
urban and rural regions. confined to a specific location or
building.
Mobility Provides mobility, allowing Limited mobility, typically within the
users to move while staying range of the Wi-Fi signal.
connected.
Speed Variable speeds depending on Generally faster speeds compared to
the generation (3G, 4G, 5G). cellular networks, especially in local
settings.
Security Generally considered more Security may vary; additional measures
secure due to encryption like WPA2/WPA3 encryption are
standards. common.
Cost Users typically pay for data Typically a fixed cost for internet service,
usage based on their cellular regardless of data usage within the
plan. network.
Reliability Relatively reliable, but can be Reliable within the coverage area, but
affected by signal strength and may experience interference or signal
congestion. degradation.
Usage Data plans may have usage Limited by the range of the Wi-Fi signal;
Limitations limits or speed throttling after users may experience a drop in
reaching a certain limit. connection quality at a distance.
Power Can consume more power, Generally consumes less power, as
Consumption especially in areas with weak devices connect to a local router.
signal strength.

5.3.1 How cellular network works

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 A cellular network works by dividing a geographical area into small cells, ranging from a few
hundred meters to several kilometers, depending on the population density, topography, and
other factors. Each cell is serviced by a base station or cell tower, which receives and transmits
radio signals to mobile devices within its coverage area.

When a mobile device makes a call or sends a text message, the signal is picked up by the
nearest base station, which relays it to the closest switching center, known as a mobile switching
center or MSC. The MSC routes the signal to the destination cell, which then delivers it to the
receiving device.

The operation of a cellular network involves a complex set of processes to enable

communication between mobile devices and provide various services. Cellular network
operation can be broken down into the following steps:

1. Geographical Division: The area is divided into small cells, each ranging from a few hundred
meters to several kilometers. The size of the cell depends on factors like population density and
topography.
2. Base Stations (Cell Towers): Each cell is serviced by a base station or cell tower. These towers
receive and transmit radio signals to mobile devices within their coverage area.
3. User Communication: When a mobile device makes a call or sends a text message, the signal is
picked up by the nearest base station.
4. Relaying to Switching Center: The base station relays the signal to the closest switching center,
known as a Mobile Switching Center (MSC).
5. Routing to Destination Cell: The MSC routes the signal to the destination cell based on the
recipient’s location.
6. Delivery to Receiving Device: Finally, the signal is delivered to the receiving device within the
target cell.

This process ensures seamless communication across the cellular network

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 Figure 12: Cellular Networks operations

The continuous advancement of cellular technology, from 1G to the latest 5G, has introduced
improvements in data speed, capacity, and reliability, offering a better overall user experience.

Generation Abbreviation Characteristics Major Typical Data

Technologies Speeds
1st 1G Analog voice, basic NMT, AMPS Very low data
mobile communication speeds
2nd 2G Digital voice, text GSM, CDMA, Up to 384 Kbps
messaging, limited data TDMA
2.5G 2.5G Enhanced data services, GPRS, EDGE Up to 1 Mbps
GPRS and EDGE
3rd 3G High-speed data, video UMTS, Up to 3 Mbps
calling, mobile internet CDMA2000,
HSPA
3.5G HSPA+ Further enhanced data HSPA+ Up to 42 Mbps
speeds
4th 4G Broadband data, high- LTE, WiMAX Up to 1 Gbps
quality video streaming
4.5G LTE-A Advanced version with LTE-Advanced Up to 3 Gbps
higher data rates

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 5th 5G Ultra-fast data, low 5G NR (New Up to 10 Gbps
latency, massive IoT Radio)
6th 6G Expected future Under Expected
generation development advancements

5.3.2 Advantages of Cellular Networks

i. One of the primary advantages of cellular networks is their ability to provide wireless
communication over long distances without the need for cables or wires. This makes
communication easy, convenient, and widespread, especially in rural areas where
traditional landlines are limited.
ii. Cellular networks also provide a wide range of services, from voice calls and text
messaging to internet access and mobile applications. These services have transformed
the way we communicate, work, and live, enabling us to stay connected and informed
wherever we go.
iii. Moreover, cellular networks are highly reliable, with multiple redundancies in place to
ensure continuity of service, even during natural disasters, power outages, or other
emergencies.

5.3.3 Disadvantages of Cellular Networks

i. It provides a lower data rate than wired networks like fiber optics and DSL. The data rate
changes depending on wireless technologies like GSM, CDMA, LTE, etc.
ii. Macrophage cells are impacted by multipath signal loss.
iii. To service customers, there is a limited capacity that depends on the channels and
different access techniques.
iv. Due to the wireless nature of the connection, security issues exist.
v. For the construction of antennas for cellular networks, a foundation tower and space are
required. It takes a lot of time and labor to do this.

6.0.0 Infrastructure less (Ad-hoc networks)

Ad hoc mode is based on the Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS). In IBSS, clients can set up
connections directly to other clients without an intermediate AP. This allows you to set up peer-
to-peer network connections and is sometimes used in a SOHO. The main problem with ad hoc

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mode is that it is difficult to secure since each device you need to connect to will require
authentication. This problem, in turn, creates scalability issues.

An ad hoc network might be formed when people with laptops get together (for example, in a
conference room, a train, or a car) and want to exchange data in the absence of a centralized AP.
A wireless access point is not necessary to set up a wireless network. Any time two or more
wireless devices come within range of each other, they can link up to form an ad-hoc network. For
example, if you and a few of your friends all have notebook computers with 802.11b/g wireless
network adapters, you can meet anywhere and form an ad-hoc network.

Figure 13: An IEEE 802.11 ad hoc network

All of the computers within range of each other in an ad-hoc network are called an Independent
Basic Service Set, or IBSS

Figure 6: MANET WSN VANET PAN

Ad hoc networks are wireless networks formed on the fly. Here are some examples of ad
hoc networks

 Mobile Ad hoc Network (MANET): A self-organizing infrastructure-less system of cell

phones communicated through remote connection.

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  Vehicular Ad hoc Network (VANET): Used for communication between vehicles.
Intelligent VANETs use artificial intelligence and ad hoc technologies to communicate
what should happen during accidents.
 Wireless Sensor Network (WSN): Comprises of independent sensors to control the
ecological activities.
 Personal Area Networks (PAN): Wireless ad hoc network created on smartphones via
existing technologies like Wi-Fi and Bluetooth.

6.1.0 Classifications of Wireless Networks

At the highest level we can classify wireless networks according to two criteria: (i) whether a
packet in the wireless network crosses exactly one wireless hop or multiple wireless hops, and (ii)
whether there is infrastructure such as a base station in the network:

6.1.1 Single-hop, infrastructure-based.

These networks have a base station that is connected to a larger wired network (e.g., the Internet).
Furthermore, all communication is between this base station and a wireless host over a single
wireless hop. The 802.11 networks you use in the classroom, café, or library;

6.1.2 Single-hop, infrastructure-less.

In these networks, there is no base station that is connected to a wireless network. However, as we
will see, one of the nodes in this single-hop network may coordinate the transmissions of the other
nodes. Bluetooth networks (which we will study in Section 6.3.6) and 802.11 networks in ad hoc
mode are single-hop, infrastructure-less networks.

6.1.3 Multi-hop, infrastructure-based.

In these networks, a base station is present that is wired to the larger network. However, some
wireless nodes may have to relay their communication through other wireless nodes in order to
communicate via the base station. Some wireless sensor networks and wireless mesh networks fall
in this category.

6.1.4 Multi-hop, infrastructure-less.

There is no base station in these networks, and nodes may have to relay messages among several
other nodes in order to reach a destination. Nodes may also be mobile, with connectivity changing

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among nodes a class of networks known as mobile ad hoc networks (MANETs). If the mobile
nodes are vehicles, the network is a vehicular ad hoc network (VANET).

End of part I

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