1 Fundamentals of machine design

Lesson 1 Design philosophy

PROF DR BÜLENT EKİCİ
MARMARA UNIVERSITY
2023
Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the students should have the knowledge of

1. Basic concept of design in general.

2. Concept of machine design and their types.
3. Factors to be considered in machine design.
1.1.1 Introduction
• Design is essentially a decision-making process. If we have a problem, we need to
design a solution. In other words, to design is to formulate a plan to satisfy a
particular need and to create something with a physical reality. Consider for an
example, design of a chair. A number of factors need be considered first:
(a) The purpose for which the chair is to be designed such as whether it is to be
used as an easy chair, an office chair or to accompany a dining table.
(b) Whether the chair is to be designed for a grown up person or a child.
(c) Material for the chair, its strength and cost need to be determined.
(d) Finally, the aesthetics of the designed chair.

Almost everyone is involved in design, in one way or the other, in our daily lives
because problems are posed and they need to be solved.
1.1.2 Basic concept of machine design
Decision making comes in every stage of design. Consider two cars of
different makes. They may both be reasonable cars and serve the same
purpose but the designs are different. The designers consider different
factors and come to certain conclusions leading to an optimum design.
Market survey gives an indication of what people want. Existing norms
play an important role. Once a critical decision is made, the rest of the
design features follow. For example, once we decide the engine
capacity, the shape and size, then the subsequent course of the design
would follow. A bad decision leads to a bad design and a bad product.
Design may be for different products and with the present
specialization and knowledge bank, we have a long list of design
disciplines e.g. ship design, building design, process design, bridge
design, clothing or fashion design and so on. Here we are concerned
with machine design. We now define a machine as a combination of
resisting bodies with successfully constrained relative motions which is
used to transform other forms of energy into mechanical energy or
transmit and modify available energy to do some useful work. If it
converts heat into mechanical energy we then call it a heat engine. This
is illustrated in figure

Conversion of heat to mechanical energy in a piston cylinder arrangement.

In many cases however, the machines receive mechanical energy and
modify it so that a specific task is carried out, for example a hoist, a
bicycle or a handwinch. This modification or transformation of energy
requires a number of machine elements, some small and some large.
Machine design involves primarily designing these elements so that
they may transmit the forces safely and perform their task successfully.
Consider the following simple mechanisms:
(a) Hand winch
(b) Small press operated by a power screw

In each one of these mechanisms some useful work is being obtained

with certain combinations of a number of machine parts. Designing
these mechanisms would involve firstly designing these elements and
then assembling them in order.
1.1.3 Types of design
There may be several types of design such as

Adaptive design

This is based on existing design, for example, standard products or

systems adopted for a new application. Conveyor belts, control system
of machines and mechanisms or haulage systems are some of the
examples where existing design systems are adapted for a particular
use.
Developmental design
Here we start with an existing design but finally a modified design is
obtained. A new model of a car is a typical example of a developmental
design .

New design
This type of design is an entirely new one but based on existing
scientific principles. No scientific invention is involved but requires
creative thinking to solve a problem. Examples of this type of design
may include designing a small vehicle for transportation of men and
material on board a ship or in a desert. Some research activity may be
necessary.
1.1.4 Types of design based on methods
Rational design
This is based on determining the stresses and strains of components and thereby deciding
their dimensions.

Empirical design
This is based on empirical formulae which in turn is based on experience and experiments.
For example, when we tighten a nut on a bolt the force exerted or the stresses induced
cannot be determined exactly but experience shows that the tightening force may be given
by P=284d where, d is the bolt diameter in mm and P is the applied force in kg. There is no
mathematical backing of this equation but it is based on observations and experience.

Industrial design
These are based on industrial considerations and norms viz. market survey, external look,
production facilities, low cost, use of existing standard products.
1.1.5 Factors to be considered in machine design
There are many factors to be considered while attacking a design problem. In many
cases these are a common sense approach to solving a problem. Some of these
factors are as follows:
(a) What device or mechanism to be used? This would decide the relative
arrangement of the constituent elements.
(b) Material
(c) Forces on the elements
(d) Size, shape and space requirements. The final weight of the product is also a
major concern.
(e) The method of manufacturing the components and their assembly.
(f) How will it operate?
(g) Reliability and safety aspects
(h) Inspectibility
(i) Maintenance, cost and aesthetics of the designed product.
(a) What device or mechanism to be used-
This is best judged by understanding the problem thoroughly.
Sometimes a particular function can be achieved by a number of
means or by using different mechanisms and the designer has to
decide which one is most effective under the circumstances. A rough
design or layout diagram may be made to crystallize the thoughts
regarding the relative arrangement of the elements.
(b) Material
This is a very important aspect of any design. A wrong choice of
material may lead to failure, over or undersized product or expensive
items. The choice of materials is thus dependent on suitable properties
of the material for each component, their suitability of fabrication or
manufacture and the cost.
(c) Load
The external loads cause internal stresses in the elements and these
stresses must be determined accurately since these will be used in
determining the component size. Loading may be due to:
i) Energy transmission by a machine member.
ii) Dead weight.
iii) Inertial forces.
iv) Thermal effects.
v) Frictional forces.
(c) Load (cont.)
In other ways loads may be classified as:
i) Static load- Does not change in magnitude and direction and
normally increases gradually to a steady value.
ii) Dynamic load-
a) changes in magnitude- for e.g. traffic of varying weight passing a bridge.
b) changes in direction- for e.g. load on piston rod of a double acting cylinder.
(c) Load (cont.)
The nature of these loads are shown in figure-

Vibration and shock loading are types of dynamic loading.

(d) Size, shape, space requirements and weight-
Preliminary analysis would give an approximate size but if a standard
element is to be chosen, the next larger size must be taken. Shapes of
standard elements are known but for nonstandard element, shapes
and space requirements must depend on available space in a particular
machine assembly. A scale layout drawing is often useful to arrive at an
initial shape and size. Weight is important depending on application.
For example, an aircraft must always be made light. This means that
the material chosen must have the required strength yet it must be
light. Similar arguments apply to choice of material for ships and there
too light materials are to be chosen. Portable equipment must be made
light.
(e) Manufacture
Care must always be taken to ensure that the designed elements may
be manufactured with ease, within the available facilities and at low
cost.
(f) How will it operate
In the final stage of the design a designer must ensure that the machine may
be operated with ease. In many power operated machines it is simply a
matter of pressing a knob or switch to start the machine. However in many
other cases, a sequence of operations is to be specified.
Who will explain the difference between the starting of catle and CNC
machine?
This sequence must not be complicated and the operations should not
require excessive force. Consider the starting, accelerating and stopping a
scooter or a car. With time tested design considerations, the sequences have
been made user-friendly and as in any other product, these products too go
through continuous innovation and development
(g) Reliability and safety
Reliability is an important factor in any design. A designed machine
should work effectively and reliably. The probability that an element or
a machine will not fail in use is called reliability. Reliability lies between
0 ≤ R< 1. To ensure this, every detail should be examined. Possible
overloading, wear of elements, excessive heat generation and other
such detrimental factors must be avoided. There is no single answer for
this but an overall safe design approach and care at every stage of
design would result in a reliable machine.
Safety has become a matter of paramount importance these days in
design. Machines must be designed to serve mankind, not to harm it.
Industrial regulations ensure that the manufacturer is liable for any
damage or harm arising out of a defective product. Use of a factor of
safety only in design does not ensure its overall reliability.
Engineers consider the high factor of safety value if the design failure can
impact product performance or safety. For example, a company designs a car
considering loads from 12 passengers even if the sitting capacity is for four
passengers. Vehicle factor of the safety will be (12/4 = 3) three.
Design factor and safety factor
The difference between the safety factor and design factor (design safety
factor) is as follows: The safety factor, or yield stress, is how much the
designed part actually will be able to withstand (first usage from above). The
design factor, or working stress, is what the item is required to be able to
withstand (second usage). The design factor is defined for an application
(generally provided in advance and often set by regulatory building codes or
policy) and is not an actual calculation, the safety factor is a ratio of
maximum strength to intended load for the actual item that was designed.
(h) Maintenance, cost and aesthetics
Maintenance and safety are often interlinked. Good maintenance ensures
good running condition of machinery. Often a regular maintenance schedule
is maintained and a thorough check up of moving and loaded parts is carried
out to avoid catastrophic failures. Low friction and wear is maintained by
proper lubrication. This is a major aspect of design since wherever there are
moving parts, friction and wear are inevitable. High friction leads to
increased loss of energy. Wear of machine parts leads to loss of material and
premature failure.
Cost and aesthetics are essential considerations for product design. Cost is
essentially related to the choice of materials which in turn depends on the
stresses developed in a given condition. Although in many cases aesthetic
considerations are not essential aspects of machine design, ergonomic
aspects must be taken into considerations.
1.1.6 Problems
Q.1: Define machine design.

A.1: A machine is a combination of several machine elements arranged

to work together as a whole to accomplish specific purposes. Machine
design involves designing the elements and arranging them optimally
to obtain some useful work.
1.1.6 Problems
Q.2: What is an adaptive design?

A.2: Adaptive design is based on an existing design adapted for a new

system or application, for example, design of a new model of passenger
car.
1.1.6 Problems
Q.3: Suggest briefly the steps to be followed by a designer
A.3: Machine design requires a thorough knowledge of engineering
science in its totality along with a clear decision making capability.
Every designer follows his own methodology based on experience and
analysis. However, the main steps to be followed in general are :
• Define the problem. • Design the elements for strength and durability.
• Make preliminary design decisions. • Prepare documentations to be followed for manufacture.

• Make design sketches.

Carry out design analysis and optimization.
1.1.6 Problems
Q.4: Discuss ‘factor of safety ‘ in view of the reliability in machine
design

A.4: Reliability of a designed machine is concerned with the proper

functioning of the elements and the machine as a whole so that the
machine does not fail in use within its designed life. There is no single
answer to this and an overall safe design approach at every stage of the
design is needed. Use of factor of safety in designing the elements is to
optimize the design to avoid overdesign for reliability.
LESSON 2 Engineering Materials
Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, students should know
• Properties and applications of common engineering materials.
• Types and uses of ferrous metals such as cast iron, wrought iron and
steel.
• Types and uses of some common non-ferrous metals.
• Types and uses of some non-metals.
• Important mechanical properties of materials.
1.2.1 Introduction
Choice of materials for a machine element depends very much on its
properties, cost, availability and such other factors. It is therefore
important to have some idea of the common engineering materials and
their properties before learning the details of design procedure. This
topic is in the domain of material science or metallurgy but some
relevant discussions are necessary at this stage. Common engineering
materials are normally classified as metals and nonmetals. Metals may
conveniently be divided into ferrous and non-ferrous metals. Important
ferrous metals for the present purpose are: (i) cast iron (ii) wrought iron
(iii) steel.
Some of the important non-ferrous metals
used in engineering design are:

(a) Light metal group such as aluminium and its alloys, magnesium and
manganese alloys.
(b) Copper based alloys such as brass (Cu-Zn), bronze (Cu-Sn).
(c) White metal group such as nickel, silver, white bearing metals eg.
SnSb7Cu3, Sn60Sb11Pb, zinc etc.

Cast iron, wrought iron and steel will now be discussed under separate
headings.
1.2.2 Ferrous materials
CAST-IRON
It is an alloy of iron, carbon and silicon and it is hard and brittle. Carbon
content may be within 1.7% to 3% and carbon may be present as free carbon
or iron carbide Fe3C. In general the types of cast iron are
(a) grey cast iron and
(b) white cast iron
(c) malleable cast iron
(d) spheroidal or nodular cast iron
(e) austenitic cast iron
(f) abrasion resistant cast iron.
(a) Grey cast iron- Carbon here is mainly in the form of graphite. This
type of cast iron is inexpensive and has high compressive strength.
Graphite is an excellent solid lubricant and this makes it easily
machinable but brittle. Some examples of this type of cast iron are
FG20, FG35 or FG35Si15. The numbers indicate ultimate tensile
strength in MPa and 15 indicates 0.15% silicon. (F is Flake type)
(b) White cast iron- In these cast irons carbon is present in the form of
iron carbide (Fe3C) which is hard and brittle. The presence of iron
carbide increases hardness and makes it difficult to machine.
Consequently these cast irons are abrasion resistant.
(c) Malleable cast iron- These are white cast irons rendered malleable
by annealing. These are tougher than grey cast iron and they can be
twisted or bent without fracture. They have excellent machining
properties and are inexpensive. Malleable cast iron are used for making
parts where forging is expensive such as hubs for wagon wheels, brake
supports. Depending on the method of processing they may be
designated as black heart BM32, BM30 or white heart WM42, WM35
etc.

(d) Spheroidal or nodular graphite cast iron- In these cast irons

graphite is present in the form of spheres or nodules. They have high
tensile strength and good elongation properties. They are designated
as, for example, SG50/7, SG80/2 etc where the first number gives the
tensile strength in MPa and the second number indicates percentage
elongation.
(e) Austenitic cast iron- Depending on the form of graphite present
these cast iron can be classified broadly under two headings: Austenitic
flake graphite iron designated, for example, AFGNi16Cu7Cr2 Austenitic
spheroidal or nodular graphite iron designated, for example,
ASGNi20Cr2. These are alloy cast irons and they contain small
percentages of silicon, manganese, sulphur, phosphorus etc. They may
be produced by adding alloying elements viz. nickel, chromium,
molybdenum, copper and manganese in sufficient quantities. These
elements give more strength and improved properties. They are used
for making automobile parts such as cylinders, pistons, piston rings,
brake drums etc.
(f) Abrasion resistant cast iron- These are alloy cast iron and the
alloying elements render abrasion resistance. A typical designation is
ABR33 Ni4 Cr2 which indicates a tensile strength in kg/mm2 with 4%
nickel and 2% chromium.
WROUGH IRON
This is a very pure iron where the iron content is of the order of 99.5%.
It is produced by re-melting pig iron and some small amount of silicon,
sulphur, or phosphorus may be present. It is tough, malleable and
ductile and can easily be forged or welded. It cannot however take
sudden shock. Chains, crane hooks, railway couplings and such other
components may be made of this iron.
STEEL
This is by far the most important engineering material and there is an
enormous variety of steel to meet the wide variety of engineering
requirements. The present note is an introductory discussion of a vast
topic. Steel is basically an alloy of iron and carbon in which the carbon
content can be less than 1.7% and carbon is present in the form of iron
carbide to impart hardness and strength. Two main categories of steel
are

(a) Plain carbon steel and

(a) alloy steel.

a) Plain carbon steel-
The properties of plain carbon steel depend mainly on the carbon
percentages and other alloying elements are not usually present in more
than 0.5 to 1% such as 0.5% Si or 1% Mn etc. There is a large variety of plane
carbon steel and they are designated as C01, C14, C45, C70 and so on where
the number indicates the carbon percentage. Following categorization of
these steels is sometimes made for convenience:

Dead mild steel- upto 0.15% C

Low carbon steel or mild steel- 0.15 to 0.46% C
Medium carbon steel- 0.45 to 0.8% C.
High carbon steel- 0.8 to 1.5% C

Detailed properties of these steels may be found in any standard handbook

but in general higher carbon percentage indicates higher strength.
(b) Alloy steel-
these are steels in which elements other than carbon are added in
sufficient quantities to impart desired properties, such as wear
resistance, corrosion resistance, electric or magnetic properties. Chief
alloying elements added are usually nickel for strength and toughness,
chromium for hardness and strength, tungsten for hardness at elevated
temperature, vanadium for tensile strength, manganese for high
strength in hot rolled and heat treated condition, silicon for high elastic
limit, cobalt for hardness and molybdenum for extra tensile strength.
Some examples of alloy steels are 35Ni1Cr60, 30Ni4Cr1, 40Cr1Mo28,
37Mn2. Stainless steel is one such alloy steel that gives good corrosion
resistance. One important type of stainless steel is often described as
18/8 steel where chromium and nickel percentages are 18 and 8
respectively. A typical designation of a stainless steel is
15Si2Mn2Cr18Ni8 where carbon percentage is 0.15.
1.2.3 Specifications
A number of systems for grading steel exist in different countries. The
American system is usually termed as SAE ( Society of Automobile
Engineers) or AISI ( American Iron and Steel Industries) systems. For an
example, a steel denoted as SAE 1020 indicates 0.2% carbon and 13%
tungsten. In this system the first digit indicates the chief alloying
material. Digits 1,2,3,4 and 7 refer to carbon, nickel, nickel/chromium,
molybdenum and tungsten respectively. More details may be seen in
the standards. The second digit or second and third digits give the
percentage of the main alloying element and the last two digits indicate
the carbon percentage.
This therefore explains that SAE 71360
indicates an alloy steel with ???
• 0.6% carbon
• Main alloying material tungsten
• Percentage of tungsten is 13.

In British system steels are designated by the letters En followed by a

number such as 1,2…16, 20 etc. Corresponding constituent elements
can be seen from the standards but in general En4 is equivalent to C25
steel, En6 is equivalent to C30 steel and so on.

What about Turkish system ?

1.2.4 Non-ferrous metals
Metals containing elements other than iron as their chief constituents
are usually referred to as non-ferrous metals. There is a wide variety of
non-metals in practice. However, only a few exemplary ones are
discussed below:
Aluminium- This is the white metal produced from Alumina. In its pure
state it is weak and soft but addition of small amounts of Cu, Mn, Si
and Magnesium makes it hard and strong. It is also corrosion resistant,
low weight and non-toxic.
Duralumin- This is an alloy of 4% Cu, 0.5% Mn, 0.5% Mg and
aluminium. It is widely used in automobile and aircraft components.
Y-alloy- This is an alloy of 4% Cu, 1.5% Mn, 2% Ni, 6% Si, Mg, Fe and
the rest is Al. It gives large strength at high temperature. It is used for
aircraft engine parts such as cylinder heads, piston etc.

Magnalium- This is an aluminium alloy with 2 to 10 % magnesium. It

also contains 1.75% Cu. Due to its light weight and good strength it is
used for aircraft and automobile components. Copper alloys Copper is
one of the most widely used non-ferrous metals in industry. It is soft,
malleable and ductile and is a good conductor of heat and electricity.
The following two important copper alloys are widely used in practice:
Brass (Cu-Zn alloy)- It is fundamentally a binary alloy with Zn upto 50%
. As Zn percentage increases, ductility increases upto ~37% of Zn
beyond which the ductility falls. This is shown in figure. Small amount
of other elements viz. lead or tin imparts other properties to brass.
Lead gives good machining quality and tin imparts strength. Brass is
highly corrosion resistant, easily machinable and therefore a good
bearing material.

Variation of ductility of brass with percentage of zinc.

Bronze (Cu-Sn alloy)-

This is mainly a copper-tin alloy where tin percentage may vary

between 5 to 25. It provides hardness but tin content also oxidizes
resulting in brittleness. Deoxidizers such as Zn may be added. Gun
metal is one such alloy where 2% Zn is added as deoxidizing agent and
typical compositions are 88% Cu, 10% Sn, 2% Zn. This is suitable for
working in cold state. It was originally made for casting guns but used
now for boiler fittings, bushes, glands and other such uses.
1.2.5 Non-metals
Non-metallic materials are also used in engineering practice due to
principally their low cost, flexibility and resistance to heat and electricity.
Though there are many suitable non-metals, the following are important few
from design point of view:
Timber- This is a relatively low cost material and a bad conductor of heat and
electricity. It has also good elastic and frictional properties and is widely used
in foundry patterns and as water lubricated bearings.
Leather- This is widely used in engineering for its flexibility and wear
resistance. It is widely used for belt drives, washers and such other
applications.
Rubber- It has high bulk modulus and is used for drive elements, sealing,
vibration isolation and similar applications.
Plastics
These are synthetic materials which can be moulded into desired shapes
under pressure with or without application of heat. These are now
extensively used in various industrial applications for their corrosion
resistance, dimensional stability and relatively low cost. There are two main
types of plastics:
(a) Thermosetting plastics- Thermosetting plastics are formed under heat
and pressure. It initially softens and with increasing heat and pressure,
polymerisation takes place. This results in hardening of the material.
These plastics cannot be deformed or remoulded again under heat and
pressure. Some examples of thermosetting plastics are phenol
formaldehyde (Bakelite), phenol-furfural (Durite), epoxy resins, phenolic
resins etc.
(b) Thermoplastics- Thermoplastics do not become hard with the
application of heat and pressure and no chemical change takes place.
They remain soft at elevated temperatures until they are hardened by
cooling. These can be re-melted and remoulded by application of heat
and pressure. Some examples of thermoplastics are cellulose nitrate
(celluloid), polythene, polyvinyl acetate, polyvinyl chloride ( PVC) etc.
1.2.6 Mechanical properties of common
engineering materials
The important properties from design point of view are:

(a) Elasticity- This is the property of a material to regain its original

shape after deformation when the external forces are removed. All
materials are plastic to some extent but the degree varies, for example,
both mild steel and rubber are elastic materials but steel is more elastic
than rubber.
(b) Plasticity- This is associated with the permanent deformation of material when
the stress level exceeds the yield point. Under plastic conditions materials ideally
deform without any increase in stress. A typical stress strain diagram for an elastic-
perfectly plastic material is shown in the figure. Mises-Henky criterion gives a good
starting point for plasticity analysis.

The criterion is given as

, where σ1, σ2, σ3 and σy are the three principal stresses at a point for any given
loading and the stress at the tensile yield point respectively.
A typical example of plastic flow is the indentation test where a spherical ball is
pressed in a semi-infinite body where 2a is the indentation diameter. In a simplified
model we may write that

if

plastic flow occurs where, pm is the flow pressure. This is also shown in figure.
(c) Hardness- Property of the material that enables it to resist
permanent deformation, penetration, indentation etc. Size of
indentations by various types of indenters are the measure of hardness
e.g. Brinnel hardness test, Rockwell hardness test, Vickers hardness
(diamond pyramid) test. These tests give hardness numbers which are
related to yield pressure (MPa).
(d) Ductility- This is the property of the material that enables it to be
drawn out or elongated to an appreciable extent before rupture occurs.
The percentage elongation or percentage reduction in area before
rupture of a test specimen is the measure of ductility. Normally if
percentage elongation exceeds 15% the material is ductile and if it is
less than 5% the material is brittle. Lead, copper, aluminium, mild steel
are typical ductile materials.
(e) Malleability- It is a special case of ductility where it can be rolled
into thin sheets but it is not necessary to be so strong. Lead, soft steel,
wrought iron, copper and aluminium are some materials in order of
diminishing malleability.

(f) Brittleness- This is opposite to ductility. Brittle materials show little

deformation before fracture and failure occur suddenly without any
warning. Normally if the elongation is less than 5% the material is
considered to be brittle. E.g. cast iron, glass, ceramics are typical brittle
materials.
(g) Resilience- This is the property of the material that enables it to
resist shock and impact by storing energy. The measure of resilience is
the strain energy absorbed per unit volume. For a rod of length L
subjected to tensile load P, a linear load-deflection plot is shown in
figure. Strain energy ( energy stored)
(h) Toughness- This is the property which enables a material to be
twisted, bent or stretched under impact load or high stress before
rupture. It may be considered to be the ability of the material to absorb
energy in the plastic zone. The measure of toughness is the amount of
energy absorbed after being stressed upt o the point of fracture.

(i) Creep- When a member is subjected to a constant load over a long

period of time it undergoes a slow permanent deformation and this is
termed as “creep”. This is dependent on temperature. Usually at
elevated temperatures creep is high.
1.2.7 Questions with Answers
Q.1: Classify common engineering materials.
A.1: Common engineering materials can be broadly classified into
metals and non-metals. Metals include ferrous and non-ferrous metal
and the nonmetals include timber, leather, rubber and a large variety of
polymers. Among the ferrous metals different varieties of cast iron,
wrought iron and alloy steels are extensively used in industry. There are
also a large variety of timber, leather and polymers that are used in
industry.
 1.2.7 Questions with Answers
Q.2: What are the advantages of malleable cast iron over white or grey cast iron?

A.2: Malleable cast iron are tougher than grey or white cast iron and
can be twisted or bent without fracture. They also have excellent
machining properties and are relatively inexpensive.
 1.2.7 Questions with Answers
Q.3: A standard alloy steel used for making engineering components is
20Cr18 Ni2. State the composition of the steel.

A.3: The composition of the steel is 0.2% carbon, 18% chromium and
2% nickel.
 1.2.7 Questions with Answers
Q.4: How are plain carbon steel designated?

A.4 Properties of plain carbon steel depend mainly on the carbon

percentage and they are designated as C01, C45, C70 where carbon
percentage is represented in terms of the digits, for example C01 steel
contains 0.01% carbon.
 1.2.7 Questions with Answers
Q.5: Name two important copper alloys and give their typical compositions.

A.5: Two most important copper alloys are bronze and brass.

Bronze is a Cu-Sn alloy with the typical composition of 88% Cu, 10% Sn and
2% Zn.

Brass is a Cu-Zn alloy with the typical composition of red brass of 85% Cu ,
15% Zn.
 1.2.7 Questions with Answers
Q.6: List at least five important non-metals commonly used in machine design.
A.6: Some important non-metals for industrial uses are:
1. Timber,
2. leather,
3. rubber,
4. bakelite,
5. nylon,
6. polythene,
7. polytetraflutoethylene (PTFE).
 1.2.7 Questions with Answers
Q.7: State at least 5 important mechanical properties of materials to be
considered in machine design.
A.7: Some important properties of materials to be considered in design
are:
1. Elastic limit,
2. yield and
3. ultimate strength,
4. hardness and
5. toughness.
 1.2.7 Questions with Answers
Q.8: Define resilience and discuss its implication in the choice of materials in
machine design.
A.8: Resilience is defined as the property of a material that enables it to
resist shock and impact. The property is important in choosing
materials for machine parts subjected to shock loading, such as,
fasteners, springs etc.
1.2.8 Summary of this Lesson
In this lesson the properties and uses of different types of metals and
nonmetals, generally used in machine design, are discussed. Primarily
ferrous and non-ferrous metals and some non-metals are discussed.
Mechanical properties of some common engineering materials are also
discussed briefly.
Lesson 3 Brief overview of design and
manufacturing
Instructional Objectives
At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to understand:

• Concept of limits and fits

• Preferred numbers
• Various manufacturing processes
1.3.1 Design and Manufacturing
A machine element, after design, requires to be manufactured to give it
a shape of a product. Therefore, in addition to standard design
practices like, selection of proper material, ensuring proper strength
and dimension to guard against failure, a designer should have
knowledge of basic manufacturing aspects. In this lesson, we will
discuss briefly about some of the basic manufacturing requirements
and processes. First and foremost is assigning proper size to a machine
element from manufacturing view point.
1.3.1 Design and Manufacturing
As for example, a shaft may be designed to diameter of, say, 40 mm.
This means, the nominal diameter of the shaft is 40 mm, but the actual
size will be slightly different, because it is impossible to manufacture a
shaft of exactly 40 mm diameter, no matter what machine is used. In
case the machine element is a mating part with another one, then
dimensions of both the parts become important, because they dictate
the nature of assembly. The allowable variation in size for the mating
parts is called limits and the nature of assembly due to such variation
in size is known as fits.
1.3.2 Limits
Fig. 1.3.1 explains the terminologies used in defining tolerance and
limit. The zero line, shown in the figure, is the basic size or the nominal
size. The definition of the terminologies is given below. For the
convenience, shaft and hole are chosen to be two mating components.
Tolerance
Tolerance is the difference between maximum and minimum dimensions of a
component, ie, between upper limit and lower limit. Depending on the type
of application, the permissible variation of dimension is set as per available
standard grades.
Tolerance is of two types, bilateral and unilateral. When tolerance is present
on both sides of nominal size, it is termed as bilateral; unilateral has
tolerance only on one side.
The Fig.1.3.2 shows the types of tolerance.

İs a typical example of specifying tolerance

for a shaft of nominal diameter of 50mm.
First two values denote unilateral tolerance and the third value denotes
bilateral tolerance. Values of the tolerance are given as x and y respectively.
Allowance
It is the difference of dimension between two mating parts.
Upper deviation
It is the difference of dimension between the maximum possible size
of the component and its nominal size.
Lower deviation
Similarly, it is the difference of dimension between the minimum
possible size of the component and its nominal size.
Fundamental deviation
It defines the location of the tolerance zone with respect to the
nominal size. For that matter, either of the deviations may be
considered.
1.3.3 Fit System
We have learnt above that a machine part when manufactured has a
specified tolerance. Therefore, when two mating parts fit with each
other, the nature of fit is dependent on the limits of tolerances and
fundamental deviations of the mating parts. The nature of assembly of
two mating parts is defined by three types of fit system, Clearance Fit,
Transition Fit and Interference Fit. The fit system is shown schematically
in Fig.1.3.3.
1.3.3 Fit System (continued)
There are two ways of representing a system. One is the hole basis and
the other is the shaft basis. In the hole basis system the dimension of
the hole is considered to be the datum, whereas, in the shaft basis
system dimension of the shaft is considered to be the datum. The holes
are normally made by drilling, followed by reaming. Therefore, the
dimension of a hole is fixed due to the nature of the tool used. On the
contrary, the dimension of a shaft is easily controllable by standard
manufacturing processes. For this reason, the hole basis system is
much more popular than the shaft basis system. Here, we shall discuss
fit system on hole basis.
Clearance
Fit In this type of fit, the shaft of largest possible diameter can also be fitted
easily even in the hole of smallest possible diameter.

Transition Fit
In this case, there will be a clearance between the minimum dimension of
the shaft and the minimum dimension of the hole. If we look at the figure
carefully, then it is observed that if the shaft dimension is maximum and the
hole dimension is minimum then an overlap will result and this creates a
certain amount of tightness in the fitting of the shaft inside the hole. Hence,
transition fit may have either clearance or overlap in the fit.

Interference Fit
In this case, no matter whatever may be the tolerance level in shaft and the
hole, there is always a overlapping of the matting parts. This is known as
interference fit. Interference fit is a form of a tight fit.
1.3.4 Standard limit and fit system
Fig. 1.3.4 shows the schematic view of a standard limit and fit system.
In this figure tolerance is denoted as IT and it has 18 grades; greater the
number, more is the tolerance limit. The fundamental deviations for
the hole are denoted by capital letters from A and ZC, having altogether
25 divisions. Similarly, the fundamental deviations for the shaft is
denoted by small letters from a to zc.
Here H or h is a typical case, where the fundamental deviation
is zero having an unilateral tolerance of a specified IT grade.
Therefore in standard limits and fit system we find that,

Standard tolerances
18 grades: IT01 ,IT0 and IT1-1T16
Fundamental deviations
25 types: A- ZC (For holes) a- zc (For shafts) rades: IT01 ,IT0 and IT1-1T16

The values of standard tolerances and fundamental deviations can be

obtained by consulting design hand book. It is to be noted that the choice of
tolerance grade is related to the type of manufacturing process; for example,
attainable tolerance grade for lapping process is lower compared to plain
milling. Similarly, choice of fundamental deviation largely depends on the
nature of fit, running fit or tight fit etc. The approximate zones for fit are
shown in Fig. 1.3.5. Manufacturing processes involving lower tolerance grade
are generally costly. Hence the designer has to keep in view the
manufacturing processes to make the design effective and inexpensive.
MACHINING AND IT GRADES
• Sample designation of limit and fit, 50H6/g5.

The designation means that the nominal size of the hole and the shaft is 50 mm. H
is the nature of fit for the hole basis system and its fundamental deviation is zero.
The tolerance grade for making the hole is IT6. Similarly, the shaft has the fit type g,
for which the fundamental deviation is negative, that is, its dimension is lower than
the nominal size, and tolerance grade is IT5.
1.3.5 Preferred numbers
A designed product needs standardization. It means that some of its
important specified parameter should be common in nature. For
example, the sizes of the ingots available in the market have standard
sizes. A manufacturer does not produce ingots of sizes of his wish, he
follows a definite pattern and for that matter designer can choose the
dimensions from those standard available sizes. Motor speed, engine
power of a tractor, machine tool speed and feed, all follow a definite
pattern or series. This also helps in interchangeability of products. It
has been observed that if the sizes are put in the form of geometric
progression, then wide ranges are covered with a definite sequence.
These numbers are called preferred numbers having common ratios as,
1.3.5 Preferred numbers (continued)
Depending on the common ratio, four basic series are formed; these
are R5 , R10 , R20 and R40 . These are named as Renard series. Many
other derived series are formed by multiplying or dividing the basic
series by 10, 100 etc. Typical values of the common ratio for four basic
G.P. series are given below.
1.3.6 Common manufacturing processes
The types of common manufacturing processes are given below in the
Fig.1.3.6.
The types of shaping processes
The types of Machining processes
The types of Joining processes
The types of Finishing processes
The non-conventional machining processes are as follows
Questions and answers
Q1. What is meant by tolerance? How many types of tolerance is
there?
A1. Tolerance is the difference between maximum and minimum
dimensions of a component, ie, between upper limit and lower limit.
Depending on the type of application, the permissible variation of
dimension is set as per available standard grades. Tolerance is of two
types, bilateral and unilateral. When tolerance is present on both sides
of nominal size, it is termed as bilateral; unilateral has tolerance only
on one side.
Questions and answers
Q2. What are the types fit? Describe the differences.

A2. The nature of assembly of two mating parts is defined by three types of
fit system, Clearance Fit, Transition Fit and Interference Fit.
Clearance Fit: In this type of fit, the shaft of largest possible diameter can be
fitted easily in the hole of smallest possible diameter.
Interference Fit : In this type of fit, irrespective of tolerance grade there is
always a overlapping of the matting parts.
Transition Fit: In this case, a clearance is present between the minimum
dimension of the shaft and the minimum dimension of the hole. However,
the fit is tight, if the shaft dimension is maximum and the hole dimension is
minimum. Hence, transition fit have both the characteristics of clearance fit
and interference fit.
Questions and answers
Q3. What are preferred numbers?

A3. Preferred numbers are the numbers belonging to four categories of

geometric progression series, called basic series, having common ratio of,

Preferred numbers of derived series are formed by multiplying or dividing

the basic series by 10, 100 etc. These numbers are used to build-up or
manufacture a product range. The range of operational speeds of a machine
or the range of powers of a typical machine may be also as per a series of
preferred numbers.