Principles of Progranuning Us ny C (22POP13) 022 MODULE 4 Strings and Pointers 4.1 Introduction to Strings: * A string is @ null-terminated character array. This means that afte character, a null character (°\0} is stored to signify the end of the array * The general form of declaring a string is char strjsize] + For example if we write, char str|] ~ “HELLO”; We are declaring a character array with 5 characters namely L, Land O. Besides, a null character (‘\0}is stored at the end of the string. So, the n of the string becomes- HELLO'\O’. Note that to store a string o th 5, we need 5 ~ i locations (1 extra for the null character}. The name of the character array (or the string) is a pointer to the beginning of the string, H char str| “HELLO”: ‘str[0] 1000 H | Beginning of the string st{i] 1001) E ‘str[2] 1002 | EB L | roe str(3] 1003 | L | ‘str[4] 1004 | “oO | stz[5] 1005 | \O | Endof the String char str[] = “HELLO”; ‘The forgiven statement declares a constant string as we have assigned value to it while declaring the siring. However, the general form of declaring a string is char str[size]; When we declaring the sting in this way, we can store size -1 characters in the array because the last character would be null character, Till now we have scen one way of initializing strings. The other way to initialize a string is to initialize it as an array of characters, like LL, 0%, \0%; We can also declare a string with size much larger tha are initialized. For example, consider the statement below: char str[10] = "HELLO"; In such cases, the compiler creates a character array of size 10, stores the values “HELLO” in it and finally terminates the value with a null character. Rest of the clements in the array are automatically initialized to NULL, n the number of elements that 4.1.1 Reading String If we declare a string by writing char str{100}; ‘Then str can be read from the user by using three 1. use scanf function ays. Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Dept. of Computer Science and Ei TE © scanned with OKEN ScannerPrincip of Programming Using © (22POP13) & 2. using gets() funetio 3. using getchar(), getch{), getchar() functions repeatedly The string can be read using seant() by writing, seant{'%s", str); Although the syntax of scanf{) function is well known and to use, the main pitfall with this function is that the function terminates as soon as it finds a blank space. ‘or example, if the user enters Hello World, then str will contain only Hello. + The strin; gets(str) zets() takes the starting address of the string which will hold the input. The string inputted using gets() is automatically terminated with a null character. * The string can also be read by calling the getchar() repeatedly to read a sequence of single characters (unless a terminating char tered) and simultaneously storing it in a character array i=0; getehar(eh); while(ch != '*) { striij=e getchar(ch); } strfi] ="\05 n be read by writing riser 4.1.2 Writing String ‘The string can be displayed on screen using three ways ‘© use printf) function * using puts() function * using putchar()function repeatedly The string can be displayed using printf) by writing print{(*%s", str); We use the conversion character ‘s’ to output a string, We may also use width and precision specifications along with %s. The width specifies the minimum output field ith. If the string is short, extra space is either left padded or padded. Th precision specifies the maximum number of character to be displayed. If the string is long, the extra character are truncated. ‘The string can be displaye puts(str); puts() is a simple function that overcomes the drawbacks of the printil) function. The puts() function writes a line of output on the screen, It terminates the line with a newline character(\n). by writing ly to print a sequence of ‘The string can also be written by calling the putchar() repeat single characters iO; while(sts[i] = "\O*) { putchar(str[il}; it } 4.2 Suppressing Input The scanf{) can be used to read a field without assigning it to any variable. This is done by preceding that field's format code with a *. For example, given: © scanned with OKEN Scanner Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Dept. of CompuPrinciples of Programming Using © (22POP 1a) scant’ The time can be read assigned to anything, whei cota’, hr, &min) as 9:05 as a pair Therefore, assignment 7 part of what is input needs to be suppress Here the colon would be read but not Suppression is. particularly useinl ed. 4.2.1 Using a Scanset The ANSI standard added the new scanset f used to define a set corresponding string, brack: lure to the C 01 characters which may be read and assigned to the * scanset is defined by placing the characters inside square language ets prefixes int main() id char str[10]; printf{"\n Enter string: scanfl"%{aeiou)", str }; printfl "The string is : %s", str); return The code will stop accepting character as soon as the user will enter a character that is not a vowel _ However, if the first character in the set is a * (caret symbol), then scanf() will accept any character that is not defined by the scanset. For example, if you write seanf("%[*aciou}", str }; 4.3 String Taxonomy In C, we can store string either in fixed-ler shown in figure gth format or in variable-length format as =] ia] [sewn] Fixed Length String: When storing a string I a fixed-length format, you néed to specify an appropriate size for the string variable. If the size is too small, then you wil elements in the string, not be able to store Variable Length String: A batter option is to use a variable length in which the string can be expencted of contracted to recommended the elements in it Length Controlled String Ina length controlled string, you need to specify the number if characters in the string This count is used by string manipulation functions to determine the actual length of the string variables. Delimited Strings In this format, the string is ended with a delimiter. The identify the end of the string. For example, in English language every sentence is ended with a full-stop (). Similarly, in C we can use any character such as comma, semicolon, colon, dash, null character, ete, as the delimiter of Maharaja Institute of Technolo et: ay Mysore, Dept. of Computer Seience and (& scanned with OKEN Scanner=e paincipies of enema a usa in pers. When 4 operations OF strings go with oe ven 1 OP ye manipulated 1? an expres i i wpracter constant OF fan integc! vonverted into alt : the system char ch =“ i= ch princi md”. i) : : For 4.4.1 Finding the jength of a String ce ere cea ve ior characters in the St 4g constitutes t 2 ieee ae te TH «er sor ) an return 10. Note that even blank spaces TexGTH( MIT Mysore” 8 in tae SGT does nt 0 and LENGTH( pie: oth the strings cause 5 2 ase » LENGTH(O}) y= 08 any character: ALGORITHM TO CALCULATE THE LB) Step 1: [INITIALIZE] SET I~ Step 2: Repeat Step 3 white STR[T] != NO" step 3: SET I=1+1 [END OF LOOP] step 4: SET LENGTH =! Step 5: END NGTH OF A STRING an index of the str n, Lis used as library function */ In this algorithm y+ Length without using ginclude ginclude void main() int len =O. char str{10}: printf Enter the string\n'): gets(str) while(str[i!="\O) len = i | Printf Length of the given string is: %d\n" len}; 4.4.2 Converting Characters of a String i s g into Upper Case In memory the ASCII code of a characte i ee AS A al er is stored instead of its real value. The AS! rode for AZ varies From 65 1091 ‘and the ASCII code for a-z ranges from O7 Pisce if w ve convert a lower case character int er case, ae eae 32 from the ASCII value of the enereeee eee ee eae at aA CONVERT THE CHARACTERS | RS THM TO CON eo OF STRING INTO UPPER CASE step 2: Repeat Step 3 while STR{I] != ‘\0” ep IF STR(1] > ‘a’ AND STR{I] <‘z’ Maharaja Institute of T ae Upperstelt = Stains? inttute of Technology Mysore. De 5 pt. of Computer Science and E pur Sdeccwnd Eres. | SB (& scanned with OKEN Scanner{ Programming Using C (22POP 13) ELSE SET UpperstrI] = STRII] (END OF IF) [END OF LOOP} Step 4: SET Uppersty[l] = ‘\O" Step 5: EXIT inis algorithm. | is used as an index of the string STR. | is initialized to 0. We se each character from step 2 to 3. If the character is already upper case. then is e el: er ca! ASCII value subtracting 32 from it 4.4.3 Converting Characters of a String into Lower Case If we have t convert an upper case character to lower case, then we just need to add i value. Below shows the algorithm that converts characters of a siring ate lowe ‘ALGORITHM TO CONVERT THE CHARACTERS OF STRING INTO UPPER CASE Step [Initialize] SET 1-0 Step 2: Repeat Step 3 while STRIT] != ‘\0" Step IF STR{1] > ‘A’ AND STR{I] < ‘2’ SET Lowerstr[I] = STR{I] + 32 ELSE SET Lowerstr{I] = STRII] [END OF IF] [END OF LOOP) Step 4: SET Lowerstr[I] = ‘\O” Step 5: EXIT 4.4.4 Concatenating two strings to form a new string STF Si and $2 are two strings, then concatenation operation produces a string which contains characters of $1 followed by the characters of S2 ALGORITHM TO CONCATENATE TWO STRINGS Step 1. Initialize I =0 and J=O Step 2. Repeat step 3 to 4 while I Step 3. SET new_str(J] = str1(1] Step 4. Set I =I+1 and J=J+1 [END of step2] step 5. SET I-0 Step 6. Repeat step 6 to 7 while I <= LENGTH(str2) Step 7. SET new.str[J] = str1[I] Step 8. Set I=I¥1 and J=J+1 [END of step5] Step 9. SET new_str[J] = ‘\0" Step 10. EXIT LENGTH(str1) 4.4.5 Appending a String to another String Appending one string to another string involves copying the contents of the source String at the end of the destination string. For example, if SI and $2 are two strings, Shen appending $1 to 2 means we have to add the contents of SI to $2. so SI is the source string and S2 is the destination string. The appending operation would leave the source string $1 unchanged and destination string S2.= $2151 ‘ALGORITHM TO APPEND A STRING TO ANOTHER STRING Step 1: [Initialize] SET I =0 and J=0 ‘Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore. Dept. of Computer Science and Engs. | (& scanned with OKEN ScannerPrmeiptes of Programing Using (22POP12) Step 2: Repeat Step 3 while Dest Stiff] ‘\O" Step 3: SETI+1+ 1 [END OF LOOP} step 4: Repeat Step 5 to 7 while Source Str[J] != ‘\0" Step 5: Dest Str[l] = Source Str{J] Step 6: SETI=I+ 1 Step 7: SETJ=J +1 [END OF LOOP] Step 8: SET Dest_Str[J] = ‘\0" Step 9: EXIT * Prog inchade include void maint) char stri{10}, str2[10}; printf("Enter First String:"); gets(strl); printi(”\n Enter Second Str gets(str2) strcat(strl,str2}; //concatenates strl and str2 printf("\n Concatenated String is"); puts(strl); //resultant string is stored in str] am to concatenates two string */ ee"): /* Program to concatenates two string */ tinclude sinclude void main() char strl[10}, str2{10}; int i-0,j prinu{("Enter the String 1\n"): getststr}}; print{("Enter the String 2\n"); gets(str2} while(strfif!"\0) 1-0; while(str2gl!=\0) strlfil=str2li); ms str 1 fil="\0% prinu{("Con puts(stel); ion of string as follows \n"); nology Mysore © scanned with OKEN ScannerPrinciples of Programming Using © (22POPI3) ae 4.4.6 Comparing Two Strings TEST andl S2 are two strings then comparing two strings will give ether of Tess ts a) $1 and S2are equal b) Si=S2, when in dictionary order Si will come alter S2 hen in dictionary order $1 precedes S2 to compare the two strings, each and every character is compare il the characters are same then the two strings are said to De equal strings. If Algorithm: Step}: [Initialize] SET 1-0, SAME =O Step 2: SET Lenl = Length(STR1), Len2 = Length{STR2) Step 3: iF lenl != len2, then Write “Strings Are Not Equal” ELSE Repeat while I STR2{I), then Write “String! is greater than String?” ELSE IF STR1[I] < STR2{], then Write “String? is greater than String]” [END OF IF] (END OF IF] step 5: BXIT J+ Program to perform string comparison operation */ #includecstdio.h> #include nclude void main() int i-0; int len1=0; int len2=0; char str1|50},str2|50}; int flag = 0; print{('Enter the String 1\n"); getststrl}; printif'Enter the Strin; gets(str2} en = strlen(str 1}; ten? = strlen(str2}; if(lent = len2} Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore, Dept. 0 7 Computer Science and B (& scanned with OKEN ScannerPrinciples of Programmung Using G (22POP 1) a prinu(’Strings ae Not Equal\u’) exit): while(str][i]!="\0) ifjstrlfij != su break ififlag == 0) nufl'Strings are Equi \n'k: gs are Not Equal\n’) 4.4.7 Reversing a String If Si= “HELLO™, then reverse of $1 = “OLLI the first character with the and so forth. Hi”. To reverse a string we just . second character with the second last character, ALGORITHM TO REVERSE A STRING ee Step1: [Initialize] SET I=0, J= Length(STR) Step 2: Repeat Step 3 and 4 while I< Length(STR) Step 3: — SWAP( STR(I), STR(J)) Step 4: SETI=1+1,J=J-1 [END OF LOOP} Step 5: EXIT 4.4.8 Extracting a substring from Left * In order to extract a substring from the main string we need to copy the content of the string starting from the first position to the nth position where n is the number of characters to be extracted. © For example, if $1 = “Hello World”, then Subste_Left(S1, 7) = Hello W ALGORITHM TO EXTRACT N CHARCTERS FROM RIGHT OF A STRING Step 1: [Initialize] SET I-0, J = Length(STR) - N+ 1 Step 2: Repeat Step 3 while STR(J] != ‘\0" Step 3: SET Substr{l] = STR[J] Step 4: SETI=1I41,J=J+1 [END OF LOOP} Step S: SET Substr{t] ="\0" Step 6: EXIT 4.4.9 Extracting a substring from right of the string In order to extract a substring from the right side of the main string we need to first culate the position. For ple, if SL = “Hello World” and we have to copy 7 characters starting from the right, then we have to actually start extracting characters from the Sth position. This is calculated by, total number of characters =n + 1. For example, if $1 = ‘Hello World”, then Substr_Right(S1, 7) = 0 World ALGORITHM TO EXTRACT N CHARCTERS FROM RIGHT OF A STRING Step 1: [Initialize] SET I=0, J = Length{STR) - N +1 Step 2: Repeat Step 3 while STR{J] != ‘\0" Maharaia Institute of Technology Mysore Dept. of Compu (& scanned with OKEN ScannerPrinciples of Progratimmng Using © 22POP 13) Step 3: SET Substrll] = STRIJ] Step4: SETI=1+1d=Jde1 [END OF LOOP| Step 5: SET Substr[l] ="\0" Step 6: EXIT 4.4.10 Extracting a substring from the Middle of a string iven string requires information of 5 + maximum number of characters/length of the substring or exampic, if we have a string, sir|] = “Welcome to the world of programming”: SUBSTRING|str. 15. 5) = world Algorithm to extract substring from a given text Step 1: [INITIALIZE] Set I=M, J =0 Step 2: Repeat steps 3 to 6 while str{f] st characte ringint hen, and N: Step 3: SET substr[J] = str[l] Step 4: SETI=I+1 Step 5: SETU=J+i Step 6: | SETN=N-1 [END of loop] Step 7: SET substr[J] = ‘\0" Step 8: EXIT 4.4.11 Inserting a String in Another string ‘The insertion operation inserts a string $ in the main text, T « general syntax of this operation is: INSERT(text, pos INSERT(*XYZXYZ", 3, “AAA") TANAXYZ, Algorithm to insert a string in the main text Step 1: [INITIALIZE] SET I=0, J=O and K-0 Step 2: Repeat steps 3 to 4 while textI] ! Step 3: IF I= pos, then Repeat while str[K] new str{j] = str[k] \o" SET J-J+1 SET K = K+1 [END OF INNER LOOP| ELSE new_str[{J] = text{t] SET J = J+1 [END OF IF] : SET T= 1+1 [END OF OUTER LOOP] Step 5: SET new_str[J] = ‘\0" Step 6: EXIT Step 4.12 Indexing Ind ion returns the position in the strin, For example, INDEX(“Welcome to the world of programming”, “world’) = 1 However, if the in the string, the INDE 1 where the stri attern does not 9 Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore Dept. of Computer vbout thr the kth position. ion, string). For ng pattern first occurs, function returns 0. nice and Eng. | B_ J (& scanned with OKEN ScannerPrinciples of Programming tency ©: (22POP 13) Algorithm to find the index of the first oceurrence of a string wit Step 1 na given text : [Initialize] SET I=0 and MAX = LENGTH(text) ~ LENGTH(str) +1 Step 2: Repeat Steps 3 to 6 while | <= MAX Step 3: Repeat step 4 for K = 0 To Length(str) Step 4: IF str{kK] != text{I + K], then GOTO step 6 [END of inner loop} Step 5: SET INDEX =I. Goto step 8 Step 6: SETI=I+i [END OF OUTER LOOP] Step 7: SET INDEX = -1 Step S: EXIT 4.4.18 Deleting a String from the Main String jon operation deletes a subs (ce: ength} For exemple, DELETE(ABCDXXXABCD’, 5, 3) = “ABCDABCD” Algorithm to delete a substring from a text Step 1: [INITIALIZE] SET I=0 and J=0 Step 2: Repeat steps 3 to 6 while text[l] !="\0" Step3: IF I=M, then Repeat Step 4 while N>= ‘om a SETN=N-1 [END of inner loop] (END OF IF] Step 4: SET new_str[J] = text{I] Step Step [END of outer loop] Step 7: SET new_str[J] = ‘\0" Step 8: EXIT 4.4.14 Replacing a Pattern with Another Pattern in a String * Replacement ope used to replace the pattern This is done by writing, REPLACE(text, pattern1, pattern2) «For example, (AAABBBCCC’, “BBB”, * (AAABBBCCC’, “NX”. “YYY")= AAABBBCC "in tne second exemple there is no change as ‘NX’ does not appear in the text Algorithm to replace a pattern Py with another pattern P2 in the given text TEXT Step 1: [INITIALIZE] SET Pos = INDEXITEXT, Ps) Step 2: SET TEXT = DELETE(TEXT, Pos, LENGTH(P1)) Step 3: INSERT(TEXT, Pos, P2) Step 4: EXIT 4.5 String Manipulation Function + Strings are often needed to be manipulated by programmer according to the ne ed ofa problem pret curing, manipulation can be done manually by the programmer but this makes programming, complex and lar; ooeestive this, the C supports a large number of string handling functions v There are numerous functions defined in header file Dept. of Computer Seience and En ed (& scanned with OKEN Scannerprineiples of Programming Using G (22POP13) sat, Function & Purpose repytst. Sh: _sitlentst): 32h oestond suchelst Reumea porter te i sursvist. $2: Serums seerter streat Function Syntax: ‘char *streat(char * str1, char *str2); e stent function appends the string pointed by str2 to the end of the string co by stel.-The terminating nuil character of su is overwritten. The process St sence tne terminating null character of str2 is copied y Example: Program to illustrate the use of streat)- include #include void main() char stri[10}, str2[10}; print{{'Enter First Strings"); gets(strl); print{{’\n Enter Second String: gets(str2) aereat{otr L-str2}; //eoncatenates strl and str? and printi(’\n Concatenated String is") puts(str): //resultant string is stored in strl strneat Function Synta: char *strneat(char * stri, char *str2, size_t n)i “The stmneat funetion appends the string pointed by str2 10 the end of the string pointed toby sul up to p characters long. The terminating null character of str is vo op uritten, The coping stops when n character of str2 is copied * Example: Program to illustrate the use of strmeat()- #include include void main() char str][10}, str2[10}; print{("Enter First String:"}; getststrl); print{("\n Enter Second Strin} gets(str2); steneat(strl,str2, 4); Tahar Ino oF eel MSN ep of Gamputer sence and Ewa 1 [EEC © scanned with OKEN ScannerSe era eee 3? Principles of Programming Using C (22POP13) 029 oS print("\n Concatenated String is putsfstr]); strepy Function Syntax; char “strneat(char * str, char “str2); nena ee ee String pointed to by sir? to str] including the null chara sr. i returns the argument str]. Here str 1 should be hig enough to store the conten - #include nclude void main() char str 20}. str2{20} prinf("Enter string: °) gets(str2); strepy(str, str2); /Content of string sre is copied to string dest printi("Copied string: *) puts(strl): Output: Enter string: mitmysore Copied string: mitmysore strnepy Function Syntax: char “strneat(char * str, char “str2, size_t n); This function copies up to n character from the string pointed to by str2 to strl Gopsing stops when a characters are copied. However, If the null character is reached then the null character is continually copied to stri until n characters have been copied. Finally, a null character is appended to strl. However, if n is zero or negative then nothing is copied. #includecstring.h> \clude void main() char str [20]. str2|20|: prinuf('Enter string: "); gets(str2); strepy(strl, str2, 3); printi("Copied string: puts(str]); strlen Function Syntax: Size_t strlen(const char * str}; This function calculates the length of the string str up to but not including the null character, i.¢., the function returns the number of characters in the string, Example: Program to illustrate the use of strlen(). #includeestring.h> Hinclude Vaharaja Intute of Technolog Mrsore Dept of Gomer Science and Bras T (& scanned with OKEN Scannerprinciples of Programmang Using © (2 vik uaunnl) sty{20} int len; is ww be found:’) prinu( Enter siring whose le gers(ck jen=strlenistr} of the string is Yd". Jeni: jnt stremp(const char * stri, const char “str2); ‘n compares the string pointed :o by strl to the string poin veturns zero if the strings are equal. Otherwise. it returns @ “al than or greater than str2 respectivels ‘xample program: ide clude nain() char stri{30},str2{30]> printi("Enter first string: gets(strl}s print{(Enter second string: gets(str2); ifjstremp(str1,str2)=-0) printi(’Both strings are equal} else printif’Strings are unequal}; Output: Enter First String: MIT Enter Second Sting: Mysore Strings are unequal Output: Enter First String: MIT. Enter Second String: MIT Both strin are equal strnemp function synte int stremp(const char * str1, const char *str2, sizet The sumemp hinction compares at most the first n bytes of strl and str2. ‘The process claps comparing after the null character is encountered, The funtion returns zero if serfs m bytes of the strings are equal, Otherwise, it returns a value less than or greater than zero if stt1 is less than or greater than str2, respectively wengs. | BB © scanned with OKEN Scanner Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore. Dept. of Computer SciencePrinciples of Progr mming Using © (2213) Hinchude < Example py string li Hinchudesstdio.by void main() char str (30),s t prinu{ Enter first string: | geis(strl}: prinufEnter getsistr2); ifjstrnemp( printl("Both st else printi’Strings are unequa! ‘ond string: ri,str2.2)==0) ings are equal strstr function syntax: char “strstr(const char * str, const char *str2); This function is used 10 the first occurrence of string str2 {not including th toes inating null character) in the strl. It returns a pointer to the first occurrence 0! tr? in stri, If no match if found, then a null pointer is returned, #include #include void main() char str1[30},str2{30|; char *ptr: printi(Enter first string: ") gets(strl); printi(Enter second string: ") getststr2): pir = strstr(strl,str2) ifipt) print{{’Substring Found’): else print{("Substring not found”): atoi{) Function The stoi function converts a character string to an inteast value: sequence of characters that can be interpreted as a numeric value of the specified seaarn type. The function stops reading the inpur Vine ‘at the first character that it cei aceenlee as\ pert ol a:numibet Me lee rac sae be the null character that ends the string, The atoil) function doe: The string argument for this function has the form: int atoi{eonst char *str}; nores leading, white-space ‘The input string i: mal points or exponents. not recognize de characters. The value digits represen! ‘The atoi() function one or more decimal digits. Ex: i = atoi(*!23.456"); Result i = 123. iene | BB] Dept, of Comput Teakaraia Institute of Technology Mysore. © scanned with OKEN Scanner/ principles of Programming Using CG (22POP13) atof () Funetion in the C Programming Language, the atof funetion converts a string to a floatin: huumber (double) The atof function skips all white-space characters at the beginning of the string, converts the subsequent characters as part of the number, and then stops when it encounters the first character that isn’t a number mtax The s ntax for the atof function in the C Language i double atof{const char *str}; cre str is pointer to a string to convert to a Mloati X = atof{“12.39 is the answer” Result: X= 12.39 4.6 Arrays of Strings «Now suppose that there are 20 students in a class and we need @ string that stores names of all the 20 students. How can this be done? Here. we need & string of strings or an array of strings. Such an array of strings would store 20 individual sttings. An array of string is declared as, char names{20][30]; «Here, the first index will specify how many strings are needed and the second index specifies the length of every individual string. So here, we allocate space for 20 names where each name can be maximum 30 characters long, = Letus sce the memory representation of an array of strings. If we have an array declared as, char name(5I|10] = "Ram", “Mohan”, “Shyam”, “Hari”, Gopal”); yamelol| p| a | ue [40° mM, o| HH} A | N /‘\0" Namel2]| |u| ¥ | a | m [10° Name(3]) | A] R | 1 [No o|pla|u lo | i Name[4] [¢ #includeestdio.h> #include void main() char names|5}[ 10]; int i, nj clrserl); prinu{é\n Enter the number of students: scant{%d”, &n); for(i=O;icnjit 4) Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore, Dept. of Compu Scenes and Eng | (& scanned with OKEN Scanner: ath smdent | * i UE printit?\n Enter the name of %adth st den ) gets(namesti)) print{{*\n Names of the students are : \n"} for(i=Osisna> >) puts(names|i}} getcht): CHAPTER POINTER 4.7 Understanding The Computer's Memory. Every computer has a primary memory. All our data and programs need to be placed in the primary Yor execution The primary memory or RAM (Random Access Memory which is a part of the primary memon) is a collection of memory locations (often known as cells) and each location has a specific address. Each memory location is capable of storing 1 byte of data Generally, the computer has three areas of memory each of which is used for a specific task. These areas of memory include- stack, heap and global memory * Stack- A fixed size of stack is allocated by the system and is filled as needed from the bottom to the top, one element at a time. These elements can be removed from the top to the bottom by removing one element at a time. That is, the last element added to the stack is removed first. * Heap- Heap is a contiguous block of memory that is available for use by the program when need arise. A fixed size heap is allocated by the system and is used by the system in a random fashion. * When the program requests a block of memory, the dynamic allocation technique carves out a block from the heap and assigns it to the program. When the program has finished using that block, it returns that memory block to the heap and the location of the memory locations in that block is added to the free list * Global Memory- The block of code that is the main() program (along with other functions in the program) is stored in the global memory. The memory in the global area is allocated randomly to store the code of different functions in the program in such a way that one function is not contiguous to another functién. Besides. the function code, all global variables declared in the program are stored in the global memory area. * Other Memory Layouts- C provides some more memory areas like- text segment, BSS and shared library segment. « The text segment is used to store the machine instructions corresponding to the compiled program. This is generally a read-only memory segment «BSS is uscd to store un-initialized global variables Shared libraries segment contains the executable image of shared libraries that are being used by the program. 4.8 Introduction to Pointers Every variable in C has a name and a value associated with it, When a variable declared, a specific block of memory within the computer is allocated to hold the value of that variable. The size of the allocated block depends on the type of the data Lx = 10; ‘Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore. Dept. of Computer Seience and © scanned with OKEN ScannerPrinciples of Programming Using © (22POPI3) 2022 * When this 5 atement executes. the compiler sets aside 2 bytes of memory to hold the value 10. It also sets up at symbol table in which it adds the svmbol x and ive address in memory where those J bytes were set aside: * Thus, every variable in C has a value and an also @ memory location (commonly Known as address) associated with it. Some texts use the term rvalue and [value for the value and the address of the variable respectively © ‘The rvalue appears on the right side of the assignment statement and cannot be used on the left side of the assignment statement. Therefore. writing 10 = k: is Nega ly pointers are nothing but memory addresses. A pointer is @ variable that ains the memory location of another variable. Pointers are frequently used in C language as they have a number of usefull applications. These applications include: + For passing the argument by using references. = For accessing the elements of an array. = For dynamic memory allocation by using malloc() and calloc() functions + Used in arrays, functions to improve the performance of code. + For returning multiple values. + Implementing a data structure ystem-level programming. + For doing s 4.9 Declaring Pointer Variables 4 pointer provides access to a variable by using the address of that variable, A pointer variable is therefore a variable that stores the address of another variable. + The general syntax of declaring pointer variable data_type *ptr_name; Here, data_type is the data type of the value that the pointer will point to, For example: int *pnum: char *pch; float *pinum; int x= 10; int *ptr = Gx; ‘The * informs the compiler that ptr is a pointer variable and the int specifies. that it will store the address of an integer variable. “The & operator retrieves the Ivalue (address) of x, and copies that to the contents of the pointer ptr. Example: include int main() t int num, ‘pnum; pnum = # printf“\n Enter the number : “); Maharaja inatitute of Technology Mysore. Dep. of Computer Science eae 1 © scanned with OKEN Scannernciples of Programming Using C OP 13) seanf("ad”, Gnum); ; print{(*\n The number that was entered is return 0; 2 %d", *pnum); OUTPUT: Enter the number : 10 ‘The number that was entered is : 10 4.10 Pointer Expression and Pointer Arithmetic ike other variabies, pointer variables can also be used in expressions. For example, if ptr and ptr2 are pointers, then the following statements are valid. For When using pointers, unary increment (++) and decrement ( sum=0. mui-0. ptrl = &numi, ptr2 = @num2; sum = *pirl + *ptr2; mul = sum °*pirl /*ptr2 - 30; We can add integers to or subtract integers from pointers as well as to subtract one pointer from the other. We can compare pointers by example p! > p2, pl==p2 and p elational operators in the expressions. For p2 are all valid in C. operators have greater precedence than the dereference operator (*). Therefore, the expression ptr+> is equivalent to *[ptr+4). So the expression will increase the value of ptr so that it now points to the next clement. In order io increment the value of the variable whose address is stored in ptr, write (rptr)++ Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore. Dept. of Computer Seienc ample Programs: #include «stdi const int MAX void main () int vari] int i, “pur; /* let us have array addr ptr = var; for ( i = 0; i < MAX; i+) 10, 100, 200}; sin pointer */ printi("Address of var[%dl] = %x\n", i, ptr J; print((’Value of var[%d] = %d\n", i, "ptr }; /* move to the next location */ pret; «1 | © scanned with OKEN Scanner \/srinciples of Programming Using ( 2022 Hinchade , and . After including any of these files in vour program, write int “ptr = NULL; You can always check whether or contains a null by writing, if ( ptr == NULL) ss of some variable 1 given pointer variable stores addr Statement block; : Null pointers are used in. situations if one of the pointers in the program points somewhere some of the time but not all of the time. In such situations it is alway better to set it to a null pointer when it doesn’t point anywhere valid, and to test to see if it’s a null pointer before using it Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore. De © scanned with OKEN Scanneres ata type: The void pointer 412 Geter dnt me ct ware jninter is pointer Var iable cr an be US ee ter fal type of Powter - an d keyword a5 thi nis inter val jable but using the vor 1 ke} pointer times. For eX. sinchude void main() int x=10; char ch void “EP: gp = 6 - - Srintf("\n Generic pointer points to the fi ach; : printf"\n nteger value = %d", *lint*)EP): Generic pointer now points to the character ee", *(char*) EP)? OUTPUT: Generic pointer point Generic pointer now ts to the integer value = 10 points to the character = A 4.13 Passing Arguments to Function Using Pointers Using call-by-value method, it is impossible to modify the actual param! pass them to a function. Furthermore, the incomint arguments 10 pass das local variables in the function and those local ve iables get 2 5 passed from their calling function eters when you a function are copy of the valu Pointer provide a mechanism to modify data declared in one function using code written in another function ‘The calling function sends the addresses of the variables and the called function iret declare those incoming arguments as pointers. In order to modify the mest us cent by the caller, the called funtion must dereference the pointers thax were passed to it. Thus, passing, pointers to a funtion avoid the overhead of copyin data from one function to another. Hence, to use pointers for passing arguments to a function, the programmer must do the following: + Declare the function parameters as pointers + Use the dereferenced pointers in the function body © Pass the addresses as the actual argument when the function is dinclude void main() alled. int num1, num2, total; print{{“\n Enter two numbers : “); seanf(%d %d”, &num1, &num2) a Institute of Technoloyy’ Mysore. Dept. of Computer Si Mahara 1 Bd nce and Eng. © scanned with OKEN Scanner4 Fg programming Using C ( OP 13) sum(&num 1, &num2, &total): print(("\n Total = %d”, total): void sum (int *a, int “b, int +t) “t= 4a + 4b. gxumple Program: include void cal_area(foat, fost, foat, Noa) int validateffioat. fioat, float): f void main() float a. b. ¢. area: prin Enter values of 3 sides of a Triangle. \n"}; scanf('%M%Pf", Ka, &b, &c): ifl validate(a, b. ¢) ) cal_areaia, b. c, &area) printi(’Area of Triangle is %0.21\n", cali else printi{’Please enter valid values for sides of Triangle.\n’); void cal_area(float x, float y, float z, float A} float S; y +2) / 2.0; E A= sqrlS (8-9) (S-y 7 S aM int validate(float x, float y, float 2) int flag = 0: iffy > y &8& x > 2) flag=(x #) * nag =(y< (std) else flag = (2< (x + y)} " return(flag); Maharaja Institute of Technology Mysore. Dept. of Computer Science and E wt | © scanned with OKEN Scanner