Name:

Enrolment No:

UNIVERSITY OF PETROLEUM AND ENERGY STUDIES

End Semester Examination, Dec 2023
Course: Cloud Computing Fundamentals Semester: V
Program: B.Tech CS –All branches Time : 03 hrs.
Course Code: CSVT3022P Max. Marks: 100

Instructions: Attempt all the Questions. Choices are mentioned internally

Section A
S. No. Marks CO
Q1 Relate utility computing model with cloud computing model. Are these models same.
4 CO1
If not, why?
Answer:
Infrastructure Sharing:
Utility Computing: In utility computing, resources are provided on a pay-as-you-go
basis, similar to utilities such as electricity. It involves sharing computing
infrastructure among multiple users.
Cloud Computing: Cloud computing is a broader concept that includes utility
computing. Cloud computing not only provides utility-style resource sharing but also
encompasses services such as software and platforms delivered over the internet.
Service Delivery:
Utility Computing: Primarily focuses on providing computing resources such as
processing power and storage on a metered basis.
Cloud Computing: Encompasses a wider range of services, including Infrastructure as
a Service (IaaS), Platform as a Service (PaaS), and Software as a Service (SaaS),
offering a variety of solutions beyond basic computing resources.
Scope of Services:
Utility Computing: Primarily concentrates on the efficient delivery of computing
resources, with an emphasis on optimizing resource utilization.
Cloud Computing: Extends beyond utility computing to include a diverse set of
services, facilitating the deployment and management of applications, databases, and
more.
Flexibility and Scalability:
Utility Computing: Focuses on scalability and flexibility in terms of resource
allocation, allowing users to scale up or down based on demand.
Cloud Computing: Offers not only scalability of resources but also the flexibility to
choose from a range of services, enabling users to meet various business requirements.
Q2 Differentiate between File, Block and Object Storage? 4 CO2
Answer

Feature File Storage Block Storage Object Storage

Data Manages data as Manages data in Manages data as objects with

Handling files and folders fixed-sized blocks metadata
 Access Network protocols Formatted blocks APIs (HTTP/HTTPS) with
Method (NFS, SMB) with file system unique identifiers

May face Scales at the block Highly scalable, especially in

Scalability challenges at scale level distributed environments
Cloud storage, backup,
Document storage, Databases, virtual multimedia delivery, web
Use Cases shared drives, NAS machines, SAN applications
Amazon S3, Azure Blob
Traditional file Local hard drives, Storage, Google Cloud
Examples servers SAN Storage

Q3 Discuss the importance of API, ABI and ISA in design of hypervisors in

4 CO2
context of
Machine Reference model.

Answer:
API (Application Programming Interface):

Importance: APIs play a crucial role in the design of hypervisors within the context of
the Machine Reference model. Hypervisors provide a virtualized environment for
running multiple operating systems on a single physical machine. The API defines the
interface through which guest operating systems interact with the hypervisor. A well-
defined and standardized API ensures compatibility and ease of development for
applications and tools that interact with the hypervisor. This abstraction layer shields
guest operating systems from underlying hardware details, promoting portability and
interoperability across different platforms.
ABI (Application Binary Interface):

Importance: The ABI is essential in the design of hypervisors as it defines the low-
level interface between virtualized applications or operating systems and the
hypervisor itself. Since hypervisors involve virtualization of resources, the ABI
ensures that binary applications running inside virtual machines can communicate
effectively with the hypervisor. Compatibility at the ABI level is crucial for ensuring
that applications designed for a specific architecture or operating system can
seamlessly run within virtualized environments. This abstraction layer facilitates the
execution of diverse workloads on the same physical hardware without modification.
ISA (Instruction Set Architecture):

Importance: The Instruction Set Architecture is a fundamental aspect of hypervisor

design within the Machine Reference model. Hypervisors need to efficiently manage
the execution of instructions from different guest operating systems. The ISA defines
the set of instructions that the hypervisor must support to ensure compatibility with
various virtualized environments. The hypervisor must be capable of translating and
managing instructions from different guest ISAs to the underlying physical hardware.
This abstraction is critical for achieving performance, ensuring that virtual machines
can execute their instructions on diverse hardware platforms seamlessly.
In summary, the importance of API, ABI, and ISA in the design of hypervisors within
 the Machine Reference model lies in establishing standardized interfaces for
communication between the hypervisor and guest operating systems, ensuring
compatibility at both the programming and binary levels, and efficiently managing the
diverse instruction sets of virtualized environments on underlying hardware. These
abstractions are essential for achieving portability, interoperability, and performance
in virtualized computing environments.
Q4 Discuss the role of Load Balancer and SLA Monitoring in cloud computing. 4 CO3
Answer:
Load Balancing
In cloud computing, a Load Balancer plays a crucial role in distributing incoming
network traffic across multiple servers or resources to ensure optimal resource
utilization, minimize response time, and prevent overload on any single server. It
enhances the scalability and reliability of applications by efficiently allocating
requests among available instances. Load Balancers can be implemented at various
levels, such as application, network, or transport layers, depending on the cloud
architecture. This distribution of workload helps in achieving high availability and
responsiveness, ensuring that no single server bears an excessive burden, thereby
improving overall system performance.

SLA (Service Level Agreement) Monitoring in Cloud Computing:

SLA Monitoring is essential in cloud computing to ensure that service providers meet
agreed-upon performance standards and service levels as specified in the SLA. It
involves continuous monitoring of key performance indicators (KPIs) such as
response time, availability, and reliability. By closely monitoring SLAs, cloud service
providers can identify and address potential issues proactively, preventing service
degradation and downtime. SLA Monitoring also helps in tracking performance
trends, analyzing historical data, and making informed decisions to optimize resource
allocation and meet customer expectations. It plays a vital role in maintaining
customer satisfaction, building trust, and ensuring the reliable delivery of cloud
services.
Q5 Describe which kind of cloud workloads are suitable for public clouds. 4 CO4
Answer:
 Public clouds are particularly suitable for dynamic and scalable workloads such
as web-based applications, offering the flexibility to accommodate variable
traffic patterns efficiently.
 Development and testing environments benefit from the on-demand
provisioning and de-provisioning of resources, reducing time and costs.
 Big data and analytics workloads leverage the massive computing power and
storage capacity of public clouds, facilitating efficient processing and analysis
of large datasets.
 Additionally, public clouds provide cost-effective solutions for disaster
recovery and backup scenarios, allowing organizations to replicate and restore
data seamlessly. The inherent advantages of elasticity, on-demand resources,
and cost-effectiveness make public clouds an attractive choice for a diverse
range of workloads, providing businesses with the agility and scalability needed
in today's dynamic computing landscape.
Section B

Q6 Discuss in detail the major distributed computing technologies that led to the
10 CO1
concept
cloud computing?
Answer:
 The concept of cloud computing has evolved from various distributed computing
technologies over the years. Here are some of the major technologies that played a
pivotal role in shaping the foundation for cloud computing:

Grid Computing:

Grid computing involves the coordinated use of multiple computers across a network
to work on a common task. It focuses on resource sharing and collaboration to solve
large-scale computational problems. Grid computing laid the groundwork for the idea
of distributed resources and parallel processing, which are essential components of
cloud computing.

Virtualization:

Virtualization technology allows the creation of virtual instances of operating

systems, servers, or storage within a physical computing environment. This
abstraction enables better resource utilization, isolation of workloads, and flexibility
in managing computing resources. Virtualization is a key enabler of the multi-tenancy
model in cloud computing, where multiple users share the same physical
infrastructure.
Utility Computing:

Description: Utility computing models emerged from the idea of providing computing
resources as a service, similar to traditional utilities like electricity. Users pay for the
resources they consume, leading to more efficient resource allocation. Utility
computing laid the foundation for the pay-as-you-go pricing model, a fundamental
aspect of cloud computing.
Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA):

SOA is an architectural style that structures software as a set of services that can be
loosely coupled and independently deployed. This approach enables the creation of
modular, reusable services, forming the basis for cloud services. Cloud computing
leverages SOA principles to deliver services over the internet, with applications
composed of multiple interoperable services.
Cluster Computing:

Cluster computing involves the interconnection of multiple computers to work

together as a single, unified system. This technology is vital for achieving high-
performance computing (HPC) and addressing complex tasks by distributing
computation across a cluster. Cloud computing inherits the idea of distributed
processing from cluster computing to enhance scalability and performance.
Networking Advances:

Advancements in networking technologies, including improved internet connectivity

and bandwidth, are critical for the success of cloud computing. The ability to access
and transfer data seamlessly over the internet has allowed cloud providers to offer
services on a global scale, making cloud computing accessible and practical for users
worldwide.

Internet Technologies (Web 2.0):

The evolution of internet technologies, commonly referred to as Web 2.0, contributed
to the development of interactive and collaborative web applications. This shift in web
architecture paved the way for cloud-based applications that could be accessed through
 web browsers. The user-centric nature of Web 2.0 applications aligns with the user
experience in cloud computing.
In summary, the convergence of grid computing, virtualization, utility computing,
service-oriented architecture, cluster computing, networking advances, and internet
technologies collectively contributed to the conceptualization and realization of cloud
computing. These technologies provided the necessary building blocks for creating
scalable, flexible, and on-demand computing environments that characterize the
modern cloud computing paradigm.
Q7 Describe different types of Virtualization at Execution Level. 10 CO2
Answer:
1. Full Virtualization
 Virtual machine simulates hardware to allow an unmodified guest OS to be run
in isolation.
 There is two type of Full virtualizations in the enterprise market. On both full
virtualization types, guest operating system’s source information will not be
modified.
 Software-assisted full virtualization
 Hardware-assisted full virtualization

Hardware Assisted
 The hardware provides architectural support for building a virtual machine
manager able to run a guest operating system in complete isolation.
 This technique was originally introduced in the IBM System/370.
 Examples of hardware-assisted virtualization are the extensions to the x86-64
bit architecture introduced with Intel VT (formerly known as Vanderpool) and
AMD V (formerly known as Pacifica).
 Before the introduction of hardware-assisted virtualization, software
emulation of x86 hardware was significantly costly from the performance
point of view.
 The reason for this is that by design the x86 architecture did not meet the
formal requirements introduced by Popek and Goldberg, and early products
were using binary translation to trap some sensitive instructions and provide an
emulated version.eg: VMWare Virtual Platform (1999).
Software Assisted:
 It completely relies on binary translation to trap and virtualize the
execution of sensitive, non-virtualizable instructions sets.
 It emulates the hardware using the software instruction sets. Due to binary
translation, it often criticized for performance issue.
 Here is the list of software which will fall under software assisted (BT).
 VMware workstation (32Bit guests)
 Virtual PC
 VirtualBox (32-bit guests)
 VMware Server

2. Para Virtualization
 Paravirtualization works differently from the full virtualization. It doesn’t need
to simulate the hardware for the virtual machines.
 The hypervisor is installed on a physical server (host) and a guest OS is
installed into the environment.
 Virtual guests aware that it has been virtualized, unlike the full
virtualization (where the guest doesn’t know that it has been virtualized) to take
 advantage of the functions.
 In this virtualization method, guest source codes will be modified with
sensitive information to communicate with the host.
 Guest Operating systems require extensions to make API calls to the
hypervisor.
 In full virtualization, guests will issue a hardware calls but in
paravirtualization, guests will directly communicate with the host
(hypervisor) using the drivers.
 Here is the list of products which supports paravirtualization.
a. Xen
b. IBM LPAR
c. Oracle VM for SPARC (LDOM)
d. Oracle VM for X86 (OVM)

3. Partial Virtualization:
 Partial virtualization provides a partial emulation of the underlying
hardware, thus not allowing the complete execution of the guest operating
system in complete isolation.
 Partial virtualization allows many applications to run transparently, but not
all the features of the operating system can be supported, as happens with
full virtualization.
 An example of partial virtualization is address space virtualization used in
time-sharing systems; this allows multiple applications and users to run
concurrently in a separate memory space, but they still share the same
hardware resources (disk, processor, and network).
 Historically, partial virtualization has been an important milestone for
achieving full virtualization, and it was implemented on the experimental IBM
M44/44X.

4. Hybrid Virtualization
 In Hardware assisted full virtualization, Guest operating systems are
unmodified and it involves many VM traps and thus high CPU overheads
which limit the scalability.
 Paravirtualization is a complex method where guest kernel needs to be
modified to inject the API. By considering these issues, engineers have come
with hybrid paravirtualization.
 It’s a combination of both Full & Paravirtualization.
 The virtual machine uses paravirtualization for specific hardware drivers
(where there is a bottleneck with full virtualization, especially with I/O &
memory intense workloads), and the host uses full virtualization for other
features.
 The following products support hybrid virtualization.
 Oracle VM for x86
 Xen
 VMware ESXi
Q8 Explain the various deployment models for cloud environment. 10 CO3

Answer: A more useful classification is given according to the administrative domain of

a cloud: It identifies the boundaries within which cloud computing services are implemented,
provides hints on the underlying infrastructure adopted to support such services, and qualifies
them. It is then possible to differentiate four different types of cloud:
  Public clouds: The cloud is open to the wider public.
 Private clouds: The cloud is implemented within the private premises of an
institution and generally made accessible to the members of the institution
or a subset of them.
 Hybrid or Heterogeneous clouds: The cloud is a combination of the two
previous solutions and most likely identifies a private cloud that has been
augmented with resources or services hosted in a public cloud.
 Community clouds: The cloud is characterized by a multi-administrative
domain involving different deployment models (public, private, and
hybrid), and it is specifically designed to address the needs of a specific
industry
1. Public cloud
 They offer solutions for minimizing IT infrastructure costs and serve as a
viable option for handling peak loads on the local infrastructure.
 They have become an interesting option for small enterprises, which are able to
start their businesses without large up-front investments by completely
relying on public infrastructure for their IT needs.
 Public clouds are used both to completely replace the IT infrastructure of
enterprises and to extend it when it is required.
 A fundamental characteristic of public clouds is multitenancy. A public cloud
is meant to serve a multitude of users, not a single customer.
 QoS management is a very important aspect of public clouds. Hence, a
significant portion of the software infrastructure is devoted to monitoring
the cloud resources, to bill them according to the contract made with the
user, and to keep a complete history of cloud usage for each customer.
 A public cloud can offer any kind of service: infrastructure, platform, or
applications. For example, Amazon EC2 is a public cloud that provides
infrastructure as a service; Google AppEngine is a public cloud that provides
an application development platform as a service; and SalesForce.com is a
public cloud that provides software as a service
2. Private Cloud
 Public clouds are appealing and provide a viable option to cut IT costs and
reduce capital expenses, but they are not applicable in all scenarios.
 In the case of public clouds, the provider is in control of the infrastructure
and, eventually, of the customers’ core logic and sensitive data. Even
though there could be regulatory procedure in place that guarantees fair
management and respect of the customer’s privacy, this condition can still be
perceived as a threat or as an unacceptable risk that some organizations are not
willing to take
 Institutions such as government and military agencies will not consider
public clouds as an option for processing or storing their sensitive data.
The risk of a breach in the security infrastructure of the provider could expose
such information to others; this could simply be considered unacceptable.
 For Example: USA PATRIOT Act provides its government and other agencies
with virtually limitless powers to access information, including that belonging
to any company that stores information in the U.S. territory
3. Hybrid cloud
 Public clouds are large software and hardware infrastructures that have a
capability that is huge enough to serve the needs of multiple users, but they
suffer from security threats and administrative pitfalls.
 Private clouds are the perfect solution when it is necessary to keep the
processing of information within an enterprise’s premises or it is necessary to
 use the existing hardware and software infrastructure. One of the major
drawbacks of private deployments is the inability to scale on demand and to
efficiently address peak loads.
 A hybrid solution could be an interesting opportunity for taking advantage of
the best of the private and public worlds. This led to the development and
diffusion of hybrid clouds.
 It is a heterogeneous distributed system resulting from a private cloud that
integrates additional services or resources from one or more public clouds. For
this reason they are also called heterogeneous clouds.
 Whereas the concept of hybrid cloud is general, it mostly applies to IT
infrastructure rather than software services
 Infrastructure man-agement software and PaaS solutions are the building blocks
for deploying and managing hybrid clouds.
 Infrastructure management software such as OpenNebula already exposes the
capability of integrating resources from public clouds such as Amazon EC2.
Other examples include InterGrid etc.

4. Community cloud
 Community clouds are distributed systems created by integrating the services of
different clouds to address the specific needs of an industry, a community, or a
business sector. The National Institute of Standards and Technologies (NIST)
characterizes community clouds as follows:
The infrastructure is shared by several organizations and supports a specific
community that has shared concerns (e.g., mission, security requirements, policy,
and compliance considerations). It may be managed by the organizations or a third
party and may exist on premise or off premise.
 The users of a specific community cloud fall into a well-identified community,
sharing the same concerns or needs; they can be government bodies, industries,
or even simple users, but all of them focus on the same issues for their
interaction with the cloud.
 This is a different scenario than public clouds, which serve a multitude of users
with different needs. Community clouds are also different from private clouds,
where the services are generally delivered within the institution that owns the
cloud.
 From an architectural point of view, a community cloud is most likely
implemented over multiple administrative domains. This means that
different organizations such as government bodies, private enterprises, research
organizations, and even public virtual infrastructure providers contribute with
their resources to build the cloud infrastructure.
Candidate sectors for community clouds are as follows:
 Media Industry
 Healthcare Industry
 Energy and other core industries
 Public sector
 Scientific Research

Q9 Justify why Workload Categorization is important in Cloud Computing

4+6 CO4
Environment? Explain the various categories of Workloads suitable for cloud
environment.
Answer:
 Importance of Workload Categorization in Cloud Computing:

Workload categorization is crucial in a cloud computing environment for several

reasons:

Resource Optimization: Categorizing workloads helps in understanding the resource

requirements and characteristics of different types of applications. This knowledge
allows cloud providers and users to allocate resources efficiently, ensuring optimal
performance and cost-effectiveness. By matching specific workloads with suitable
cloud services, organizations can avoid underutilization or overprovisioning of
resources.
Performance Planning: Different workloads have varying performance demands and
patterns. Workload categorization aids in performance planning by allowing
organizations to tailor their cloud infrastructure to meet the specific needs of each
workload category. This ensures that applications receive the necessary resources to
achieve desired performance levels, enhancing user experience and overall efficiency.
Cost Management: Cloud computing often involves pay-as-you-go pricing models,
where users are billed based on resource consumption. By categorizing workloads,
organizations can optimize their cost structure. Critical workloads might require higher
performance and redundancy, justifying higher costs, while less critical workloads can
leverage cost-effective solutions without sacrificing performance.
Security and Compliance: Workload categorization is vital for implementing
appropriate security measures and ensuring compliance with regulatory requirements.
Critical and sensitive workloads may demand higher levels of security, encryption, and
compliance controls. By categorizing workloads based on their security requirements,
organizations can implement tailored security measures to protect data and ensure
compliance.
Scalability and Flexibility: Workload categorization facilitates the identification of
scalable and flexible solutions for different application types. Some workloads may
have variable demand and benefit from auto-scaling capabilities, while others may have
more predictable resource needs. Tailoring the infrastructure to the specific scalability
requirements of each workload category enhances overall system responsiveness.

Categories of Workloads Suitable for Cloud Environment:

Batch Processing Workloads: Workloads involving large-scale data processing tasks,

such as data analytics, batch processing, and scientific simulations, can benefit from the
scalability and parallel processing capabilities of the cloud. Cloud services like AWS
Batch and Azure Batch are designed for efficient execution of batch processing
hworkloads.
Web-Based Workloads: Web applications, content delivery, and e-commerce
platforms are well-suited for the cloud. The ability to scale resources dynamically based
on web traffic, coupled with global content delivery networks (CDNs), ensures optimal
performance and responsiveness.
Development and Testing Workloads: Development and testing environments
benefit from the on-demand provisioning and de-provisioning of resources offered by
the cloud. Developers can quickly create and dismantle environments, reducing costs
and accelerating software development cycles.
High-Performance Computing (HPC) Workloads: HPC workloads, such as
simulations, modeling, and scientific research, can leverage the cloud's parallel
processing capabilities and access to specialized hardware like GPUs. Cloud providers
offer HPC solutions like AWS High Performance Computing and Google
Cloud's HPC offerings.
 Data Storage and Backup Workloads: Cloud environments are ideal for data storage,
backup, and archival. Workloads involving the storage and retrieval of large volumes
of data, as well as backup and disaster recovery solutions, benefit from the scalability,
durability, and geo-redundancy of cloud storage services.
IoT and Streaming Workloads: Internet of Things (IoT) applications and streaming
services, which involve handling a large number of devices or users concurrently, can
leverage the cloud's scalable infrastructure. Cloud platforms provide services for real-
time data processing, analytics, and handling streaming workloads efficiently.

In conclusion, workload categorization is pivotal in optimizing resource utilization,

performance, cost, security, and compliance in a cloud computing environment. By
aligning the characteristics and requirements of various workloads with suitable cloud
services, organizations can derive maximum benefit from the flexibility and
scalability offered by the cloud.
Section C

Q 10 Discuss
 Instruction types based on security rings and privileged mode.
10+10 CO2
 Classification of Parallel Computing Systems.
Answer:
Security Rings:
Security rings, also known as protection rings, define different levels of privilege or
access within a computer system. The most common implementation involves four
rings, numbered 0 to 3, with Ring 0 being the most privileged and Ring 3 the least
privileged. Each ring has a specific set of permissions and access rights associated
with it.

Ring 0 (Kernel Mode):

Privileges: Full access to hardware and system resources.
Use: Kernel mode is reserved for the operating system's core components. Device
drivers, the kernel, and critical system services execute in Ring 0. This level has the
highest privileges and unrestricted access to all system resources.
Ring 1 and Ring 2:
Privileges: Decreased access compared to Ring 0.
Use: Historically, these rings were intended for additional layers of protection and
separation within the operating system. However, in practice, most operating systems
primarily use Ring 0 and Ring 3, making Ring 1 and Ring 2 less relevant in modern
systems.
Ring 3 (User Mode):
Privileges: Least privileged.
Use: Applications and user-level processes run in Ring 3. They have restricted access
to system resources and must go through the operating system's API (Application
Programming Interface) to perform certain operations.
Privileged Modes:
Privileged modes refer to different modes of operation in which the CPU can execute
instructions. The two primary privileged modes are User Mode and Kernel Mode.
User Mode:
Privileges: Limited access to system resources.
Use: Applications and user-level processes operate in User Mode. They can execute a
subset of instructions and have restricted access to system resources. User Mode is
designed to prevent direct manipulation of critical system components.
Kernel Mode (Supervisor Mode):

Privileges: Full access to system resources.

Use: The operating system's core components, including the kernel, execute in Kernel
Mode. In this mode, the CPU can execute all instructions and has unrestricted access
to system resources. The kernel manages hardware, memory, and other critical
functions.
Instruction Types:
Instructions executed by the CPU can be categorized based on the privilege levels
they require for execution.

Privileged Instructions:

Access: Typically available only in Kernel Mode.

Use: Instructions that manipulate hardware settings, control interrupts, or perform
other privileged operations. These instructions can only be executed by the operating
system's kernel.
Non-Privileged Instructions:
Access: Available in both User Mode and Kernel Mode.
Use: Instructions that do not require elevated privileges. They can be executed by
both user-level applications and the operating system's kernel

Answer:
Parallel computing systems are designed to process multiple tasks or portions of a task
simultaneously, enhancing computational power and efficiency. The classification of
parallel computing systems is based on various factors, including the level of
parallelism, the structure of interconnections, and the organization of processing units.
Here are common classifications of parallel computing systems:

Based on Flynn's Taxonomy:

 Single Instruction, Single Data (SISD): In SISD systems, a single processor
executes a single instruction on a single piece of data at a time. Traditional
uniprocessor systems fall into this category.
Single Instruction, Multiple Data (SIMD): In SIMD systems, a single instruction is
broadcast to multiple processors, each operating on different data. SIMD architectures
are suitable for parallelizing tasks that can be decomposed into independent data
elements.
Multiple Instruction, Single Data (MISD): MISD architectures are rare in practice.
In this model, multiple processors execute different instructions on the same data
stream. Applications for MISD architectures are limited, and they are not as prevalent
as SIMD or MIMD systems.
Multiple Instruction, Multiple Data (MIMD): MIMD systems have multiple
processors, each with its own control unit and memory. Each processor can execute a
different instruction on different sets of data independently. Most modern parallel
computing systems, including clusters and grids, fall into the MIMD category.
Q 11  Explain Xen Hypervisor architecture with the help of diagram. 10+10

CO3

 A Xen-based system is managed by the Xen hypervisor, which runs in the

highest privileged mode and controls the access of guest operating system to the
underlying hardware.
 Guest operating systems are executed within domains, which represent virtual
machine instances.
 Moreover, specific control software, which has privileged access to the host
and controls all the other guest operating systems, is executed in a special
domain called Domain 0.This is the first one that is loaded once the virtual
machine manager has completely booted, and it hosts a HyperText Transfer
Protocol (HTTP) server that serves requests for virtual machine creation,
configuration, and termination.
 This component constitutes the embryonic version of a distributed virtual
machine manager, which is an essential component of cloud computing
systems providing Infrastructure-as-a-Service (IaaS) solutions.

 Many of the x86 implementations support four different security levels, called
 rings, where Ring 0 represent the level with the highest privileges and Ring 3
the level with the lowest ones.
 Almost all the most popular operating systems, except OS/2, utilize only two
levels: Ring 0 for the kernel code, and Ring 3 for user application and non
privileged OS code.
 This provides the opportunity for Xen to implement virtualization by executing
the hypervisor in Ring 0, Domain 0, and all the other domains running guest
operating systems—generally referred to as Domain U—in Ring 1, while the
user applications are run in Ring 3.
 This allows Xen to maintain the ABI unchanged, thus allowing an easy switch
to Xen virtualized solutions from an application point of view.
 Because of the structure of the x86 instruction set, some instructions allow code
executing in Ring 3 to jump into Ring 0 (kernel mode). Such operation is
performed at the hardware level and therefore within a virtualized environment
will result in a trap or silent fault, thus preventing the normal operations of the
guest operating system, since this is now running in Ring 1. This condition is
generally triggered by a subset of the system calls.
 To avoid this situation, operating systems need to be changed in their
implementation, and the sensitive system calls need to be re-implemented with
hypercalls, which are specific calls exposed by the virtual machine interface of
Xen.
 With the use of hypercalls, the Xen hypervisor is able to catch the execution of
all the sensitive instructions, manage them, and return the control to the guest
operating system by means of a supplied handler.

b. A company currently experiences 8 to 10 percent utilization of its

development and test computing resources. The company would like to
consolidate to reduce the number of total resources in their data center and
decrease energy costs. Whichfeature and what kind computing environment
they should opt for and why? Support your answer with suitable examples.
Answer:
To address the company's goal of consolidating resources in their data center, reducing
energy costs, and improving resource utilization, they should consider adopting a
virtualized environment with features such as server virtualization. Virtualization
allows multiple virtual machines (VMs) to run on a single physical server, thereby
consolidating workloads and optimizing resource utilization. Among various
virtualization technologies, server virtualization is particularly relevant for
development and test computing environments.

Feature: Server Virtualization

Explanation:
Server virtualization enables the creation of multiple virtual servers on a single
physical server. Each virtual server operates as an independent entity with its own
operating system, applications, and resources. By leveraging server virtualization, the
company can achieve higher levels of resource utilization, reduce the number of
physical servers, and consequently lower energy consumption.

Advantages:

Consolidation of Resources: Server virtualization allows the company to run multiple

 virtual servers on a single physical server, consolidating workloads and making more
efficient use of computing resources.

Improved Utilization: Virtualization enables dynamic allocation of resources based on

demand. This flexibility ensures that computing resources are allocated efficiently,
reducing the likelihood of underutilization.

Reduced Energy Costs: By consolidating servers and optimizing resource usage, the
company can reduce the number of physical servers in operation. This directly
contributes to lower energy consumption and, consequently, decreased energy costs.

Enhanced Scalability: Virtualized environments are inherently scalable. As the

company's computing needs evolve, they can easily scale their infrastructure by adding
or removing virtual machines without significant impact on the physical hardware.

Example: VMware vSphere and Microsoft Hyper-V

VMware vSphere: VMware vSphere is a popular server virtualization platform that

provides features such as VM migration, resource pooling, and dynamic allocation. It
allows organizations to consolidate servers, optimize resource utilization, and enhance
overall data center efficiency.

Microsoft Hyper-V: Hyper-V is Microsoft's virtualization platform that enables the

creation and management of virtual machines. It provides features like live migration
and dynamic memory allocation, allowing organizations to efficiently use computing
resources and reduce hardware requirements.

By implementing server virtualization with tools like VMware vSphere or Microsoft

Hyper-V, the company can achieve its goals of consolidating resources, improving
utilization, and lowering energy costs in their development and test computing
environment. This approach aligns with modern best practices for data center
optimization and sustainability.
OR
 Explain VMware Hypervisor architecture with the help of diagram.
Answer

Answer :
 VMware’s technology is based on the concept of full virtualization, where the
underlying hardware is replicated and made available to the guest operating
system, which runs unaware of such abstraction layers and does not need to be
modified.
 VMware implements full virtualization either in the desktop environment, by
means of Type II hypervisors, or in the server environment, by means of Type I
hypervisors.
 In both cases, full virtualization is made possible by means of direct execution
for non sensitive instructions and binary translation for sensitive instructions,
thus allowing the virtualization of architecture such as x86.
 VMware is well known for the capability to virtualize x86 architectures, which
runs unmodified on top of their hypervisors.
 With the new generation of hardware architectures and the introduction of
hardware-assisted virtualization (Intel VT-x and AMD V) in 2006, full
 virtualization is made possible with hardware support, but before that date, the
use of dynamic binary translation was the only solution that allowed running
x86 guest operating systems unmodified in a virtualized environment.
 x86 architecture design does not satisfy the first theorem of virtualization, since
the set of sensitive instructions is not a subset of the privileged instructions.
This causes a different behaviour when such instructions are not executed in
Ring 0, which is the normal case in a virtualization scenario where the guest OS
is run in Ring 1.
 Generally, a trap is generated and the way it is managed differentiates the
solutions in which virtualization is implemented for x86 hardware.
In the case of dynamic binary translation, the trap triggers the translation of the
offending instructions into an equivalent set of instructions that achieves the
same goal without generating exceptions.
Moreover, to improve performance, the equivalent set of instruction is cached
so that translation is no longer necessary for further occurrences of the same
instructions.
This approach has both advantages and disadvantages:
 The major advantage is that guests can run unmodified in a virtualized
environment, which is a crucial feature for operating systems for which
source code is not available. This is the case, for example, of operating
systems in the Windows family. Binary translation is a more portable
solution for full virtualization.
 On the other hand, translating instructions at runtime introduces an
additional overhead that is not present in other approaches
(paravirtualization or hardware-assisted virtualization).
 Even though such disadvantage exists, binary translation is applied to
only a subset of the instruction set, whereas the others are managed
through direct execution on the underlying hardware. This somehow
reduces the impact on performance of binary translation.
 CPU virtualization is only a component of a fully virtualized hardware
environment.
 VMware achieves full virtualization by providing virtual representation of
memory and I/O devices.
 Memory virtualization constitutes another challenge of virtualized
environments and can deeply impact performance without the appropriate
hardware support.
 The main reason is the presence of a memory management unit (MMU), which
needs to be emulated as part of the virtual hardware.
 Especially in the case of hosted hypervisors (Type II), where the virtual MMU
and the host-OS MMU are traversed sequentially before getting to the physical
memory page, the impact on performance can be significant.
 To avoid nested translation, the translation look-aside buffer (TLB) in the
virtual MMU directly maps physical pages, and the performance slowdown
only occurs in case of a TLB miss.
 10+10

b. A software tester who is testing a complex application that is running within

a single virtual machine, has recently encountered a rare and intermittent
software defect that developers have been unable to reproduce or
troubleshoot in the past. What steps should be taken by the software tester to
allow developers to recreate the issue. Support your answer with suitable
examples.
Answer: To begin, the tester should leverage the virtualization platform's capabilities
to capture the precise state of the virtual machine when the defect occurs. This involves
taking a snapshot that encapsulates the entire system configuration, including memory,
disk, and CPU states. For instance, platforms like VMware and VirtualBox offer
snapshot functionalities, enabling the tester to freeze and preserve the exact conditions
leading to the defect.

Documentation of the virtual machine's configuration becomes imperative. The tester

must detail specifications such as CPU, memory, storage, and network settings. This
comprehensive overview ensures that developers can accurately replicate the
environment by allocating the same resources to the virtual machine.

Isolating the specific test case or sequence of actions triggering the defect within the
virtual machine is a crucial step. By documenting and isolating the scenario, the tester
allows developers to focus on understanding the issue within the confined environment
of the virtual machine, enhancing the efficiency of troubleshooting efforts.

Sharing the virtual machine snapshot or exporting the virtual machine for developers
to import into their own virtualization environment facilitates seamless collaboration.
For instance, using a standard format like OVF enables easy sharing of the virtual
machine state, allowing developers to import it into their preferred virtualization
platform.

Ensuring reproducibility across different hypervisors or virtualization platforms is

another essential consideration. By attempting to recreate the defect in various
environments, such as VMware and VirtualBox, the tester can discern whether the
issue is specific to the virtualization platform, providing valuable insights for
developers.

Analyzing logs and system information within the virtual machine is crucial for
capturing error messages or unusual behaviors during the defect occurrence. This step
involves scrutinizing the virtual machine's system logs, application logs, and event
logs, offering developers a detailed understanding of the internal state of the
application within the virtualized environment.

Monitoring resource usage within the virtual machine during defect reproduction is
imperative. This involves leveraging built-in virtualization tools or third-party
monitoring solutions to track resource utilization. By assessing resource constraints or
unusual spikes in CPU, memory, or disk usage, developers can pinpoint potential
contributing factors to the defect.

Lastly, if virtual machine images are utilized, ensuring versioning and snapshots of
these images is vital. Documentation of the image version or snapshot allows
developers to deploy the same version, streamlining the recreation process.