Buck converter analysis:

inductor current waveform

iL(t) L
1
+ vL(t) – +
iC(t)
original Vg +
2
C R v(t)
converter –

switch in position 1 switch in position 2

iL(t) L L

+ vL(t) – + + vL(t) – +
iC(t) iC(t)

Vg + C R v(t) Vg + iL(t) C R v(t)

– –

– –

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 9 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Inductor voltage and current
Subinterval 1: switch in position 1

iL(t) L
Inductor voltage
+ vL(t) – +
iC(t)
vL = Vg – v(t)
Vg + C R v(t)
–
Small ripple approximation:
vL ≈ Vg – V –

Knowing the inductor voltage, we can now find the inductor current via
diL(t)
vL(t) = L
dt

Solve for the slope:

diL(t) vL(t) Vg – V ⇒ The inductor current changes with an
= ≈
dt L L essentially constant slope

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 10 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Inductor voltage and current
Subinterval 2: switch in position 2

L
Inductor voltage
+ vL(t) – +
iC(t)
vL(t) = – v(t)
Vg + iL(t) C R v(t)
–
Small ripple approximation:
–
vL(t) ≈ – V

Knowing the inductor voltage, we can again find the inductor current via
diL(t)
vL(t) = L
dt

Solve for the slope:

diL(t) ⇒ The inductor current changes with an
≈– V
dt L essentially constant slope

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 11 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Inductor voltage and current waveforms

vL(t)
Vg – V
DTs D'Ts
t
–V
Switch
position: 1 2 1 diL(t)
vL(t) = L
dt
iL(t)
iL(DTs)
I ∆iL
iL(0) Vg – V –V
L L

0 DTs Ts t

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 12 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Determination of inductor current ripple magnitude

iL(t)
iL(DTs)
I ∆iL
iL(0) Vg – V –V
L L

0 DTs Ts t

(change in iL) = (slope)(length of subinterval)

Vg – V
2∆iL = DTs
L

Vg – V Vg – V
⇒ ∆iL = DTs L= DTs
2L 2∆iL

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 13 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Inductor current waveform
during turn-on transient

iL(t)

Vg – v(t)
L
iL(nTs) iL((n + 1)Ts)
– v(t)
iL(Ts) L
iL(0) = 0
0 DTs Ts 2Ts nTs (n + 1)Ts t

When the converter operates in equilibrium:

i L((n + 1)Ts) = i L(nTs)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 14 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 The principle of inductor volt-second balance:
Derivation

Inductor defining relation:

di (t)
vL(t) = L L
dt
Integrate over one complete switching period:
Ts
iL(Ts) – iL(0) = 1 vL(t) dt
L 0

In periodic steady state, the net change in inductor current is zero:

Ts
0= vL(t) dt
0

Hence, the total area (or volt-seconds) under the inductor voltage
waveform is zero whenever the converter operates in steady state.
An equivalent form:
s T
0= 1 v (t) dt = vL
Ts 0 L
The average inductor voltage is zero in steady state.
Fundamentals of Power Electronics 15 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis
 Inductor volt-second balance:
Buck converter example

vL(t)
Vg – V Total area λ
Inductor voltage waveform,
previously derived:
DTs t

–V
Integral of voltage waveform is area of rectangles:
Ts
λ= vL(t) dt = (Vg – V)(DTs) + ( – V)(D'Ts)
0

Average voltage is
vL = λ = D(Vg – V) + D'( – V)
Ts
Equate to zero and solve for V:
0 = DVg – (D + D')V = DVg – V ⇒ V = DVg

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 16 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 The principle of capacitor charge balance:
Derivation

Capacitor defining relation:

dv (t)
iC(t) = C C
dt
Integrate over one complete switching period:
Ts
vC(Ts) – vC(0) = 1 iC(t) dt
C 0

In periodic steady state, the net change in capacitor voltage is zero:

Ts
0= 1 iC(t) dt = iC
Ts 0

Hence, the total area (or charge) under the capacitor current
waveform is zero whenever the converter operates in steady state.
The average capacitor current is then zero.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 17 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 2.3 Boost converter example

L 2

iL(t) + vL(t) – +
iC(t)
Boost converter 1
with ideal switch Vg + C R v
–

L D1

Realization using iL(t) + vL(t) – +

iC(t)
power MOSFET Q1
and diode Vg + C R v
– +
DTs Ts
–
–

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 18 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Boost converter analysis

L 2

iL(t) + vL(t) – +
iC(t)
1
original Vg + C R v
converter –

switch in position 1 switch in position 2

L L

iL(t) + vL(t) – + iL(t) + vL(t) – +

iC(t) iC(t)

Vg + C R v Vg + C R v
– –

– –

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 19 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Subinterval 1: switch in position 1

Inductor voltage and capacitor current

vL = Vg
L
iC = – v / R
iL(t) + vL(t) – +
iC(t)

Vg + C R v
Small ripple approximation: –

vL = Vg –
iC = – V / R

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 20 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Subinterval 2: switch in position 2

Inductor voltage and capacitor current

vL = Vg – v L
iC = i L – v / R iL(t) + vL(t) – +
iC(t)

Vg + C R v
Small ripple approximation: –

–
vL = Vg – V
iC = I – V / R

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 21 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Inductor voltage and capacitor current waveforms

vL(t)
Vg

DTs D'Ts
t

Vg – V

iC(t) I – V/R

DTs D'Ts
t
– V/R

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 22 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Inductor volt-second balance

vL(t)
Net volt-seconds applied to inductor Vg
over one switching period: DTs D'Ts
Ts t
vL(t) dt = (Vg) DTs + (Vg – V) D'Ts
0
Vg – V

Equate to zero and collect terms:

Vg (D + D') – V D' = 0

Solve for V:
Vg
V =
D'
The voltage conversion ratio is therefore

M(D) = V = 1 = 1
Vg D' 1 – D

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 23 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Conversion ratio M(D) of the boost converter

5
M(D) = 1 = 1
4 D' 1 – D

3
M(D)

2
1
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
D

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 24 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Determination of inductor current dc component

iC(t) I – V/R

Capacitor charge balance: DTs D'Ts

t
Ts
iC(t) dt = ( – V ) DTs + (I – V ) D'Ts
– V/R
0 R R

Collect terms and equate to zero: I

Vg/R
– V (D + D') + I D' = 0 8
R
Solve for I: 6
4
I= V
D' R 2

Eliminate V to express in terms of Vg: 0

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Vg D
I= 2
D' R

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 25 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Determination of
inductor current ripple

Inductor current slope during iL(t)

subinterval 1: ∆iL
I
diL(t) vL(t) Vg Vg Vg – V
= =
dt L L L L
Inductor current slope during
subinterval 2: 0 DTs Ts t
diL(t) vL(t) Vg – V
= =
dt L L
Change in inductor current during subinterval 1 is (slope) (length of subinterval):
Vg
2∆iL = DTs
L
Solve for peak ripple:
Vg • Choose L such that desired ripple magnitude
∆iL = DTs
2L is obtained

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 26 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis

 Determination of
capacitor voltage ripple

Capacitor voltage slope during v(t)

subinterval 1:
dvC(t) iC(t) – V V ∆v
= = –V I – V
dt C RC
RC C RC
Capacitor voltage slope during
subinterval 2: 0 DTs Ts t
dvC(t) iC(t) I
= = – V
dt C C RC
Change in capacitor voltage during subinterval 1 is (slope) (length of subinterval):

– 2∆v = – V DTs
RC
Solve for peak ripple: • Choose C such that desired voltage ripple
magnitude is obtained
∆v = V DTs • In practice, capacitor equivalent series
2RC
resistance (esr) leads to increased voltage ripple
Fundamentals of Power Electronics 27 Chapter 2: Principles of steady-state converter analysis
 Modeling

• Representation of physical behavior by mathematical means

• Model dominant behavior of system, ignore other insignificant
phenomena
• Simplified model yields physical insight, allowing engineer to design
system to operate in specified manner
• Approximations neglect small but complicating phenomena
• After basic insight has been gained, model can be refined (if it is
judged worthwhile to expend the engineering effort to do so), to
account for some of the previously neglected phenomena

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 6 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Neglecting the switching ripple

Suppose the duty cycle The resulting variations in transistor gate

is modulated drive signal and converter output voltage:
sinusoidally:
gate
d(t) = D + Dm cos ωmt drive

where D and Dm are

constants, | Dm | << D ,
and the modulation t
frequency ωm is much
smaller than the actual waveform v(t)
converter switching including ripple
frequency ωs = 2πfs.
averaged waveform <v(t)>Ts
with ripple neglected

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 7 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Output voltage spectrum
with sinusoidal modulation of duty cycle

spectrum modulation switching switching

frequency and its frequency and harmonics
of v(t) harmonics sidebands

{
{
{
ωm ωs ω
Contains frequency components at: With small switching ripple, high-
• Modulation frequency and its frequency components (switching
harmonics harmonics and sidebands) are small.
• Switching frequency and its If ripple is neglected, then only low-
harmonics frequency components (modulation
• Sidebands of switching frequency frequency and harmonics) remain.
Fundamentals of Power Electronics 8 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling
 Objective of ac converter modeling

• Predict how low-frequency variations in duty cycle induce low-

frequency variations in the converter voltages and currents
• Ignore the switching ripple
• Ignore complicated switching harmonics and sidebands
Approach:
• Remove switching harmonics by averaging all waveforms over one
switching period

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 9 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Averaging to remove switching ripple

Average over one switching Note that, in steady-state,

period to remove switching
ripple:
vL(t) Ts
=0
d iL(t) Ts iC(t) =0
L = vL(t) Ts
dt Ts

d vC(t) Ts
C = iC(t) by inductor volt-second
dt Ts
balance and capacitor charge
where balance.
t + Ts
xL(t) T = 1 x(τ) dτ
s Ts t

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 10 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Nonlinear averaged equations

The averaged voltages and currents are, in general, nonlinear

functions of the converter duty cycle, voltages, and currents. Hence,
the averaged equations

d iL(t) Ts
L = vL(t)
dt Ts

d vC(t) Ts
C = iC(t)
dt Ts

constitute a system of nonlinear differential equations.

Hence, must linearize by constructing a small-signal converter model.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 11 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Small-signal modeling of the BJT

Nonlinear Ebers-Moll model Linearized small-signal model,

active region

C C

βFiB
βFiB
iB iB
B B
βRiB
rE

E E

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 12 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Buck-boost converter:
nonlinear static control-to-output characteristic

0 0.5 1 D
0

quiescent
operating
point Example: linearization
at the quiescent
operating point
–Vg
linearized
D = 0.5
function

actual
nonlinear
V characteristic

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 13 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Result of averaged small-signal ac modeling

Small-signal ac equivalent circuit model

Vg – V d(t)
L
1:D D' : 1

+
–
+

vg(t) + I d(t) I d(t) v(t)

– C R

buck-boost example

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 14 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 7.2. The basic ac modeling approach

Buck-boost converter example

1 2 +

+ i(t)
vg(t) C R v(t)
–
L
–

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 15 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Switch in position 1

+
Inductor voltage and capacitor i(t)
current are:
vg(t) + L C R v(t)
di(t) –
vL(t) = L = vg(t)
dt
–
dv(t) v(t)
iC(t) = C =–
dt R

Small ripple approximation: replace waveforms with their low-frequency

averaged values:
di(t)
vL(t) = L ≈ vg(t)
dt Ts

dv(t) v(t)
≈–
Ts
iC(t) = C
dt R

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 16 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Switch in position 2

Inductor voltage and capacitor +

i(t)
current are: +
vg(t) L C R v(t)
di(t) –
vL(t) = L = v(t)
dt
–
dv(t) v(t)
i C(t) = C = – i(t) –
dt R

Small ripple approximation: replace waveforms with their low-frequency

averaged values:
di(t)
vL(t) = L ≈ v(t)
dt Ts

dv(t) v(t)
≈ – i(t)
Ts
i C(t) = C –
dt Ts R

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 17 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 7.2.1 Averaging the inductor waveforms

Inductor voltage waveform vL(t) vg(t)

Ts

Low-frequency average is
found by evaluation of vL(t) Ts
= d vg(t) Ts
+ d' v(t) Ts
0
t + Ts dTs Ts t
xL(t) T = 1 x(τ)dτ
s Ts t
v(t) Ts
Average the inductor voltage
in this manner:
t + Ts

vL(t) T = 1 vL(τ)dτ ≈ d(t) vg(t) + d'(t) v(t)

s Ts t
Ts Ts

Insert into Eq. (7.2):

d i(t) This equation describes how
Ts the low-frequency components
L = d(t) vg(t) + d'(t) v(t)
dt Ts Ts
of the inductor waveforms
evolve in time.
Fundamentals of Power Electronics 18 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling
 7.2.2 Discussion of the averaging approximation

Use of the average inductor voltage vL(t) vg(t)

Ts
allows us to determine the net change
in inductor current over one switching vL(t) Ts
= d vg(t) Ts
+ d' v(t) Ts

period, while neglecting the switching 0

dTs Ts t
ripple.
v(t) Ts
In steady-state, the average inductor
i(t)
voltage is zero (volt-second balance),
i(dTs)
and hence the inductor current
waveform is periodic: i(t + Ts) = i(t). i(0) vg Ts
v Ts i(Ts)
There is no net change in inductor L L
current over one switching period.
During transients or ac variations, the 0 dTs Ts t
average inductor voltage is not zero in
Inductor voltage and current
general, and this leads to net variations waveforms
in inductor current.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 19 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Net change in inductor current is correctly
predicted by the average inductor voltage

Inductor equation: di(t)

L = vL(t)
dt
Divide by L and integrate over one switching period:
t + Ts t + Ts
di = 1 vL(τ)dτ
t L t

Left-hand side is the change in inductor current. Right-hand side can

be related to average inductor voltage by multiplying and dividing by Ts
as follows:
i(t + Ts) – i(t) = 1 Ts vL(t)
L Ts

So the net change in inductor current over one switching period is

exactly equal to the period Ts multiplied by the average slope 〈 vL 〉Ts /L.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 20 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Average inductor voltage correctly predicts
average slope of iL(t)

Actual waveform, Averaged waveform

including ripple i(t)
i(t) Ts
vg(t) v(t)
L L
i(0) i(Ts)
d vg(t) Ts
+ d' v(t) Ts

L
0 dTs Ts t

The net change in inductor current over one switching period is exactly
equal to the period Ts multiplied by the average slope 〈 vL 〉Ts /L.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 21 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 d i(t) Ts
dt
We have
i(t + Ts) – i(t) = 1 Ts vL(t)
L Ts

Rearrange:

i(t + Ts) – i(t)

L = vL(t)
Ts Ts

Define the derivative of 〈 i 〉Ts as (Euler formula):

d i(t) Ts i(t + Ts) – i(t)

=
dt Ts

Hence,
d i(t) Ts
L = vL(t)
dt Ts

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 22 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Computing how the inductor current changes
over one switching period

i(t)
i(dTs)
Let’s compute the actual
inductor current waveform, i(0) vg Ts
v Ts i(Ts)
using the linear ripple L L
approximation.
0 dTs Ts t

vg(t) Ts
With switch in i(dTs) = i(0) + dTs
L
position 1:
(final value) = (initial value) + (length of interval) (average slope)

v(t) Ts
With switch in i(Ts) = i(dTs) + d'Ts
L
position 2:
(final value) = (initial value) + (length of interval) (average slope)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 23 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Net change in inductor current over one
switching period

Eliminate i(dTs), to express i(Ts) Ts

directly as a function of i(0): i(Ts) = i(0) + d(t) vg(t) + d'(t) v(t)
L Ts Ts

vL(t) Ts

The intermediate step of Actual waveform, Averaged waveform

computing i(dTs) is eliminated. including ripple i(t)
i(t) Ts
The final value i(Ts) is equal to vg(t) v(t)
the initial value i(0), plus the L L
switching period Ts multiplied
i(0) i(Ts)
by the average slope 〈 vL 〉Ts /L.
d vg(t) Ts
+ d' v(t) Ts

L
0 dTs Ts t

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 24 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 7.2.3 Averaging the capacitor waveforms

Average capacitor current: iC(t)

v(t) Ts
–
R
v(t) Ts
v(t) Ts
i C(t) T = d(t) – + d'(t) – i(t) T – i C(t)
s R s R Ts
0
dTs Ts t

Collect terms, and equate to C d〈 v 〉Ts /dt: v(t) Ts

– – i(t)
R Ts
v(t)
d v(t) Ts
v(t) Ts
t
C = – d'(t) i(t) T – 0
dt s R dTs Ts

v(dTs) v(t) Ts
v(0) v(Ts)
v(t) Ts
v(t) Ts
i(t) Ts
– – –
RC RC C

Capacitor voltage and current

waveforms

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 25 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 7.2.4 The average input current

We found in Chapter 3 that it was ig(t) i(t) Ts

sometimes necessary to write an
equation for the average converter input i g(t)
Ts
current, to derive a complete dc
equivalent circuit model. It is likewise
0
necessary to do this for the ac model. 0
0 dTs Ts t
Buck-boost input current waveform is
Converter input current
i(t) Ts
during subinterval 1 waveform
i g(t) =
0 during subinterval 2

Average value:

i g(t) Ts
= d(t) i(t) Ts

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 26 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 7.2.5. Perturbation and linearization

Converter averaged equations:

d i(t) Ts
L = d(t) vg(t) + d'(t) v(t)
dt Ts Ts

d v(t) Ts
v(t) Ts
C = – d'(t) i(t) T –
dt s R

ig(t) Ts
= d(t) i(t) Ts

—nonlinear because of multiplication of the time-varying quantity d(t)

with other time-varying quantities such as i(t) and v(t).

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 27 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Construct small-signal model:
Linearize about quiescent operating point

If the converter is driven with some steady-state, or quiescent, inputs

d(t) = D
vg(t) T = Vg
s

then, from the analysis of Chapter 2, after transients have subsided

the inductor current, capacitor voltage, and input current
i(t) ,
Ts
v(t) ,
Ts
ig(t) Ts

reach the quiescent values I, V, and Ig, given by the steady-state

analysis as
V = – D Vg
D'
I=– V
D' R
Ig = D I

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 28 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Perturbation

So let us assume that the input voltage and duty cycle are equal to
some given (dc) quiescent values, plus superimposed small ac
variations:

vg(t) Ts
= Vg + vg(t)
d(t) = D + d(t)

In response, and after any transients have subsided, the converter

dependent voltages and currents will be equal to the corresponding
quiescent values, plus small ac variations:

i(t) Ts
= I + i(t)
v(t) Ts
= V + v(t)
ig(t) Ts
= I g + i g(t)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 29 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 The small-signal assumption

If the ac variations are much smaller in magnitude than the respective

quiescent values,
vg(t) << Vg
d(t) << D
i(t) << I
v(t) << V
i g(t) << I g

then the nonlinear converter equations can be linearized.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 30 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Perturbation of inductor equation

Insert the perturbed expressions into the inductor differential equation:

d I + i(t)
L = D + d(t) Vg + vg(t) + D' – d(t) V + v(t)
dt
note that d’(t) is given by

d'(t) = 1 – d(t) = 1 – D + d(t) = D' – d(t) with D’ = 1 – D

Multiply out and collect terms:

0
L ➚
dI +
d i(t)
= DVg+ D'V + Dvg(t) + D'v(t) + Vg – V d(t) + d(t) vg(t) – v(t)
dt dt

Dc terms 1 st order ac terms 2 nd order ac terms

(linear) (nonlinear)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 31 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 The perturbed inductor equation

0
L ➚
dI +
d i(t)
= DVg+ D'V + Dvg(t) + D'v(t) + Vg – V d(t) + d(t) vg(t) – v(t)
dt dt

Dc terms 1 st order ac terms 2 nd order ac terms

(linear) (nonlinear)
Since I is a constant (dc) term, its derivative is zero
The right-hand side contains three types of terms:
• Dc terms, containing only dc quantities
• First-order ac terms, containing a single ac quantity, usually
multiplied by a constant coefficient such as a dc term. These are
linear functions of the ac variations
• Second-order ac terms, containing products of ac quantities. These
are nonlinear, because they involve multiplication of ac quantities

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 32 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Neglect of second-order terms

0
L ➚
dI +
d i(t)
= DVg+ D'V + Dvg(t) + D'v(t) + Vg – V d(t) + d(t) vg(t) – v(t)
dt dt

Dc terms 1 st order ac terms 2 nd order ac terms

(linear) (nonlinear)

Provided vg(t) << Vg then the second-order ac terms are much

d(t) << D smaller than the first-order terms. For
example,
i(t) << I
d(t) vg(t) << D vg(t) when d(t) << D
v(t) << V
i g(t) << I g So neglect second-order terms.
Also, dc terms on each side of equation
are equal.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 33 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Linearized inductor equation

Upon discarding second-order terms, and removing dc terms (which

add to zero), we are left with

d i(t)
L = Dvg(t) + D'v(t) + Vg – V d(t)
dt

This is the desired result: a linearized equation which describes small-

signal ac variations.
Note that the quiescent values D, D’, V, Vg, are treated as given
constants in the equation.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 34 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Capacitor equation

Perturbation leads to
d V + v(t) V + v(t)
C = – D' – d(t) I + i(t) –
dt R
Collect terms:
0 dv(t)
C ➚
dV + = – D'I – V + – D'i(t) –
v(t)
+ Id(t) + d(t)i(t)
dt dt R R

Dc terms1 st order ac terms 2 nd order ac term

(linear) (nonlinear)
Neglect second-order terms. Dc terms on both sides of equation are
equal. The following terms remain:
dv(t) v(t)
C = – D'i(t) – + Id(t)
dt R
This is the desired small-signal linearized capacitor equation.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 35 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Average input current

Perturbation leads to
I g + i g(t) = D + d(t) I + i(t)

Collect terms:
Ig + i g(t) = DI + Di(t) + Id(t) + d(t)i(t)

Dc term 1 st order ac term Dc term 1 st order ac terms 2 nd order ac term

(linear) (nonlinear)
Neglect second-order terms. Dc terms on both sides of equation are
equal. The following first-order terms remain:
i g(t) = Di(t) + Id(t)
This is the linearized small-signal equation which described the
converter input port.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 36 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 7.2.6. Construction of small-signal
equivalent circuit model

The linearized small-signal converter equations:

d i(t)
L = Dvg(t) + D'v(t) + Vg – V d(t)
dt
dv(t) v(t)
C = – D'i(t) – + Id(t)
dt R

i g(t) = Di(t) + Id(t)

Reconstruct equivalent circuit corresponding to these equations, in

manner similar to the process used in Chapter 3.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 37 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Inductor loop equation

d i(t)
L = Dvg(t) + D'v(t) + Vg – V d(t)
dt

Vg – V d(t)
L

+
–
+ d i(t) –
L
dt –
D vg(t) + + D' v(t)
–
i(t)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 38 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Capacitor node equation

dv(t) v(t)
C = – D'i(t) – + Id(t)
dt R

dv(t) + v(t)
C
dt R
D' i(t) I d(t) C v(t) R

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 39 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Input port node equation

i g(t) = Di(t) + Id(t)

i g(t)

vg(t) + I d(t) D i(t)

–

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 40 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 Complete equivalent circuit

Collect the three circuits: Vg – V d(t)

i(t) L

+
–
+
–
vg(t) + I d(t) D i(t) + D vg(t) D' v(t) + D' i(t) I d(t) C v(t) R
– –

Replace dependent sources with ideal dc transformers:

Vg – V d(t)
L
1:D D' : 1

+
– +

vg(t) + I d(t) I d(t) v(t)

– C R

Small-signal ac equivalent circuit model of the buck-boost converter

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 41 Chapter 7: AC equivalent circuit modeling

 8.2.1. Example: transfer functions of the
buck-boost converter

Small-signal ac model of the buck-boost converter, derived in Chapter 7:

L
1:D D' : 1

+
–
+
i(s)
(Vg – V) d (s)
vg (s) + I d (s) I d (s)
– C v(s) R

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 71 Chapter 8: Converter Transfer Functions

 Definition of transfer functions

The converter contains two inputs, d(s) and vg(s) and one output, v(s)
Hence, the ac output voltage variations can be expressed as the
superposition of terms arising from the two inputs:

v(s) = Gvd(s) d(s) + Gvg(s) vg(s)

The control-to-output and line-to-output transfer functions can be

defined as
v(s) v(s)
Gvd(s) = and Gvg(s) =
d(s) vg(s) d(s) = 0
vg(s) = 0

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 72 Chapter 8: Converter Transfer Functions

 Derivation of
line-to-output transfer function Gvg(s)

Set d sources to 1:D D' : 1

zero: +
L

vg (s) +
– C v(s) R

Push elements through +

L
transformers to output D' 2
side: vg(s) – D +
C v(s) R
D' –

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 73 Chapter 8: Converter Transfer Functions

 Derivation of transfer functions

+
Use voltage divider formula L
to solve for transfer function: D' 2
+
vg(s) – D
D' – C v(s) R
R || 1
v(s) sC
Gvg(s) = =– D –
vg(s) D' sL 1
d(s) = 0 2 + R || sC
D'

Expand parallel combination and express as a rational fraction:

R
1 + sRC
Gvg(s) = – D
D' sL R
2 + 1 + sRC
D'
We aren’t done yet! Need to
write in normalized form, where
= – D R
the coefficient of s0 is 1, and
D' sL s 2RLC
R+ 2 +
D' D' 2 then identify salient features

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 74 Chapter 8: Converter Transfer Functions

 Derivation of transfer functions

Divide numerator and denominator by R. Result: the line-to-output

transfer function is
v(s)
Gvg(s) = = – D 1
vg(s) d(s) = 0 D' 1 + s L + s 2 LC
D' 2 R D' 2

which is of the following standard form:

Gvg(s) = Gg0 1
1 + s + ωs
2

Qω0 0

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 75 Chapter 8: Converter Transfer Functions

 Salient features of the line-to-output transfer function

Equate standard form to derived transfer function, to determine

expressions for the salient features:

Gg0 = – D
D'
1 = LC
ω 20 D' 2 ω0 = D'
LC

1 = L C
Qω0 D' 2R Q = D'R
L

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 76 Chapter 8: Converter Transfer Functions

 Derivation of
control-to-output transfer function Gvd(s)
L
D' : 1

+
–
In small-signal model, +
(Vg – V) d (s)
set vg source to zero:
I d (s) C v(s) R

+
L
Push all elements to Vg – V – D' 2
output side of d (s) + I d(s) C v(s) R
D'
transformer:
–

There are two d sources. One way to solve the model is to use superposition,
expressing the output v as a sum of terms arising from the two sources.

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 77 Chapter 8: Converter Transfer Functions

 Superposition

With the voltage + R || 1

source only: L v(s)
= –
Vg – V sC
Vg – V – D' 2 d (s) D' sL + R || 1
d (s) C v(s) R sC
D' 2
+
D'

With the current +

source alone: v(s)
= I sL2 || R || 1
L d(s) D' sC
I d (s) C v(s) R
D' 2

Vg – V R || 1
Total: sC
Gvd(s) = – + I sL2 || R || 1
D' sL + R || 1 D' sC
D' 2 sC
Fundamentals of Power Electronics 78 Chapter 8: Converter Transfer Functions
 Control-to-output transfer function

Express in normalized form:

1–s LI
v(s) Vg – V Vg – V
Gvd(s) = = –
d(s) D' 2 L + s 2 LC
vg(s) = 0 1+s
D' 2 R D' 2

This is of the following standard form:

1 – ωs
z
Gvd(s) = Gd0
1 + s + ωs
2

Qω0 0

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 79 Chapter 8: Converter Transfer Functions

 Salient features of control-to-output transfer function

Vg – V Vg
Gd0 = – =– 2 = V
D' D' DD'

Vg – V D' R
ωz = = (RHP)
LI DL

ω0 = D'
LC

Q = D'R C
L

— Simplified using the dc relations: V = – D Vg

D'
I=– V
D' R

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 80 Chapter 8: Converter Transfer Functions

 Plug in numerical values

Suppose we are given the Then the salient features

following numerical values: have the following numerical
values:

D = 0.6 Gg0 = D = 1.5 ⇒ 3.5 dB

R = 10Ω D'
Vg = 30V V
Gd0 = = 187.5 V ⇒ 45.5 dBV
L = 160µH DD'
ω
C = 160µF f0 = 0 = D' = 400 Hz
2π 2π LC
Q = D'R C = 4 ⇒ 12 dB
L
ωz D' 2R
fz = = = 2.65 kHz
2π 2πDL

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 81 Chapter 8: Converter Transfer Functions

 Bode plot: control-to-output transfer function

80 dBV || Gvd ||
|| Gvd || ∠ Gvd
60 dBV Gd0 = 187 V
⇒ 45.5 dBV Q = 4 ⇒ 12 dB
40 dBV f0 –40 dB/decade
400 Hz
20 dBV
10 -1/2Q f0
0˚ 300 Hz
0 dBV fz 0˚
∠ Gvd fz /10 2.6 kHz
RHP –20 dB/decade
–20 dBV 260 Hz –90˚

–40 dBV –180˚

1/2Q 10fz
10 f0
533 Hz 26 kHz –270˚
–270˚
10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz 1 MHz

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 82 Chapter 8: Converter Transfer Functions

 Bode plot: line-to-output transfer function

20 dB
|| Gvg || Gg0 = 1.5 ∠ Gvg
⇒ 3.5 dB Q = 4 ⇒ 12 dB
0 dB
|| Gvg || f0
400 Hz –40 dB/decade
–20 dB

–40 dB
10 –1/2Q 0 f0
0˚ 300 Hz
–60 dB 0˚
∠ Gvg
–80 dB –90˚

–180˚
–180˚
1/2Q 0
10 f0
533 Hz
–270˚
10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz

f
Fundamentals of Power Electronics 83 Chapter 8: Converter Transfer Functions
 9.5.4. Design example

L
50 µH
+
iload
vg(t) + C R
v(t)
28 V – 500 µF 3Ω
Sensor
– H(s) gain
fs = 100 kHz
Transistor Error
gate driver signal
δ Pulse-width vc G (s) ve –+ Hv
modulator c

VM = 4 V Compensator vref
5V

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 46 Chapter 9: Controller design

 Quiescent operating point

Input voltage Vg = 28V

Output V = 15V, Iload = 5A, R = 3Ω
Quiescent duty cycle D = 15/28 = 0.536
Reference voltage Vref = 5V
Quiescent value of control voltage Vc = DVM = 2.14V
Gain H(s) H = Vref/V = 5/15 = 1/3

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 47 Chapter 9: Controller design

 Small-signal model

V d
D2 1:D
L

+
–
+

vg(s) + V d C v(s) iload (s)

– R
R

Error d(s)
signal
vref (= 0) + ve (s) vc (s) 1
– Gc(s) VM
T(s)
Compensator VM = 4 V

H(s) v(s)
H(s)

H=1
3

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 48 Chapter 9: Controller design

 Open-loop control-to-output transfer function Gvd(s)

60 dBV
|| Gvd || ∠ Gvd
40 dBV || Gvd || Q0 = 9.5 ⇒ 19.5 dB
Gd0 = 28 V ⇒ 29 dBV
Gvd(s) = V 1
f0
D 1 + s L + s 2LC 20 dBV
R ∠ Gvd 10 –1/2Q 0 f0 = 900 Hz
0 dBV 0˚
standard form:
–20 dBV –90˚
Gvd(s) = Gd0 1
1+ s + s 2
–40 dBV –180˚
Q 0 ω0 ω0 10 1/2Q 0
f0 = 1.1 kHz
–270˚
salient features:

Gd0 = V = 28V 1 Hz 10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz

D f
ω0 1
f0 = = = 1kHz
2π 2π LC
Q0 = R C = 9.5 ⇒ 19.5dB
L

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 49 Chapter 9: Controller design

 Open-loop line-to-output transfer function
and output impedance

Gvg(s) = D 1
1 + s L + s 2LC
R

—same poles as control-to-output transfer function

standard form:

Gvg(s) = Gg0 1
1+ s + s 2

Q 0 ω0 ω0

Output impedance:

Z out(s) = R || 1 || sL = sL
sC 1 + s L + s 2LC
R

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 50 Chapter 9: Controller design

 System block diagram

T(s) = Gc(s) 1 G (s) H(s)

vd
VM
iload (s) Load current
variation
Gc(s) H(s) V 1
T(s) =
VM D 1+ s + s 2
Zout (s)
Q 0 ω0 ω0 vg(s)
Gvg (s)
ac line
variation

VM = 4 V –
vref ( = 0 ) + ve(s) vc(s) +
1 d(s) v(s)
– Gc(s) VM Gvd (s)
Duty cycle +
variation
Converter power stage
T(s)
H=1
3
H(s)

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 51 Chapter 9: Controller design

 Uncompensated loop gain (with Gc = 1)

40 dB
|| Tu || ∠ Tu
20 dB Q0 = 9.5 ⇒ 19.5 dB
|| Tu || Tu0 2.33 ⇒ 7.4 dB

0 dB f0
1 kHz
–20 dB
With Gc = 1, the – 1
10 2Q f0 = 900 Hz
– 40 dB/decade
0˚
loop gain is –40 dB 0˚
∠ Tu

Tu(s) = Tu0 1 –90˚

1+ s + s 2

Q 0 ω0 ω0 –180˚
1
10 2Q f0 = 1.1 kHz
Tu0 = H V = 2.33 ⇒ 7.4dB –270˚
D VM 1 Hz 10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz
f

fc = 1.8 kHz, ϕm = 5˚

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 52 Chapter 9: Controller design

 Lead compensator design

• Obtain a crossover frequency of 5 kHz, with phase margin of 52˚

• Tu has phase of approximately – 180˚ at 5 kHz, hence lead (PD)
compensator is needed to increase phase margin.
• Lead compensator should have phase of + 52˚ at 5 kHz
• Tu has magnitude of – 20.6 dB at 5 kHz
• Lead compensator gain should have magnitude of + 20.6 dB at 5 kHz
• Lead compensator pole and zero frequencies should be
1 – sin (52°)
fz = (5kHz) = 1.7kHz
1 + sin (52°)
1 + sin (52°)
fp = (5kHz) = 14.5kHz
1 – sin (52°)
2
fc 1 fz
• Compensator dc gain should be G c0 = = 3.7 ⇒ 11.3dB
f0 Tu0 fp

Fundamentals of Power Electronics 53 Chapter 9: Controller design

 Lead compensator Bode plot

40 dB
|| Gc || fp ∠ Gc
Gc0
fz fp
20 dB || Gc || Gc0
fc
0 dB
fz = fz fp

–20 dB fp /10 10fz 90˚

fz /10
0˚
–40 dB 0˚
∠ Gc
–90˚

–180˚

1 Hz 10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz

f
Fundamentals of Power Electronics 54 Chapter 9: Controller design
 Loop gain, with lead compensator

1 + ωs
z
T(s) = Tu0 Gc0
1 + ωs s + s 2
1+ ω0
p Q 0 ω0
40 dB
|| T || Q0 = 9.5 ⇒ 19.5 dB
∠T
|| T || T0 = 8.6 ⇒ 18.7 dB
20 dB
f0
0 dB 1 kHz fz
1.7 kHz fc
–20 dB 5 kHz fp
900 Hz 14 kHz
0˚
–40 dB 0˚
∠T 170 Hz
–90˚
1.4 kHz 17 kHz
ϕm=52˚
1.1 kHz –180˚

–270˚
1 Hz 10 Hz 100 Hz 1 kHz 10 kHz 100 kHz
f
Fundamentals of Power Electronics 55 Chapter 9: Controller design