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Chapter-II

Review of Related Literature

An attempt is made to critically review the literature of the past

research work in relevance to the present study. Some important and

relevant studies on stress and coping strategies among school teachers and

also the studies relating to work related variables to occupational stress and

coping ability were presented as follows. The findings of the previous

studies are presented into two broad categories (1) Review of Literature:

Abroad and (2) Review of Literature: Indian.

2.1 Review of Literature: (Abroad)

Furnham (1987) found that difficulties associated with classroom

instructional and management demands were perceived by the majority of

teachers to be the most stressful aspects of their work. Also problems

associated with time management most clearly differentiated between

teachers when compared on the basis of sex, qualifications and years of

experience.

Seidman and Zager (1991) in their study found that many physical

and psychological problems were related to teacher burnout factor.

Furthermore, the data showed that certain maladaptive coping mechanisms,

e.g., excessive alcohol consumption were associated with higher teacher

burnout, while adaptive coping strategies, e.g., hobbies were related to

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lower burnout levels among school teachers. An association was also

revealed between certain demographic factors, e.g., gender and coping

behaviour.

El-Darda (1998) found that teachers' use of coping strategies with

psychological stress was high on the problem solving, self-control and

religious dimension strategies. However, it was low on recreation and

physical exercise strategies. In general, the teachers' use of coping

strategies with psychological stress which may be attributed to sex

variable, place of work variable, experience variable.

Ramon (1999) in his study indicates that teachers who report more

stress are those most interested in empowering their students in the

decision-making process. Associated with increased concern is a greater

use of worry, self-blame, tension reduction, wishful thinking and keep-to-

self. The most concern teachers also express a greater tendency to get sick

as a result of the stress. The data suggest need for professional

development curricular for teachers to assist them in effectively sharing

power with students and in reflecting upon a range of more productive

coping strategies.

Neves de Jesus and Conboy (2001) found out that there was a

significant decrease in teacher‟s irrational beliefs and professional distress,

as well as an increase in professional motivation and the perception of

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wellbeing after the teachers participated in 30 hour programme on stress

management course that was prepared and implemented in an attempt to

reduce teacher stress.

Arikewuyo (2004) in the study of stress management strategies of

secondary school teachers in Nigeria found out that teachers frequently

used the active behavioural and inactive (escape) strategies in managing

stress. Whenever the teacher is stressed he/she consoles himself/herself

with the fact that work is not everything and, therefore, feels less stressed.

Soyibo (2006) in his study reported that difficulty in obtaining

science teaching equipment was perceived as the most stressful factor by

the teachers. There were no significant differences in the degrees of stress

experienced by the teachers based on their gender, school location,

teaching experience and subjects taught.

Brundage (2007) in his study found that foreign EFL teachers report

moderate levels of stress and attribute stresses in roughly equal measures to

student misbehavior and school director/administrative sources. Survey

results also suggested primary coping mechanisms include drinking

alcohol, sports, conversation with friends, hobbies including watching TV

and movies and listening to music.

Skaalvik and Skaalvik (2007) in their articles reported that student

behaviour is another factor contributing to teacher burnout. This article

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describes an experimental study that evaluated the impact of a school-

based and collaboratively implemented stress management programme on

teachers' emotional exhaustion, depersonalization and personal

accomplishment perception.

Reung (2009) found that majority of participants reported fair to

very low satisfaction with the teaching career and 38.6 per cent had

experienced strong mal adaptive stress due to vocational strain but coping

resource was limited with most deficits on rational and cognitive coping.

Mundia (2010) found that the extent to which Brunei trainee

teachers used the task-oriented, emotion-oriented and avoidance-oriented

coping strategies when in stressful conditions. Overall the task-oriented

strategy was the most used coping method followed by the emotion-

oriented style. The coping strategies were found to be distinct ways of

reacting to and relieving stress according to the Brunei sample.

Chih-Lun (Vicky) Hung (2011) found that (a) primary teachers

perceived that their teacher surplus-related stress primarily derived from

increases in their teaching loads and perceived that denial of their need for

coping strategies was one of the most commonly used coping strategies; (b)

teachers who were aged under 30 with fewer than 5 years of teaching

experience were the most stressed, and (c) there was a significant

relationship between stress-related surplus and coping strategies.

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Lewis et al. (2011) reported that coping strategies play an important

role in mediating the relationship teachers‟ concern about misbehaviour

and the use of classroom management techniques.

Al Alghaswyneh (2012) found that 95 per cent of Tawjihi teachers

revealed their work as a Tawjihi teacher was extremely to mildly stressful.

Regarding coping strategies Tawjihi teachers tend to use indirect actions

more often than direct actions, they revealed the actions they desire schools

and the MOE to take to help them reduce stress.

Antonion, Ploumpi and Ntalla (2013) in their research found out

teachers of primary education experience higher levels of stress compared

to teachers of secondary education. Female teachers experience more stress

and lower personal accomplishment than men. Rational coping behaviors

are a resource which help teachers overcome work related stressors and

burnout and achieve their valued outcomes with students, while avoidance

coping predicted high level of stress and burnout.

Ekyndayo and Kalawole (2013) found that poor working

conditions, poor relations with super-ordinates and late payment of

teachers‟ salary were major sources of stress among teachers. The study

also revealed that organizing one‟s time effectively is the main strategy of

coping with stress among the teachers.

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2.2 Review of Literature: Indian

Kalker (1984) found that poor public image of teachers and

education; role related distress and lack of support all leads to teacher

stress, causes, symptoms and consequences of this problem are examined.

Specific problem solving and prevention techniques are identified.

Capalan, Naidu and Tripathi (1984) examined how patterns of

coping and defence as well as their main effects influence well-being

among 207 university students. Their study suggested that coping may

buffer the effects of stressors on well-being only when stressors are

subjectively controllable.

Sen (1987) studied the personal and organizational correlates to role

stress and coping strategies among bank employees. The defensive style of

coping was found to be the most common, followed by the “introspective”

style and then the “imperative” style. No sex differences were found in

coping styles. A tendency was found for those with higher income to solve

problems by their own efforts, probably because of the power and authority

conferred by higher paying positions.

Sahu and Mishra (1995) explored the life stress and coping styles

in teachers. The males used emotion-focused coping as well as problem-

focused coping, while females used only emotion-focused coping.

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Mathur (1997) found that college teachers experience minimum

role stress in comparison to doctors, school teachers and bank employees.

Upadyaya et al. (2001) compared the occupational stress levels

experienced by college teachers and higher secondary school teachers.

Results revealed that significant differences between the two groups of

variables related to role overload, role ambiguity and responsibility.

Khan et al. (2005) conducted a study on coping strategies among

male and female teachers with high and low job strain. The results of the

present study indicate that both male and female teachers used the same

strategies to cope with job strain. Significant difference was not found to

exist between the male and female teachers on different types of coping

strategies except use of humour. Teachers have adopted a range of coping

strategies most tend to be functional or active and some are dysfunctional

or passive (i.e. self-distraction and use of humour).

Giri and Nageshwara (2007) found that gender, locality and age

play an important role in causing stress. Female teachers were more

stressful than male teachers. Teachers below 40 years of age were more

stressful that the ones above 40 years of age and teachers with below 15

years of teaching experience were found to be more stressful than teachers

with above 15 years of experience in teaching.

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Chaturvedi and Purushothaman (2009) found that marital status,

age and experience were found to be significant determinants of stress

coping, whereas the scores did not differ significantly on the basis of level

of teaching. Marital teachers in the age range of 40-60 years with higher

experience can cope better with job stress than their counterparts.

Syryalatha and Indhumathi (2012) found that stress is due to

several problems that teachers face as an individual. Problems may be

connected with physical, health, financial or economic matters,

psychological and related to interaction in social and familial setting of

course these aspects are somewhat independent and interactive in nature

and also considered physiological, emotional, cognitive and behavioural.

Raju (2012) found out that variables like gender, age, experience

and marital status differed significantly. Teachers stress is influenced by

age, more experience teachers have less stress, both male and female

teachers experience moderate stress and unmarried teachers have more

stress.

2.3 Conclusion

From all these studies, it can be concluded that individuals do

experience stress of different levels (Raju, 2012). In some situation, women

experience most stress than men and vice-versa (Antonion et al., 2013; Giri

and Nageshwara, 2007). Most studies reveal that individual with lesser

experience, experience more stress as compared to the individual with

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more service years (Chih Lun and Hung, 2011; Uday and Nageshwara,

2007). Some studies point out that younger age group is more susceptible

to stress due to lack of experience and older age group experience stress

due to increase in the responsibilities (Chih Lun and Hung, 2011; Uday and

Nageshwara, 2007). Some studies also point out that teachers experience

low stress as compared to other professionals (Pareek and Mehta, 1997)

The studies also explore different stress management techniques to reduce

or minimize stress (Zager, 1991; Eldarda, 1998; Arikewuyo, 2004) gender

of individuals has no significant difference on the use of stress

management strategies (Sen, 1987).