+

William Stallings
Computer Organization
and Architecture
10th Edition
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken,
NJ. All rights reserved.
+ Chapter 13
Instruction Sets: Addressing
Modes and Formats

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 Addressing Modes
Immediate

Direct

Indirect

Register

Register indirect

Displacement

Stack

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 Instruction Instruction Instruction
Operand A A
Memory Memory

Operand

Operand

(a) Immediate (b) Direct (c) Indirect

Instruction Instruction Instruction

R R R A
Memory Memory

Operand

Operand Operand
Registers Registers Registers
(d) Register (e) Register Indirect (f) Displacement

Instruction

Implicit

Top of Stack
Register

(g) Stack

Figure 13.1 Addressing Modes

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 Table 13.1
Basic Addressing Modes
M ode Algorithm Principal Advantage Principal Disadvantage
Immediate Operand = A No memory reference Limited operand magnitude
Direct EA = A Simple Limited address space
Indirect EA = (A) Large address space Multiple memory references
Register EA = R No memory reference Limited address space
Register indirect EA = (R) Large address space Extra memory reference
Displacement EA = A + (R) Flexibility Complexity
Stack EA = top of stack No memory reference Limited applicability

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+ Immediate Addressing

 Simplest form of addressing

 Operand = A

 This mode can be used to define and use constants or set initial
values of variables
 Typically the number will be stored in twos complement form
 The leftmost bit of the operand field is used as a sign bit

 Advantage:
 No memory reference other than the instruction fetch is required to
obtain the operand, thus saving one memory or cache cycle in the
instruction cycle

 Disadvantage:
 The size of the number is restricted to the size of the address field, which,
in most instruction sets, is small compared with the word length

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 Direct Addressing

Address field
contains the
effective address of
the operand

Effective address
(EA) = address field
(A)

Was common in
earlier generations
of computers

Requires only one

memory reference
and no special
calculation

Limitation is that it
provides only a
limited address
space

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+
Indirect Addressing

 Reference to the address of a word in memory which contains a

full-length address of the operand

 EA = (A)
 Parentheses are to be interpreted as meaning contents of

 Advantage:
 For a word length of N an address space of 2N is now available

 Disadvantage:
 Instruction execution requires two memory references to fetch the operand
 One to get its address and a second to get its value

 A rarely used variant of indirect addressing is multilevel or cascaded

indirect addressing
 EA = ( . . . (A) . . . )
 Disadvantage is that three or more memory references could be required
to fetch an operand

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 Register Addressing

Address field
refers to a
register rather EA = R
than a main
memory address

Advantages: Disadvantage:
• Only a small • The address space
address field is is very limited
needed in the
instruction
• No time-consuming
memory references
are required

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+
Register Indirect Addressing

 Analogous to indirect addressing

 The only difference is whether the address field refers to a
memory location or a register

 EA = (R)

 Address space limitation of the address field is overcome by

having that field refer to a word-length location containing an
address

 Uses one less memory reference than indirect addressing

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+
Displacement Addressing

 Combines the capabilities of direct addressing and register

indirect addressing

 EA = A + (R)

 Requires that the instruction have two address fields, at least one
of which is explicit
 The value contained in one address field (value = A) is used directly
 The other address field refers to a register whose contents are added
to A to produce the effective address

 Most common uses:

 Relative addressing
 Base-register addressing
 Indexing

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 Relative Addressing

The implicitly referenced register is the program counter (PC)

• The next instruction address is added to the address field to produce the EA
• Typically the address field is treated as a twos complement number for this
operation
• Thus the effective address is a displacement relative to the address of the
instruction

Exploits the concept of locality

Saves address bits in the instruction if most memory references

are relatively near to the instruction being executed

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+
Base-Register Addressing

 The referenced register contains a main memory address and

the address field contains a displacement from that address

 The register reference may be explicit or implicit

 Exploits the locality of memory references

 Convenient means of implementing segmentation

 In some implementations a single segment base register is

employed and is used implicitly

 In others the programmer may choose a register to hold the

base address of a segment and the instruction must reference it
explicitly

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 Indexing
 The address field references a main memory address and the referenced
register contains a positive displacement from that address

 The method of calculating the EA is the same as for base-register addressing

 An important use is to provide an efficient mechanism for performing

iterative operations

 Autoindexing
 Automatically increment or decrement the index register after each reference to it
 EA = A + (R)
 (R)  (R) + 1

 Postindexing
 Indexing is performed after the indirection
 EA = (A) + (R)

 Preindexing
 Indexing is performed before the indirection
 EA = (A + (R))

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+
Stack Addressing

 A stack is a linear array of locations

 Sometimes referred to as a pushdown list or last-in-first-out queue

 A stack is a reserved block of locations

 Items are appended to the top of the stack so that the block is partially filled

 Associated with the stack is a pointer whose value is the address of the top of
the stack
 The stack pointer is maintained in a register
 Thus references to stack locations in memory are in fact register indirect addresses

 Is a form of implied addressing

 The machine instructions need not include a memory

reference but implicitly operate on the top of the stack

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© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Table 13.2
x86 Addressing Modes
M ode Algorithm
Immediate Operand = A
Register Operand LA = R
Displacement LA = (SR) + A
Base LA = (SR) + (B)
Base with Displacement LA = (SR) + (B) + A
Scaled Index with Displacement LA = (SR) + (I) ´ S + A
Base with Index and Displacement LA = (SR) + (B) + (I) + A
Base with Scaled Index and Displacement LA = (SR) + (I) ´ S + (B) + A
Relative LA = (PC) + A
LA = linear address
(X) = contents of X
SR = segment register
PC = program counter
A = contents of an address field in the instruction
R = register
B = base register
I = index register
S = scaling factor
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 STRB r0, [r1, #12]

Offset
0xC 0x20C 0x5
r0 Destination
0x5 register
r1 for STR
Original
base register
0x200 0x200

(a) Offset

STRB r0, [r1, #12]!

r1 Offset
Updated
base register 0x20C 0xC 0x20C 0x5
r0 Destination
0x5 register
r1 for STR
Original
base register
0x200 0x200

(b) Preindex

STRB r0, [r1], #12

r1 Offset
Updated
base register 0x20C 0xC 0x20C
r0 Destination
0x5 register
r1 for STR
Original
base register
0x200 0x200 0x5

(c) Postindex

Figure 13.3 ARM Indexing Methods

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+ ARM Data Processing Instruction Addressing
and Branch Instructions

 Data processing instructions

 Use either register addressing or a mixture of register and
immediate addressing
 For register addressing the value in one of the register operands
may be scaled using one of the five shift operators

 Branch instructions
 The only form of addressing for branch instructions is immediate
 Instruction contains 24 bit value
 Shifted 2 bits left so that the address is on a word boundary
 Effective range ± 32MB from from the program counter

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LDMxx r10, {r0, r1, r4}
STMxx r10, {r0, r1, r4}
Increment Increment Decrement Decrement
after (IA) before (IB) after (DA) before (DB)
r10
Base register 0x20C (r4) 0x218
(r4) (r1) 0x214
(r1) (r0) 0x210
(r0) (r4) 0x20C
(r1) (r4) 0x208
(r0) (r1) 0x204
(r0) 0x200

Figure 13.4 ARM Load/Store Multiple Addressing

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 Instruction Formats

Must include
Define the
an opcode For most
layout of the
and, implicitly instruction
bits of an
or explicitly, sets more than
instruction, in
indicate the one
terms of its
addressing instruction
constituent
mode for each format is used
fields
operand

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+
Instruction Length
 Most basic design issue

 Affects, and is affected by:

 Memory size
 Memory organization
 Bus structure
 Processor complexity
 Processor speed

 Should be equal to the memory-transfer length or one should

be a multiple of the other

 Should be a multiple of the character length, which is usually

8 bits, and of the length of fixed-point numbers

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 Allocation of Bits

Number of Register
Number of
addressing versus
operands
modes memory

Number of Address Address

register sets range granularity

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 M emory Reference I nstructions
Opcode D/I Z/C Displacement
0 2 3 4 5 11

I nput/Output I nstructions
1 1 0 Device Opcode
0 2 3 8 9 11

Register Reference I nstructions

Group 1 Microinstructions
1 1 1 0 CLA CLL CMA CML RAR RAL BSW IAC
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Group 2 Microinstructions
1 1 1 1 CLA SMA SZA SNL RSS OSR HLT 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

Group 3 Microinstructions
1 1 1 1 CLA MQA 0 MQL 0 0 0 1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11

D/I = Direct/Indirect address IAC = Increment ACcumulator

Z/C = Page 0 or Current page SMA = Skip on Minus Accumulator
CLA = Clear Accumulator SZA = Skip on Zero Accumulator
CLL = Clear Link SNL = Skip on Nonzero Link
CMA = CoMplement Accumulator RSS = Reverse Skip Sense
CML = CoMplement Link OSR = Or with Switch Register
RAR = Rotate Accumultator Right HLT = HaLT
RAL = Rotate Accumulator Left MQA = Multiplier Quotient into Accumulator
BSW = Byte SWap MQL = Multiplier Quotient Load

Figure 13.5 PDP-8 I nstruction Formats

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 Index
Opcode Register I Memory Address
Register
0 8 9 12 14 17 18 35

I = indirect bit

Figure 13.6 PDP-10 I nstruction Format

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+
Variable-Length Instructions

 Variations can be provided efficiently and compactly

 Increases the complexity of the processor

 Does not remove the desirability of making all of the

instruction lengths integrally related to word length
 Because the processor does not know the length of the next
instruction to be fetched a typical strategy is to fetch a number of
bytes or words equal to at least the longest possible instruction
 Sometimes multiple instructions are fetched

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 1 Opcode Source Destination 2 Opcode R Source 3 Opcode Offet
4 6 6 7 3 6 8 8

4 Opcode FP Destination 5 Opcode Destination 6 Opcode CC

8 2 6 10 6 12 4

7 Opcode R 8 Opcode
13 3 16

9 Opcode Source Destination Memory Address

4 6 6 16

10 Opcode R Source Memory Address

7 3 6 16

11 Opcode FP Source Memory Address

8 2 6 16

12 Opcode Destination Memory Address

10 6 16

13 Opcode Source Destination Memory Address 1 Memory Address 2

4 6 6 16 16

Numbers below fields indicate bit length

Source and Destination each contain a 3-bit addr essing mode field and a 3-bit register number
FP indicates one of four floating-point registers
R indicates one of the general-purpose r egisters
CC is the condition code field

Figure 13.7 Instruction Formats for the PDP-11

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 Hexadecimal Explanation Assembler Notation
Format and Description

8 bits
0 5 Opcode for RSB RSB
Return from subroutine

D 4 Opcode for CLRL CLRL R9

5 9 Register R9 Clear register R9

B 0 Opcode for MOVW MOVW 356(R4), 25(R11)

Word displacement mode,
C 4 Register R4
Move a word from address
that is 356 plus contents
6 4 356 in hexadecimal of R4 to address that is
0 1 25 plus contents of R11
Byte displacement mode,
A B Register R11
1 9 25 in hexadecimal

C 1 Opcode for ADDL3 ADDL3 #5, R0, @A[R2]

0 5 Short literal 5 Add 5 to a 32-bit integer in

R0 and store the result in
5 0 Register mode R0
location whose address is
4 2 Index prefix R2 sum of A and 4 times the
Indirect word relative contents of R2
D F (displacement from PC)

Amount of displacement from

PC relative to location A

Figure 13.8 Examples of VAX Instructions

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 0 or 1 0 or 1 0 or 1 0 or 1
bytes bytes bytes bytes
Operand Address
Instruction Segment
size size
prefix override
override override

0 or 1 0 or 1
0, 1, 2, 3, or 4 bytes 1, 2, or 3 bytes bytes bytes 0, 1, 2, or 4 bytes 0, 1, 2, or 4 bytes

Instruction prefixes Opcode ModR/m SIB Displacement Immediate

Mod Reg/Opcode R/M Scale Index Base

7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

Figure 13.9 x86 Instruction Format

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© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
+
Thumb-2 Instruction Set

 The only instruction set available on the Cortex-M microcontroller

products

 Is a major enhancement to the Thumb instruction set architecture (ISA)

 Introduces 32-bit instructions that can be intermixed freely with the older 16-
bit Thumb instructions
 Most 32-bit Thumb instructions are unconditional, whereas almost all ARM
instructions can be conditional
 Introduces a new If-Then (IT) instruction that delivers much of the functionality
of the condition field in ARM instructions

 Delivers overall code density comparable with Thumb, together with the
performance levels associated with the ARM ISA

 Before Thumb-2 developers had to choose between Thumb for size and
ARM for performance

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© 2016 Pearson Education, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. All rights reserved.
 Address Contents Address Contents
101 0010 0010 101 2201 101 2201
102 0001 0010 102 1202 102 1202
103 0001 0010 103 1203 103 1203
104 0011 0010 104 3204 104 3204

201 0000 0000 201 0002 201 0002

202 0000 0000 202 0003 202 0003
203 0000 0000 203 0004 203 0004
204 0000 0000 204 0000 204 0000

(a) Binary program (b) Hexadecimal program

Address I nstruction Label Operation Operand

101 LDA 201 FORMUL LDA I
102 ADD 202 ADD J
103 ADD 203 ADD K
104 STA 204 STA N

201 DAT 2 I DATA 2

202 DAT 3 J DATA 3
203 DAT 4 K DATA 4
204 DAT 0 N DATA 0

(c) Symbolic program (d) Assembly program

Figure 13.14 Computation of the Formula N = I + J+ K

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+ Summary Instruction Sets:
Addressing Modes
and Formats
Chapter 13
 x86 addressing modes
 Addressing modes
 ARM addressing modes
 Immediate addressing
 Direct addressing  Instruction formats
 Indirect addressing  Instruction length
 Register addressing  Allocation of bits
 Register indirect addressing  Variable-length instructions
 Displacement addressing
 X86 instruction formats
 Stack addressing
 ARM instruction formats
 Assembly language

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