FCE 422: Fluid Mechanics III

Academic Year 2022/2023 - Semester Two

Dept of Civil and Construction Engineering,

University of Nairobi

By: Dr.(Eng.), Omondi Auma Erick – Faculty member in Civil

and Construction Engineering Dept
 Main objective of the Course
• To enable the learner, understand the operation of fluid machines, and apply
dimensional analysis and model studies to design of hydraulic structures

Prerequisites
• FCE 222- Fluid Mechanics I
• FCE 322 - Fluid Mechanics II

Expected Learning Outcomes

At the end of the course, a learner should be able to:

1. Describe circulatory motion in free and forced vortices and its application to
fluid machines
2. Derive and apply the momentum equation in computation of hydrodynamic
forces
3. Explain the working principles of hydraulic machines and their selection,
installation and maintenance.
4. Solve hydraulic problems using dimensional analysis and laws of similitude
5. Apply model studies to design of hydraulic structures
 Course Content
• Free and forced vortices

• Momentum and forces in fluid flow

• Impact of jets

• Hydroelectric stations

• Types of turbines and pumps

• Pump and turbine characteristics, unit power, unit speed, specific

speed

• Dimensional similarity theorems, non-dimensional coefficients,

application to models

• Model studies and operation under varying conditions

 Mode of Delivery
• Blended, both physical and online

• 4 Hour of lectures and tutorials per week

• 1 Laboratory session per semester

Laboratory Work
1. Pelton Wheel laboratory Experiment

The course shall be examined as follows:

1. 2 Hour written Examination at the end of the semester (70%)
2. Continuous Assessment Test, Lab and Assignments (30%)
3. Pass mark 40%

NB: Mobile phones put on silent mode but you are free to step out and answer
very necessary phone calls in physical classes and mics muted unless when
asking or answering questions in online classes.
 References/Reading Materials
• R.S Khurmi, Hydraulics, Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines,
S.Chand, New Delhi, 2008
• Robert W. Fox, Philip J. Pritchard, Alan T. McDonald, Introduction to Fluid
Mechanics 7th Edition, John Wiley, India, 2010
• Er.R.K Bansal, Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines, Revised Ninth
Edition, Laxmi Publications, New Delhi, 2013
• Dr.R.K Rajput, Fluid Mechanics and Hydraulic Machines, 5th Edition,
S.Chand, New Delhi, 2014
• Yunus A. Cengel, John M. Cimbala, Fluid Mechanics: Fundamentals and
Applications 3rd Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2014
• Doulas,J.F (Ed.) (2011). Fluid Mechanics (6th ed). Prentice Hall.ISBN-13:
978-0273717720.
• Batchelor,G.K. (2010). An Introduction to fluid dynamics (1.Cambridge
mathematical ed., 14. print) Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN-13: 978-
0521663960
• Internet sources
• Journals
• Lecture notes
• Any other relevant materials to the course
LESSON 1: VORTEX FLOW
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOME

By the end of this lesson, students are expected to;

• Be able to explain the term vortex flow and name various types.

• Derive equations of forced and free vortex flow.

• Derive an expression for the depth of paraboloid of the liquid surface.

INTENDED LEARNING ACTIVITIES

• Students to recap on concepts of fluid flow properties and equations.

• Name examples of both free and forced vortex flows.

• Derive equations for forced and free vortex flow.

• Demonstrate application of the equations with examples

 VORTEX FLOW

Background theory

There are two types of motion

1. Translation motion which is vector specific, example a car travelling in a straight

line.

2. Rotational motion specified by angle and a center of rotation. This course

focuses on rotational motion of fluid mass.

• A mass of fluid in rotation about a fixed axis is called vortex and the rotary
motion of fluid is called vortex motion. Or

• Vortex motion can simply be explained as spiraling motion of air or liquid around
a center of rotation.

• The rotating fluid particles have velocity in tangential direction.

Vortex Flow…..

• Vortex motion is characterized by curved stream lines flow pattern.

• Centrifugal forces are set up which are counter-balanced by the pressure force
acting in the radial direction.

• The vortex motion is of two types (i) Forced vortex (ii) Free vortex

Forced Vortex Flow

• Forced vortex motion is one in which the fluid mass is made to rotate by means
of some external agencies.

• The external agency is generally the mechanical power which imparts the
constant torque on the fluid mass.

• There is always expenditure of energy.

• The forced vortex motion is also called flywheel vortex or rotational vortex.
 Examples of Forced Vortex Flow
• Rotation of water through the runner of turbine.

• Rotation of liquid inside the impeller of a centrifugal pump.

• Rotation of liquid in a vertical cylinder.

Centrifugal pump
Examples of Forced Vortex Flow ……

Rotating liquid in a vertical cylinder

 Free Vortex Flow
• Free vortex flow is that type of flow in which the fluid mass rotates without any
external torque or energy applied.

• The whole mass rotates either due to fluid pressure itself or the gravity or due
to rotation previously imparted.

• Energy is not expended to any outside source and Bernoulli's equation can be
applied for analysis.

Examples of Free Vortex flow;

 Whirlpool in river.

 Rotary flow observed in wash basin while draining the liquid through the outlet
at bottom.

 A ring of smoke

 Drag from the wing of an aircraft

 Examples of Free Vortex Flow …..
 A tornado

 Dust devil or waterspout

 Hurricanes.
Equation of Motion for Vortex Flow
Equation of Motion for Vortex Flow…….
Equation of Motion for Vortex Flow…….
 Equation of Forced Vortex Flow
• The fluid mass in this type of flow, rotates at constant angular velocity ω.

ω=π2N/60 where N is number of revolutions in radians per minute

• The tangential velocity of any fluid particle is given by v = ωr………..(iv)

Where r = radius of fluid particle from the axis of rotation

ω= v/r= constant………………………………..………(v)

Stationary and rotating cylinders

Fig1: Forced vortex flow
 Equation of Forced Vortex Flow ………
• Substituting the value of v in equation of vortex motion (iii), we get:

p= − ρg z, p = ρω2r r - ρg z

• Consider two points 1 and 2 in a fluid having forced vortex flow (Fig1) and
integrating equation above for point 1 and point 2, we get;

∫ p = ∫ ρω2r r - ∫ ρg z

ρω2
p2-p1= ( 2 - 1 ) - ρg(z2-z1)

ρ
p2-p1= (ω2 2 -ω2 1 ) - ρg(z2-z1), since v1 = ωr1 and v2 = ωr2 then

ρ
p2-p1= ( 2 - 1 ) - ρg(z2-z1) ……………………….(vi)
 Equation of Forced Vortex Flow ………
• When the points 1 and 2 lie on the free surface of the liquid, then p1=p2 and
equation (vi) becomes;

ρ
0= ( 2 - 1 ) - ρg(z2-z1) or

g(z2-z1) = ( ) or z2-z1 = ( )

• When the point 1 lies on the axis of rotation then;

v1 = ωr1 = ω ×0 = 0 the above equation reduces to; z2-z1 =

2
If z2-z1 = z that is when z1=0, z= =ω …………………….(vii)

Thus z varies with the square of r. Hence equation (vii) is an equation of parabola
which means that the free surface of the liquid is a paraboloid.
 Examples
1. A cylindrical tank 0.9 m in diameter and 2 m high open at top is filled with water
to a depth of 1.5 m. It is rotated about its vertical axis at N r.p.m. Determine the
value of N which will raise water level even with the brim.

2. A 0.225m diameter cylinder is 1.5 m long and contains water up to a height of

1.05 m. Estimate the speed at which the cylinder may be rotated about its
vertical axis so that the axial depth becomes zero.

3. A cylinder of 100 mm diameter contains a liquid to a depth of 300 mm. Find the
depth of parabola, which the liquid surface will assume, if the cylinder is rotated
about its vertical axis at 400 r.p.m.
 Equation of Free Vortex Flow

• For free vortex flow vr = constant, C. Therefore v =

• Substituting v in equation (iii) = − of vortex motion, we get

= − , = −
×

Consider two points 1 and 2 in the fluid having radii r1 and r2 respectively from the
central axis, their heights being z1 and z2 from the bottom of the vessel

Integrating the above equation for the points 1 and 2 we get,

∫ =∫ -∫

p2-p1= c2∫ - ∫
 Equation of Free Vortex Flow……
………………

………………

…………………

………………… remember v2 = , v1 =

+ +z1 = + +z2 ……………………………………………………(viii)

Equation (viii) shows that Bernoulli's equation is applicable in the case of free
vortex flow.
 Examples
1. In a free cylindrical vortex flow, at a point in the fluid at a radius of 300 mm and
a height of 150 mm, the velocity and pressure are 15m/s and 120kN/m2
respectively. If the fluid is air having weight density of 0.012 kN/m3, find the
pressure at a radius of 600 mm and at a height of 300 mm.

2. In a free cylindrical vortex of water, the tangential velocity and pressure at a

radius of 125 mm are found to be 10 m/s and 350 kPa respectively. Calculate
the pressure at a radius of 250 mm.

Answers
1. p2= 120.1kN/m2 2. p2= 387.5 kN/m2 = 387.5 kPa
 LESSON 2: MOMENTUM AND FORCES IN FLUID FLOW
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOME

By the end of this lesson, students are expected to;

• Be able to explain impulse momentum equation.

• Apply impulse momentum equation.

• Derive moment of momentum equation.

INTENDED LEARNING ACTIVITIES

• Students to recap on Bernoulli's and continuity equations.

• Name application areas of impulse-momentum equation.

• Derive moment of momentum equation.

• Demonstrate application of the equations with examples.

 MOMENTUM AND FORCES IN FLUID FLOW
• Moving fluids exert forces such as the lift force on an aircraft is exerted by the air
moving over the wing. A jet of water from a hose exerts a force on whatever it hits.
• In fluid mechanics the analysis of motion is performed in the same way as in solid
mechanics - by use of Newton's laws of motion.
• Account is also taken for the special properties of fluids when in motion.

• Net force acting on a fluid mass = change in momentum of flow per unit time in the
direction of force.

∑F=m×a, ∑F=m× , ∑F=m×

∑F= (m×V) rate of change of momentum and this is called momentum

equation
∑F = sum of all the forces on a body of fluid or systems in a given direction.
mV = moment of fluid in a given direction.
 Momentum And Forces In Fluid Flow………
• F and V represent vectors and so the change in momentum must be in the same
direction as of force.
• The momentum equation is a statement of Newton's Second Law and relates the
sum of the forces acting on an element of fluid to its acceleration or rate of
change of momentum.
Newton's 2nd Law can be written:
• The Rate of change of momentum of a body is equal to the resultant force acting
on the body, and takes place in the direction of the force.
• Momentum equation is used in the following types of problems;
i. Pipe bends, reducers, moving vanes and jet propulsion to determine the
resultant force acting on the boundary of flow passages by a stream of fluid as
the same fluid changes its direction, magnitude or both.
ii. Sudden enlargement in a pipe, hydraulic jump to determine the characteristic of
flow when there is an abrupt change of flow section.
 Steady Flow Momentum Equation
• We start by assuming that we have steady flow which is non-uniform flowing in a
stream tube.

A stream tube in three and two-dimensions

• In time t,
the volume of the fluid entering the stream tube = area × distance = A1u1 t
mass entering of the fluid entering stream tube = density × volume = ρ1A1u1 t
momentum of the fluid entering stream tube = mass × velocity = (ρ1A1u1 t) u1
momentum of the fluid leaving stream tube = mass × velocity = (ρ2A2u2 t) u2
 Steady Flow Momentum Equation…….
• According to Newton's Second Law,
the force exerted by the fluid is equal to the rate of change of momentum.
Force = rate of change of momentum
ρ2A2u2 t u2 ρ1A1u1 t u1
∑F = -
t t
ρ2(A2u2 t) u2 ρ1(A1u1 t) u1
∑F = -
t t
= ρ2(Q2)u2 - ρ1(Q1)u1
From continuity of incompressible flow, ρ1=ρ2=ρ and Q1= Q2= Q
F = ρQ[u2 - u1] = m [u2 - u1] This is a one dimensional analysis where the inlet
and outlet velocities are assumed to be in the same direction.
 Steady Flow Momentum Equation…….
• Consider a two dimensional system as in the figure below;

Two dimensional flow in a stream tube

• At the inlet the velocity vector u1 makes an angle θ1 with the x-axis while at the
exit, the velocity vector u2 makes an angle with the x-axis θ2
• Analysis of forces is achieved by resolving the forces in the directions of co-
ordinate axes.
• Resolving u1 and u2 along X-axis and Y- axis, we get;
Velocity components along X-axis: u1cos θ1 and u2cos θ2
 Steady Flow Momentum Equation…….
Velocity components along Y-axis: u1sinθ1 and u2sinθ2
Components of force F along X-axis and Y-axis are;
Fx = Rate of change of momentum in x direction
= Rate of change of mass x change in velocity in x - direction
= m(u2cos θ2 - u1cos θ1)
= ρQ(u2cos θ2 - u1cos θ1)
Fy = Rate of change of momentum in y direction
= Rate of change of mass x change in velocity in y - direction
= m(u2sinθ2 - u1sinθ1)
= ρQ(u2sinθ2 - u1sinθ1)
These dynamic forces are supplemented by the static pressure forces acting over
the inlet and outlet sections, therefore, we have;
Fx = ρQ(u2cos θ2 - u1cos θ1) + p1A1cos θ1 – p2A2cos θ2
Fy = ρQ(u2sinθ2 - u1sinθ1) + p1A1sinθ1 – p2A2sinθ2
 Steady Flow Momentum Equation…….
• We then find the resultant force by combining Fx and Fy vectorially:

• And the angle which the resultant force acts is given by;

• For a three-dimensional (x, y, z) system we then have an extra force to calculate

and resolve in the z-direction. This is considered in exactly the same way.
• In summary we can say:
 Application of Momentum Equation

• Momentum principle is used in finding forces that flowing fluid exert on structures

open to the atmosphere like gates and overflow spillways.

• Other application areas are; force due to the flow of fluid round a pipe bend, force

on a nozzle at the outlet of a pipe etc.

Force due to the flow of fluid round a pipe bend

• Sometimes, a pipeline carrying water changes its direction from its straight path.

• The velocity of water flowing through pipe is also changed due to change in its

direction.

• We compute total force, pressure force, body force and resultant force.
Force due to the flow of fluid round a pipe bend…
Total force
In x- direction In y- direction
FTx = ρQ(u2x - u1x) FTy = ρQ(u2y - u1y)
u1x= u1 u1y = u1sinθ=0
u2x = u2cosθ u2y = u2sinθ
FTx = ρQ(u2cosθ - u1) FTy = ρQu2sinθ

Pressure force
Fp = pressure force at 1 – pressure force at 2
Fpx = p1A1cosθ - p2A2cosθ = p1A1 - p2A2cosθ
Fpy = p1A1sinθ - p2A2sinθ = - p2A2sinθ

Body force
There are no body forces in the x or y directions.
Force due to the flow of fluid round a pipe bend…
Resultant force
FTx = FRx + Fpx + FBx
FTy = FRy + Fpy + FBy
FRx = FTx - Fpx – 0 = ρQ(u2cosθ - u1) - p1A1 + p2A2cosθ
FRy = FTy - Fpy – 0 = ρQu2sinθ + p2A2sinθ
Resultant force and direction

−1
The angle which this force acts at is given by =

The force in the bend is of same magnitude but in opposite direction;

 Force on a nozzle at the outlet of a pipe

• Forces are induced at the nozzle due to fluid contraction at the nozzle and

anything holding the nozzle must be strong enough to withstand these forces

including fireman.

• Resultant force on nozzle = Total force - Pressure force – Body force

• Total force , FT = FTx = ρQ(u2 - u1)

By continuity equation, Q= A1u1 = A2u2 FTx = ρQ2 −

 Force on a nozzle at the outlet of a pipe…..
• Pressure force = Pressure force at section 1 – Pressure force at section 2

• By Bernoulli's equation, z1+ + = z2 + + z1=z2 and =0 (atmospheric

pressure) P1 = − = −

• Body force , body force acting is force due to gravity in y direction but only

forces acting in x-direction are considered therefore body force = 0

• Resultant force on nozzle = Total force – Pressure force – Body force

• FRx = ρQ2 − - − - 0, hence the fireman must be able to resist the

force R = -FRx
 Examples
1. In a 45° bend a rectangular air duct of 1 m2 cross-sectional area is gradually
reduced to 0.5 m2 area. Find the magnitude and direction of force required to
hold the duct in position if the velocity of flow at 1 m2 section is 10 m/s, and
pressure is 30 kN/m2.
Take the specific weight of air as 0.0116 kN/m3.

2. Water enters a reducing pipe horizontally and comes out vertically in the
downward direction. If the inlet velocity is 5 m/s and pressure is 80 kPa (gauge)
and the diameters at the entrance and exit sections are 30 cm and 20 cm
respectively, calculate the components of the reaction acting on the pipe.

Answers
1. 22.17 kN, 28°53’ 2. Fx = 7.42kN, Fy= 4.89 kN
LESSON 3: IMPACT OF FREE JETS
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOME

By the end of this lesson, students are expected to;

• Be able to evaluate hydrodynamic force on the stationary and moving vanes.

INTENDED LEARNING ACTIVITIES

• Students to recap on impulse-momentum equation.

• Apply impulse-momentum equation to vanes in motion and stationary and at

different orientations.

• Demonstrate application of the equations with examples.

 IMPACT OF FREE JETS
• A fluid jet is a stream of fluid issuing from a nozzle with high velocity and

therefore has a high kinetic energy.

• It exerts a force on a surface it hits due to change in momentum.

• The force is called hydrodynamic force which can be evaluated using impulse
momentum principle.

• The following cases of impact of jet will be considered in this lesson for force
exerted by the jet on both stationary and moving plates for;

i. Flat plate held normal to the jet,

ii. Flat plate held inclined to the jet,

iii. A series of vanes,

iv. Curved plate.

Force Exerted on Plate Held Normal to the Jet

Stationary Flat Plate

• The jet strikes the plate at a velocity V m/s assuming the plate is smooth hence

frictional force is neglected. The velocity will be less than V if the friction force is

considered. The force exerted by the jet on the plate;

Force Exerted on Plate Held Normal to the Jet…..

Stationary Flat Plate

F = Rate of change of momentum ( in the direction of force)

= initial momentum – final momentum

= mass of water flowing/s × [ velocity of jet before striking the plate – velocity of

jet after striking the plate]

= ( − 0) a is the cross-sectional area of the jet in m2

F= 2

Since the plate is stationary, therefore the work done on the plate is zero
Force Exerted on Plate Held Normal to the Jet
Moving Flat Plate

• As a result of the impact of the jet let the plate move in the direction of the jet.

Let, V = Absolute velocity of the jet in m/s,

u = Velocity of the plate, as a result of the impact of jet in m/s

a = Cross-sectional area of the jet in m2

Force Exerted on Plate Held Normal to the Jet…
Moving Flat Plate

The relative velocity with which the jet strikes the plate is (V-u)

Mass of water striking the plate per second = ( − )

It is assumed for analysis purposes that the plate is fixed and the jet is moving

with a velocity of (V-u) m/s and the force exerted by the jet is given by;

F= Mass of water striking the plate/s × ( initial velocity with which water strikes –

final velocity)

= ( − ) [( − ) – 0],

= ( − )2
 Force Exerted on Plate Held Normal to the Jet…
Moving Flat Plate
The work done = Force × the distance through which the body moves in the
direction of force

Work done = ( − )2 ×u
 Examples

1. A jet of water 50mm diameter is discharging under a constant head of 70

metres. Find the force exerted by the jet on a fixed plate. Take coefficient

velocity as 0.9.

2. A jet of water 50 mm diameter and moving with a velocity of 26 m/s is striking

normally on a plate. Determine the pressure on the plate, when (a) it is fixed

and (b) it is moving with a velocity of 10 m/s in the direction of the jet.

Also determine the work done per second by the jet.

Answers

1) 2.19 kN, 2) i) 1.33 kN, ii) 0.503 kN, 5.03 kJ

Force Exerted on Flat plate held inclined to the jet

Stationary Inclined Flat Plate

Fn = force perpendicular to the inclined surface,

mass of water striking the plate, , when we apply impulse momentum equation

in the direction normal to the plate, Fn = ( Vsinθ-0)

Fn = 2sinθ
Force Exerted on Flat plate held inclined to the jet..

Stationary Inclined Flat Plate

The normal force is resolved into two components, Fx parallel to the direction of jet

and Fy, normal to the direction of jet.

Fx = Fn sinθ= 2sinθ ×sinθ

Fx = 2sin2θ

Fy = Fncosθ = 2sinθ×cosθ = 2sinθcosθ

Because the plate is stationary, the work done is zero.

Force Exerted on Flat plate held inclined to the jet

Moving Inclined Flat Plate

Let, V = Absolute velocity of the jet in m/s,

u = Velocity of the plate, as a result of the impact of jet in m/s

a = Cross-sectional area of the jet in m2

θ = Angle between jet and the plate

Force Exerted on Flat plate held inclined to the jet..
Moving Inclined Flat Plate
The relative velocity with which the jet strikes the plate is (V-u)

Mass of water striking the plate per second = ( − )

It is assumed for analysis purposes that the plate is fixed and the jet is moving

with a velocity of (V-u) m/s and the force exerted by the jet in the direction normal

to the plate is given by; Fn = ( − ) [( − ) sinθ -0]

Fn = ( − )2 sinθ

Component of the force in the direction of jet,

Fx = Fnsinθ = ( − )2 sinθ×sinθ = ( − )2 sin2θ

Work done = Fx ×u = ( − )2 sin2θ ×u

 Examples
1. A jet of water of 100mm diameter, moving with a velocity of 20 m/s strikes a stationary plate. Find the

force on the plate in the direction of the jet, when

i. The plate is normal to the jet, and

ii. The angle between the jet and plate is 45°

2. A 25 mm diameter jet exerts a force of 1kN in the direction of flow against a flat plate which is held

inclined at an angle 30° with the axis of the stream. Find the rate of flow.

3. A 75 mm diameter jet having a velocity of 30 m/s strikes a flat plate, the normal of which is inclined at

45° to the axis of the jet. Find the normal pressure on the plate;

i. When the plate is stationary

ii. When the plate is moving with a velocity of 15 m/s in the direction of jet, away from the jet.

iii. Also determine the power and efficiency of the jet when the plate is moving

Answers 1). 3.142 kN, 1.57 kN 2). 44.3 litres/s 3) i) 2811.6N, ii0 702.9N, iii) 7.455 kW, 12.5%
Force Exerted by a jet of water on a series of
Vanes

• Force on a single moving flat or curved surface may not be practically feasible.

• In actual practice, a large number of plates are mounted on the circumference

of a wheel at a fixed distance a part as shown in the figure above.

• Each plate appears before the jet successively and the jet exerts force on each

plate which makes the wheel to move at a constant speed.

Force Exerted by a jet of water on a series of
Vanes…
Let, V = Velocity of the jet in m/s,

a = Cross-sectional area of the jet in m2

u = Velocity of vane m/s

Mass of water striking the series of plates per second =

The jet strikes the plate with a velocity = (V-u)

After striking the plate, the jet moves tangential to the plate and the velocity

component in the direction of motion of plate is equal to zero.

Force = Mass of water striking the plate/s × ( initial velocity – final velocity)

= [( − ) – 0], = ( − )
Force Exerted by a jet of water on a series of
Vanes…
Work done by jet = Force × Distance = ( − ) ×u

Kinetic energy of the jet per second = mV2 = ( ) × V2 = V3

( )×u ( )
Efficiency Ƞ= = =
V3 v2

NB: Maximum efficiency will be 50 % and it occurs when u = V/2

Example

1. A jet of water 50 mm in dimeter, moving with a velocity of 15 m/s strikes on a

series of vanes moving with a velocity of 6 m/s. Find

(i) Force exerted by the jet,

(ii) Work done by the jet and

(iii) Efficiency of the jet

Force Exerted on Stationary Curved Plate

Three cases of the stationary curved vane are considered, such as

(i) jet strikes the symmetrical curved vane at the centre,

(ii) jet strikes the symmetrical curved vane at one end tangentially and

(iii) jet strikes the unsymmetrical curved vane at one end tangentially
 When a Jet strikes symmetrical curved plate at
the centre

• The jet strikes the plate at a velocity V m/s assuming the plate is smooth and loss

of energy due to the impact of jet is zero and the velocity of the leaving jet will be

same.

• The velocity at the outlet of the plate can be resolved into two components, one in

the direction opposite to the jet and the other perpendicular to the direction of jet.
 When a Jet strikes symmetrical curved plate at
the Centre….
The component of velocity in the direction of jet = - Vcosθ and component in the

perpendicular direction to the jet = Vsinθ

By applying impulse-momentum equation, Force exerted by the jet in the direction of

jet, Fx = (V-(- Vcosθ), = (V+ Vcosθ),

Fx = 2(1+cosθ)

Fy = (0-Vsinθ), = - 2sinθ , the negative sign indicates that the force is in the

downward direction

The angle of deflection of the jet = (180°-θ)

When a Jet strikes the symmetrical curved vane
at one end tangentially

• The jet strikes the plate at a velocity V m/s assuming the plate is smooth and loss

of energy due to the impact of jet is zero and the velocity of the leaving jet at the

outlet tip of the curved plate will be same.

• Because the curved plate is symmetrical, the angle made by the tangents at the

two ends of the plate will be same.

When a Jet strikes the symmetrical curved vane
at one end tangentially …..

• In this case there will be forces exerted by the fluid jet in the X and Y directions

given by;

Fx = (Vcosθ -(- Vcosθ), = (Vcosθ+Vcosθ),

Fx = 2 2cosθ

• Fy = (Vsinθ -Vsinθ) = 0

• Fy =0
 When a Jet strikes the unsymmetrical curved
vane at one end tangentially

• The jet strikes the plate at a velocity V m/s assuming the plate is smooth and loss

of energy due to the impact of jet is zero and the velocity of the leaving jet at the

outlet tip of the curved plate will be same.

• Because the curved plate is unsymmetrical, the angles made by the tangents at

the two ends of the plate will be different given by θ and ϕ as shown in the figure.
 When a Jet strikes the unsymmetrical curved
vane at one end tangentially……
• The forces exerted by the fluid jet in the X and Y directions are given by;

Fx = (Vcosθ -(- Vcosϕ), = (Vcosθ+Vcosϕ),

Fx = 2(cosθ+cosϕ)

Fy = (Vsinθ -Vsinϕ)

Fy = 2(sinθ -sinϕ)
 Examples
1. A 25 mm diameter jet of water strikes a symmetrical stationary curved vane tangentially at one end and

leaves at the other end with a velocity of 15 m/s. Determine the force exerted by the jet on the plate in the

horizontal and vertical directions if the jet gets deflected through 150° by the vane.

2. A jet of water of diameter 40mm moving with a velocity of 30 m/s strikes a curved fixed symmentrical plate

at the centre. Find the force exerted by the water jet in the direction of the jet if the jet is deflected through

an angle of 120° at the outlet of the curved plate.

3. A jet of water of diameter 75 mm moving with a velocity of 30 m/s strikes a curved fixed plate tangentially

at one end at an angle of 30° to the horizontal. The jet leaves the plate at an angle of 20° to the horizontal.

Find the force exerted by the jet on the plate in the horizontal and vertical direction.

Answers

1) Fx =191.35 N, Fy = 0 (2) 1695.6 N (3) Fx = 7178.2 N, Fy = 628.13 N

Force Exerted on Moving Curved Plate

Three cases of the moving curved vane are considered, such as;

(i) jet striking a single symmetrical moving curved vane at the centre,

(ii) jet striking an unsymmetrical moving curved vane tangentially at the

tip and

(iii) jet striking a series of radial curved vanes.

 A Jet striking a single symmetrical moving
curved vane at the centre

• Students to show how to obtain force exerted by the jet on the curved plate in the

direction of the jet and work done by the jet on the plate per second.

• Also think of how the formula will be when frictional forces are not assumed.
 A Jet striking a single symmetrical moving
curved vane at the centre
Fx = (V-u)2(1+cosθ)

Fy = (0-(V-u)sinθ), = - (V-u)sinθ

Work done on the vane per second = (V-u)2(1+cosθ)×u

×(1+cosθ )×u (1+cosθ )

Efficiency, Ƞ = = =
V3 v3

When there is any energy loss, then work done is given by,

Fx = (V-u)2(1+kcosθ)

where k is coefficient of friction.

 Example
1. A jet of water with diameter 100 mm strikes a curved vane at its centre with a velocity of 25

m/s. The curved vane is moving with a velocity of 5 m/s in the direction of the jet. The jet is

deflected through an angle of 160°. Assume that the plate is smooth. Calculate

i. the force exerted on the vane in the direction of jet,

ii. work done per second by the jet on the vane,

iii. power of the jet,

iv. efficiency of the jet and

v. Also calculate the force exerted on the vane in the direction of jet whose coefficient of

friction is 0.9.

Answers

i) Fx =6093.74 N, (ii) 30468.7 Nm/s (iii) 30.4687 kW, (iv) 49.66% (v) 5798.52 N
jet striking an unsymmetrical moving curved vane
tangentially at the tip
The figure shows a jet of water striking a moving unsymmetrical curved vane
tangentially at one of its tips and leaving at the other as shown in the figure above.

The vane is moving in x-direction and energy loss assumed to be zero.

jet striking an unsymmetrical moving curved vane
tangentially at the tip…
• Relative velocities with which the jet strikes and leaves the vane, Vr1 and Vr2
maybe obtained by drawing the velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet
respectively. From the diagram, let

V1,V2 = Absolute velocities of the jet at the inlet and outlet respectively,

u1,u2 = Peripheral velocities of the vane at the inlet and outlet respectively,

Vr1,Vr2 = Relative velocities at the inlet and outlet respectively,

Vf1,Vf2 = Velocities of the flow at the inlet and outlet respectively,

Vw1,Vw2 = Velocities of the whirl at the inlet and outlet respectively,

θ,ϕ = Tip angles at the inlet and outlet respectively,

, = Angles which the absolute velocities make at the inlet and outlet respectively
jet striking an unsymmetrical moving curved vane
tangentially at the tip…
Points to note;

• All angles are measured with the direction of motion of vane.

• Velocity of whirl is the component of absolute velocity in the direction of motion.

• Velocity of flow is the component of the absolute velocity normal to the direction

of motion.

• Triangles ABD and EGH are called inlet and outlet velocity triangles.

• Students to check from the reference book on how to draw the velocity triangles.
jet striking an unsymmetrical moving curved vane
tangentially at the tip…
• If the vane is smooth then the velocity in the direction of motion at inlet and outlet

will be equal then u1u2=u and Vr1=Vr2, velocity in the direction of motion.

Mass of water striking the vane per second = ρaVr1

Force exerted in the direction of motion, Fx= ρaVr1[(Vr1cosθ-(-Vr2cosϕ)]

But, Vr1cosθ = (Vw1-u1), and Vr2cosϕ = (u2+ Vw2)

Fx= ρaVr1[(Vw1-u1) – {-(u2+ Vw2)}]

= ρaVr1[Vw1-u1+u2+ Vw2] but u1= u2 Fx = ρaVr1(Vw1+ Vw2)

jet striking an unsymmetrical moving curved vane
tangentially at the tip…
Fx = ρaVr1(Vw1+ Vw2) this is true only when is an acute angle, when = 90°, Vw2 = 0

Fx = ρaVr1(Vw1)

If is an obtuse angle, the expression Fx = ρaVr1(Vw1 - Vw2)

Hence Fx = ρaVr1(Vw1±Vw2)

Work done per second by the jet on the vane

= Fx ×u = ρaVr1(Vw1±Vw2)×u

ρaVr1(Vw1±Vw2)×u
Work done per second per unit weight of fluid striking =

ρaVr1(Vw1±Vw2)×u V2
= = (Vw1±Vw2)×u Efficiency = 1- 2
ρaVr1× V1
 Example
1. A jet of water having a velocity of 25 m/s strikes a smooth curved vane which is

moving with a velocity of 5 m/s. The jet makes an angle of 15° with the direction of

motion of vane at inlet and leaves at an angle of 120° to the direction of motion of

the vane at outlet. Find,

i. the vane angle, so that water enters and leaves the vane without shock,

ii. work done per second per unit weight of water striking the vane per second and

iii. work done per second per unit of mass of water striking the vane per second and

iv. efficiency.

Answers

i) 18.67°, 47.63° (ii) 16.702 Nm/N (iii) 163.85 Nm/kg (iv) 49.66%
 A Jet striking a series of radial curved vanes at
the centre
• The figure shows a series of radial curved vanes mounted on a wheel with a jet of
water striking the vanes that makes the wheel to start rotating at a constant
angular speed.
A Jet striking a series of symmetrical moving
curved vanes at the centre …
• From the diagram, let N be the speed of wheel in rpm,

ω = angular speed of the wheel, = (2πN)/60 and

R1,R2 = Radii of the wheel at the inlet and outlet of the vane respectively

• Blade velocities at the inlet and outlet tips of the vane would be different because

they are situated radially round the wheel,

u1 = ωR1 and u2 = ωR1

• The mass of water striking per second for a series of vanes is equal to the mass of

water coming out from the nozzle per second, i.e., (Mass/Second) = ρaV1

where V1 = velocity of jet

A Jet striking a series of symmetrical moving
curved vanes at the centre …
momentum of water striking the vanes (tangentially) per second at inlet

= (ρaV1)× Vw1

Where Vw1= (V1cos ) = component of V1 in the tangential direction

Similarly, momentum of water per second at outlet is given by;

= (ρaV1)× (-Vw2) = -ρaV1× Vw2

Where Vw2= (V2cos ) = component of V2 in the tangential direction, V2 is in the

opposite direction hence the negative sign.

A Jet striking a series of symmetrical moving
curved vanes at the centre …
• Angular momentum per second at inlet = momentum at inlet × radius at inlet

= (ρaV1)× Vw1× R1 at outlet = -ρaV1× Vw2 × R2

Torque exerted by water on the wheel,

T = Rate of change of angular momentum,

= initial angular momentum per second – final angular momentum per second

= (ρaV1)× Vw1× R1 - {- (ρaV1× Vw2 × R2)}

= ρaV1(Vw1× R1 + Vw2 × R2)

Work done per second on the wheel = T×ω

= ρaV1(Vw1× R1 + Vw2 × R2)× ω

A Jet striking a series of symmetrical moving
curved vanes at the centre …
Work done per second on the wheel = T×ω

= ρaV1(Vw1× R1 + Vw2 × R2)× ω

= ρaV1(Vw1× ω R1 + Vw2 × ω R2)

= ρaV1(Vw1u1+ Vw2 u2)

If angle β is obtuse, then work done per second is given by;

= ρaV1(Vw1u1- Vw2 u2)

The general expression for the work done on the wheel per second is given by;

= ρaV1(Vw1u1± Vw2 u2)

A Jet striking a series of symmetrical moving
curved vanes at the centre …
For radial discharge at the outlet tip of the vane β = 90° and Vw2 = 0 work done on the

wheel per second is given by;

= ρaV1(Vw1u1)

Efficiency of the radial curved, Ƞ =

ρaV1(Vw1u1± Vw2 u2) 2(Vw1u1± Vw2 u2)

= =
(ρaV1)×V1 V1
 Example
1. A jet of water with diameter 100 mm having a velocity of 25 m/s strikes a series of curved

vanes mounted on a wheel which is rotating at 200 rpm. The jet makes an angle of 25° with

the tangent to wheel at the inlet and leaves the wheel with a velocity of 5 m/s at an angle of

120° to the tangent to the wheel at outlet. Water is flowing from outward in a radial direction.

The outer and inner radii of the wheel are 0.5 m and 0.25 m, respectively. Determine

(i) the vane angle at inlet and outlet,

(ii) work done per second,

(iii) work done per second per kg of water and

(iv) efficiency of the wheel

Answers

i) 40.92°, 29.24° (ii) 49163.197 Nm/s(iii) 250.385 Nm/kg (iv) 80.12%

LESSON 4: HYDRAULIC MACHINES
INTENDED LEARNING OUTCOME

By the end of this lesson, students are expected to;

• Be able to classify and explain the working of hydraulic turbines under

i. Pelton Turbine

ii. Francis Turbine

iii. Kaplan Turbine

INTENDED LEARNING ACTIVITIES

• Students to recap on impact of jet on different surfaces.

• Classify hydraulic turbines.

• Demonstrate with examples problems related to different turbines.

• Derive equation of specific speed.

 Hydraulic Machines

• Hydraulic machines are defined as machines which convert either hydraulic

energy into mechanical energy such as turbines or mechanical energy into

hydraulic energy such as pumps.

• The study of hydraulic machines in this section consists of the study of turbines

and pumps.

• Main turbines considered are Pelton turbine, Francis turbine and Kaplan

turbine.

• Pumps considered are centrifugal pumps and reciprocating pumps.

 Hydraulic Turbines

• Hydraulic turbines are machines which convert hydraulic energy into

mechanical energy in the form of rotation of runner which is used in running

electric generator directly coupled to the shaft of the turbine.

• Mechanical energy is converted into electrical energy by an electric generator.

• Electric power generated is transmitted to over long distances by means of

transmission lines and transmission towers.

• Electric power obtained from the hydraulic energy is known as hydroelectric

power.
General layout of a hydroelectric power plant

h
Definitions of Heads

Gross Head

• Gross head is the difference between the head race level and the tail race level
when no water is flowing. It is denoted by Hg.

Net or effective Head

• It is the head available at the inlet of the turbine and it is also known as effective
head. As water flows from the head race to the turbine inlet, some head loss
occurs mainly due to friction between water and the penstocks. It is denoted by

H= Hg- hf -h = Hg- -h
×

Where, f = coefficient of friction, L = length of penstock, V = velocity of flow in

penstock, D = diameter of penstock , g = gravitational acceleration and h = height of
nozzle above the tail race.
Definitions of Efficiencies

Hydraulic Efficiency

• Ƞh: It is defined as the ratio of power developed by the turbine runner (R.P) to the
power supplied by the water jet at the inlet of the turbine (W.P). It represents the
effectiveness with which energy is transferred from the water to the runner.

.
Mathematically, Ƞh = = .

R.P = ± kW for Pelton Turbine

±
= kW for radial Turbine

W.P = kW or gQH kW when fluid is water and ρ = 1000kg/m3

Definitions of Efficiencies….

• Where; Q = volume of water/s

Vwl, Vw2 are velocities of whirl at inlet and outlet respectively

u = Tangential velocity of vane

u1, u2 = Tangential velocity of radial vane at inlet and outlet respectively,

H = Net head on the turbine

Mechanical Efficiency

Ƞm: is defined as the ratio of the power available at the turbine shaft (S.P.) to the
power developed by the runner (R.P.). These power differ due to mechanical losses
.
coming from bearing friction, Mathematically, Ƞm = =
.
Definitions of Efficiencies……..
Volumetric Efficiency

• Ƞv : is defined as the ratio of the volume of the water actually striking the runner
to the volume of water supplied to the turbine by the jet.

Mathematically, Ƞv = =

Overall Efficiency

• Ƞo : It is defined as the ratio of power available at the turbine shaft (S.P.) to the
power available from the water jet at the turbine inlet (W.P.).

.
Mathematically, Ƞo = = = .
Overall Efficiency……..
• The individual efficiencies may be combined to give,

Ƞo = Ƞ h × Ƞm × Ƞv

• If Ƞg is the efficiency of the generator,

then plant efficiency is given by Ƞp = Ƞg× Ƞo

and power output of hydro power plant Po is given by;

Po = Ƞp× × ×

= ȠgȠo
Classification of Hydraulic Turbines

Hydraulic turbines are classified as follows:

• According to the type of energy available at the inlet.

(i) Impulse turbine: At the inlet of the turbine, water has only kinetic energy. For example: Pelton turbine.

(ii) Reaction turbine: At the inlet of the turbine, water has both kinetic energy and pressure energy. For

example: Francis turbine, propeller and Kaplan turbines.

• According to the direction of flow through the runner.

(i) Tangential flow turbine: Water flows along the tangent to the axis of rotation of the runner. For

example: Pelton wheel.

(ii) Radial flow turbine: Water flows in the radial direction through the runner either inward or outward.

(a) Inward radial flow turbine: Water enters at the outer circumference and flows inwards radially towards

the centre of the runner. For example: Old Francis turbine and Thomson turbine.
Classification of Hydraulic Turbines…..

(b) Outward radial flow turbine: Water enters at the centre and flows radially

towards the outer periphery of the runner. For example: Fourneyron turbine.

(iii) Axial flow turbine: Water flows through the runner along the direction parallel to

the axis of rotation of the runner. For example: Propeller turbine, Kaplan turbine

and Jonval turbine.

(iv) Mixed flow turbine: Water enters the runner at the outer periphery in the radial

direction and leaves it at the centre in the direction parallel to the axis of rotation of

the runner. For example: Modern Francis turbine.

Classification of Hydraulic Turbines…..
(b) Outward radial flow turbine: Water enters at the centre and flows radially towards the outer periphery of the runner.

For example: Fourneyron turbine.

(iii) Axial flow turbine: Water flows through the runner along the direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the runner. For

example: Propeller turbine, Kaplan turbine and Jonval turbine.

(iv) Mixed flow turbine: Water enters the runner at the outer periphery in the radial direction and leaves it at the centre in the

direction parallel to the axis of rotation of the runner. For example: Modern Francis turbine.

• According to the head available at the inlet of turbine.

(i) High head turbine: High head turbines are capable of working under very high heads usually more than 250 m. For

example: Pelton turbine and it requires relatively less quantity of water only.

(ii) Medium head turbine: These turbines are capable of working under medium heads ranging from 60 m to 250 m. For

example: Modern Francis turbine and it requires relatively large quantity of water.

(iii) Low head turbine: These turbines are capable of working under heads less than 60 m. For example: Kaplan and

propeller turbines and it requires large quantity of water

Classification of Hydraulic Turbines…..
According to the specific speed of the turbine.

Specific speed is the speed of a geometrically similar turbine which would develop unit power when
working under unit head. It is denoted by Ns and it is given by the following expression

Ns= /

Here, N is the normal working speed in rpm, P is the power output of the turbine in kW and H is the net
head in metres.

Based on the specific speed of the turbines, the following classification is made.

(i) Low specific speed turbine: Specific speed of these turbines varies from 8.5 to 50. If the specific
speed of turbines varies from 8.5 to 30, then it will be Pelton wheel with single jet and if it varies from
30 to 50, then it will be Pelton wheel with double jet.

(ii) Medium specific speed turbine: Specific speed of these turbines varies from 50 to 255. For
example: Francis turbine.

(iii) High specific speed turbine: Specific speed of these turbines varies from 255 to 860. For example:
Kaplan and propeller turbines
Classification of Hydraulic Turbines…..
• According to the name of the originator.

(i) Pelton turbine: It is named after Lester A. Pelton, an American engineer. It is the only impulse type of

turbine which is commonly used for high head and low discharge.

(ii) Francis turbine: It is named in the honour of James B. Francis, an American engineer, who developed

an inward radial flow turbine but later on it was modified. The modern Francis turbine is a mixed flow

reaction turbine which is used for medium head and medium discharge.

(iii) Kaplan turbine: It is named after the Austrian engineer V. Kaplan. It is an axial flow reaction turbine that

is used for low heads. It requires large quantity of water to produce large amount of power

• According to the disposition of the turbine shaft.

The turbines may be disposed with either vertical or horizontal shafts.

Vertical disposition of shafts is commonly used for turbines. Pelton wheel is an example of horizontal shaft,

whereas Kaplan turbine is a vertical shaft turbine.

Classification of Hydraulic Turbines…..
• According to the name of the originator.

(i) Pelton turbine: It is named after Lester A. Pelton, an American engineer. It is the only impulse type of

turbine which is commonly used for high head and low discharge.

(ii) Francis turbine: It is named in the honour of James B. Francis, an American engineer, who developed

an inward radial flow turbine but later on it was modified. The modern Francis turbine is a mixed flow

reaction turbine which is used for medium head and medium discharge.

(iii) Kaplan turbine: It is named after the Austrian engineer V. Kaplan. It is an axial flow reaction turbine that

is used for low heads. It requires large quantity of water to produce large amount of power

• According to the disposition of the turbine shaft.

The turbines may be disposed with either vertical or horizontal shafts.

Vertical disposition of shafts is commonly used for turbines. Pelton wheel is an example of horizontal shaft,

whereas Kaplan turbine is a vertical shaft turbine.

Classification of Hydraulic Turbines

Pelton turbine – High head, tangential flow impulse turbine and low
specific speed.

Francis turbine – Medium head, inward radial flow or mixed flow reaction
turbine with medium specific speed.

Kaplan turbine - Low head axial flow reaction turbine with high specific
speed.
Impulse Turbine – Pelton Turbine

• Available hydraulic energy is converted into kinetic energy by passing through a nozzle fitted at the end of
the penstock.
• High velocity jet of water coming out from the nozzle strikes a series of suitably shaped vanes mounted on
the periphery of the runner (or wheel).
• The resulting change in momentum causes the rotation of the vanes and the runner.
• The runner revolves freely in air and thus, mechanical energy is obtained at the turbine shaft.
• The water coming out of the nozzle operates under atmospheric pressure throughout its action on the
runner and its subsequent flow to the tail race.
 Work done for Pelton Wheel
• The jet of water from the nozzle strikes the bucket at the splitter which splits up
the jet into two parts. The parts of the jet glide over the inner surfaces and come
out at the outer edge. The splitter is the inlet tip and the outer edge of the bucket
is the outer tip of the bucket.
Work done for Pelton Wheel….
Work done for Pelton Wheel….
Work done for Pelton Wheel….
Design of Pelton Wheel
The following points should be considered while designing a Pelton turbine.
1.Number of jets: It is obtained by dividing the total water flow rate through the

turbine (Q) by the water flow rate through a single jet (q) denoted by n = ,

a number of jets may be employed for providing more power with the same turbine.
Such turbines are called multi-jet Pelton wheel.
2. Jet ratio: It is defined as the ratio of pitch diameter (D) of the Pelton wheel to the

jet diameter (d). It is denoted by m =

For maximum efficiency, the jet ratio varies from 11 to 14 but in practice for most of
the cases it is taken as 12.

3. Angle of deflection of the jet. The angle of deflection of the jet through the

buckets is taken as 165° if no angle of deflection is given.

Design of Pelton Wheel………

4. Number of buckets: The number of buckets for a Pelton turbine should be such

that no water escapes without striking the buckets so that volumetric efficiency is

close to unity. For determining the number of buckets, Taygun empirical formula is

widely used and it is given by the following expression. Z = 15 + = 15 + 0.5m

Here, Z = number of buckets, D = pitch diameter of the Pelton wheel, d = jet diameter

and m = jet ratio = (D/d).

5.Size of buckets: Depth, width, and length of the bucket are expressed in terms of

jet diameter as, Depth of bucket (T) varies from 0.8 d to 1.2 d but in general it is

taken as 1.2 d. Width of bucket (B) varies from 4 d to 5 d but in general it is taken as

5 d. Length of bucket (L) varies from 2.4 d to 3.2 d

Design of Pelton Wheel……..

6. Velocity of jet. The velocity of jet at inlet is given by, V1 = Cv 2

Where, Cv = Co-efficient of velocity (= 0·98 or 0·99), and H = Net head on turbine.

7. Mean diameter of the wheel (D). The mean diameter or pitch diameter D of the
Pelton wheel is given by, u = πDN/60 or D = 60u/πN

8. Speed ratio: It is defined as the ratio of peripheral (linear) velocity of buckets to

the theoretical (spouting) velocity of the jet. The value of speed ratio varies from 0.43

to 0.47. It is denoted by Ku. Speed ratio is mathematically given by, Ku=

Where, H = net head and u = πDN/60.

9. Velocity of wheel. The velocity of wheel (u) is given by, u = Ku 2

where, Ku = Speed ratio. It varies from 0.43 to 0.48.
Exercise
1. A Pelton wheel is having a mean bucket diameter of 0.9 m and is running at 900 rpm. The net head on the Pelton wheel is

600 m. If the side clearance angle is 15° and discharge is 0.09 m3/s, then find

i) power available at the nozzle and

(ii) hydraulic efficiency of the turbine. Take coefficient of velocity as 0.98

2. The penstock supplies water from a reservoir to the Pelton wheel with a gross head of 525 m and head above tail race to

turbine is 10m. One third of the gross head is lost in friction in the penstock. The rate of flow through the nozzle fitted at the end

of the penstock is 1.9 m3/s. The angle of deflection of the jet is 165°. Determine the power given by the water to the runner and

the hydraulic efficiency of the Pelton wheel. Take speed ratio as 0.46 and the coefficient of velocity as 0.99.

3. Design a Pelton wheel working under an effective head of 70 m. It develops 100 kW shaft power when it runs at 220 rpm.

Assume the speed ratio as 0.45, coefficient of velocity as 0.98 and overall efficiency as 85%

Answers
1 i) 529.74 kW ii) 94.27% (2) 6075.05 kW, 97.8%
(3). D=1.448 m d=0.0775 m or 77.5 mm m = D/d = 1. 448 /0. 0775 = 18. 684 B= 5d = 5×77.5 =387.5 mm T=1.2d =1.2×77.5 = 93 mm
L =3.2d =3 2× 77.5 = 248 mm
Z = 15+ 0.5m = 15+ 0.5× 18.684= 24.342 ≈ 25
Worked Examples from Reference book

•Students to go through worked examples in the provided reference book.

•Do and submit the unsolved problems number 1 – 14 in pages 173 – 174

•Submission is online latest 29th March 11 AM.

Radial Flow Reaction Turbines
• In radial flow turbines, water flows in a radial direction either from outwards

to inwards ( inward radial flow turbines) or from inwards to outwards for

(outward radial flow turbines).

• In reaction turbines, water from the penstock at the inlet of the turbine

posses both pressure energy as well as kinetic energy. Part of pressure

energy goes on changing to kinetic energy as water flows through the

runner.

• The pressure at the inlet to the runner is higher than the pressure at the

outlet and the runner of a reaction turbine is completely enclosed in an air-

tight casing which completely remains full of water throughout the operation

of the turbine.
Main Parts of Radial Flow Reaction Turbines

• Spiral casing: The water from the penstock is supplied to the spiral casing of

the turbine. It surrounds the runner of the turbine. It is of spiral shape in which

the area decreases along the flow direction.

• Guide mechanism: It consists of a number of stationary guide vanes fixed in

the guide wheel around the runner. The guide vanes allow the water to enter

into the moving vanes of the runner without shock at the inlet.

• Runner: It is a circular wheel in which a series of smooth radial vanes are

fitted. It is mounted on the turbine shaft.

• Draft tube: Gradually expanding tube that discharges water passing through

the runner to the tail race.

• An example of radial flow turbine is Francis turbine.

Radial Flow Reaction Turbines - Francis Turbine
Axial Flow Reaction Turbines – Propeller and Kaplan
Turbine

• The propeller and Kaplan turbines are the important types of axial flow

reaction turbines.

• Due to the highest specific speed (up to 860), these turbines are suitable for

low heads (up to 30 m) and large flow of water.

• In these turbines, water flows parallel to the axis of the rotation of the shaft.

• The shaft of axial flow turbine is vertical.

Axial Flow Reaction Turbines – Propeller and Kaplan
Turbine …

NB: Students to read about the working proportions of Francis, Propeller and Kaplan
turbines and their differences.
 Performances of Hydraulic Turbines
• Turbines are designed for specific operating conditions known as design

conditions where they produce maximum efficiency while operating.

• However, turbines are required to work under varying conditions of head,

speed, power output and gate openings.

• The variations involved in the operating conditions of a turbine are as follows;

(i) vary power output by the movements of the wicket gates or the spear while the

head and speed remains constant,

(ii) vary the head and power output of the turbine by adjusting the speed to

maintain the same efficiency while the gate opening remains constant,
 Performances of Hydraulic Turbines…..
(iii) vary the head and speed which generally happens in low head units and

(iv) vary the speed by adjusting the load on the turbine, while the head and gate

opening remains constant.

• Comparison of performance and behaviour between the turbines of the same

type operating under varying conditions, the results are presented in terms of

unit quantities.

• The exact behaviour of the turbines operating under varying conditions can be

determined by performing various tests either on the prototypes or on their

small scale models.

 Unit Quantities

• To predict the behaviour of a turbine and to establish a comparison between the

performances of the turbines of the same type but of different sizes, the results

are expressed in terms of unit quantities.

• The unit quantities are obtained when the head on the turbine is reduced to

unity.

• For obtaining unit quantities, the efficiency of the turbine is assumed as constant,

which is possible when the velocity triangles under working head and unit head

are geometrically similar so that the water enters the turbine without shock.

• The important unit quantities are unit speed, unit power and unit discharge.
 Unit Speed

• It is defined as the speed of the turbine working under unit head.

• It is denoted by Nu. N u=

Where,

H = Head under which turbine is working, in metres,

N = Speed of turbine,
 Unit Discharge

• It is defined as the discharge passing through a turbine which is working under a

unit head.

• It is denoted by Qu Qu =

Where,

H = Head under which turbine is working, in metres,

Q = Discharge passing through the turbine.

 Unit Power

• It is defined as the power developed by a turbine working under a unit head.

• It is denoted by Pu. Pu = /

Where,

H = Head under which turbine is working, in metres,

P = the power developed by the turbine.

 Turbine Characteristic Curves

• Model turbines are tested under different conditions of head, discharge, speed,

power, efficiency.

• Results are plotted in the form of curves and are known as performance

characteristic curves. The curves are plotted in terms of unit quantities.

• Among the six given parameters, H, Q and N are termed as independent

parameters.

• Out of the three independent parameters (H, Q and N), one of the parameters

(assume H) is kept constant and the variations of the remaining parameters with

respect to any one of the two independent parameters (assume Q and N) are

plotted and thus, various characteristic curves can be obtained.

 Types of Turbine Characteristic Curves
• The important characteristic curves of a turbine are;

Constant head characteristic curves (or main characteristic curves),

The turbines are tested at constant head. Here, Q and P are plotted against

varying N, for a fixed gate opening.

Constant speed characteristic curves (or operating characteristic curves)

The turbines are tested at constant speed. Here, P is measured against

varying Q. H remains constant but it may vary.

Constant efficiency curves (or Muschel curves).

Muschel curves are obtained from ηo versus Nu and Qu or Pu versus Nu curves

plotted at different gate openings.

Constant head characteristic curves (or main
characteristic curves)

• Curves are drawn by conducting experiment at constant head.

• Head and gate openings are kept constant and speed is varied by varying

load on the turbine.

• For each value of speed, corresponding values of power and discharge are

obtained.
Constant head characteristic curves (or main
characteristic curves)

For Pelton turbine

Constant head characteristic curves (or main
characteristic curves)……
Operating Characteristic Curves/ Const. Speed curves)

• Tests are performed at constant speed.

• Const. speed is attained by regulating the gate opening thereby varying the

discharge flowing through the turbine as the load varies.

• Head may or may not kept constant

Operating Characteristic Curves/ Const. Speed curves)
Constant Efficiency curves

• A horizontal line is drawn for a given value of efficiency (assume 0.2) which

intersects ηo versus Nu curves for different gate openings.

• Thus, two speeds for one value of efficiency are obtained from the points of

intersection.

•These values of speeds are then transferred to the main curve Qu versus Nu for

the corresponding gate openings.

•The points having the same efficiency are joined by a smooth curve to get a

constant efficiency curve .

•This procedure is repeated for different gate openings and thus, other constant

efficiency curves are obtained.

Constant Efficiency curves
Selection of Turbines
The following factors should be considered while selecting the right type of

hydraulic turbine.

1. Specific speed: a turbine with highest permissible specific speed should be

chosen.

2. Rotational speed: High rotational speed results in smaller size of the turbine

and the generator. Thus, the overall cost of the plant reduces.

3. Head: each type of turbine has a range of head which is suitable for its

operation.

4. Part load operation: The load at which a turbine provides maximum efficiency

is called full load. Any load that is above is called overload and below that is

called part load. The turbines are required to work under variable load conditions.
Selection of Turbines….

5. Disposition of turbine shaft: Generally, vertical shaft arrangement is

preferable for large sized reaction turbine which is almost universally adopted. In

case of a large sized impulse turbine, horizontal shaft arrangement is employed.

6. Overall cost: The overall cost which includes the initial cost and the running

cost should also be considered while selecting a turbine. The turbine should be

designed to generate the power with minimum cost.

7. Cavitation: The alternate formation and collapse of vapour bubbles in a

flowing fluid due to local fall in fluid pressure is called cavitation. It may cause

severe damage to the surface leading to failure by fatigue. A turbine should be

installed closer to the tail race with a minimum cost of excavation for the draft

tube.
 Hydraulic Pumps

• Hydraulic machines either take energy from water and convert it into mechanical

energy or vice versa.

• Machines which take energy from a fluid are called turbines and machines which

give energy to a fluid are called pumps.

• Pumps are mechanical devices which convert mechanical energy into hydraulic

energy in the form of pressure energy.

• Pumps are power absorbing devices which are used to increase the pressure

energy of a liquid and it is subsequently converted into potential energy as the

liquid is raised from a lower level to a higher level.

 Hydraulic Pumps…….
• The basic difference between a turbine and a pump is that in the turbine, flow
takes place from the high pressure side to the low pressure side, whereas in pump
flow takes place from the low pressure towards the higher pressure.

• Pumps are broadly classified into two categories namely;

i. Rotodynamic pumps (or dynamic pressure pumps) and

 Centrifugal flow pumps:

 Axial flow pumps:

 Mixed flow pumps

ii. Positive displacement pumps.

 Reciprocating pumps

 Rotary positive displacement pumps

Why should Civil Engineers study pumps?
Why should Civil Engineers study pumps?

• Since civil engineers are not involved in the manufacture of pumps, but are simply

users of them, there are several reasons why it is useful for them to have some

idea of how pumps work and the different types of pumps available, some of these

reasons are;-

i. matching pumps to pipelines i.e. which is the most suitable size and type of

pump for any given pipeline

ii. Selection of suitable pumps for appropriate tasks.

iii. to understand the relationship between head and flow in a pump

iv. to determine the power requirements of pumps

 Centrifugal Flow Pumps

• The radial flow type pumps are commonly called centrifugal pumps .

• Flow in centrifugal pumps is in the radial outward direction.

• It works on the principle of forced vortex flow where the rise in pressure head of

rotating liquid takes place and due to high pressure head, the liquid can be lifted to

a high level.

• Main Parts of a Centrifugal Pump

• A centrifugal pump consists of the following main components:

1. Impeller 2. Casing 3. Suction pipe 4. Delivery pipe.

Centrifugal Flow Pumps….
Head of a Centrifugal Pump

• The head of a centrifugal pump are expressed in the following ways.

1. Suction head: It is the vertical height of the centre line of the pump shaft above

the water surface in the sump from which water is being lifted. It is also known as

static suction lift and it is denoted by hs .

2. Delivery head: It is the vertical height of the water surface in the tank to which the

water is delivered above the centre line of the pump shaft .It is also known as static

delivery lift and it is denoted by hd.

 Head of a Centrifugal Pump…..
3. Static head: It is the vertical distance between the water surface in the sump and

the tank to which the water is being delivered by the pump. Thus, static head is the

sum of suction head and delivery head.

It is denoted by Hs and it is given by the expression, Hs = hs+hd

4. Manometric head: Manometric head (Hm) is the head against which a centrifugal

pump has to work. It is measured across the pump inlet and outlet flanges.

If there are no energy losses in the pump (i.e., in the impeller and casing), then

manometric head will be equal to the energy given to water by the impeller, i.e.

Hm=He.
 Head of a Centrifugal Pump…..

Thus, the expression for manometric head is given as. Hm=

If the loss of head (hf ) in the impeller and casing of the pump are considered, then

we get the expression. Hm= - hf

The manometric head may also be given by the following expressions.

Hm = hs+hd+hfd+hfs+

Where hfd is friction head loss in delivery pipe, hfs is friction head loss in suction
pipe and Vd is flow velocity of water in the delivery pipe. Vd can be assumed to be
too small hence can be neglected then the expression becomes;

Hm = hs+hd+hfd+hfs
 Head of a Centrifugal Pump…..
• Hm = Total head at the outlet of the pump - Total head at the inlet of the pump

+ +z2 - + +z1

Where, = Pressure head at outlet of pump = hd,

= Velocity head in the delivery pipe =

z2 = vertical height of the pump outlet from the datum line

+ +z1 = corresponding values at the inlet of the pump,( = hs, and z1

respectively)
Velocity triangles and work done by centrifugal pump
• The expression for work done by the impeller in water is obtained by drawing
velocity triangles at the inlet and outlet of the impeller in the same way as for a
turbine.

• For drawing the velocity triangles, the same notations are used as that of turbines
Velocity triangles and work done by centrifugal pump…
• Let;

N = speed of the impeller in r.p.m

D1 and D2 be the diameters of impeller at the inlet and outlet, respectively,

u1 and u2 be the tangential velocities of impeller at the inlet and outlet, respectively,
where u1= πD1N/60 and u2= πD2N/60

V1 and V2 be the absolute velocities of the water at the inlet and outlet, respectively,

Vr1 and Vr2 be the relative velocities of the water at the inlet and outlet, respectively,

Vw1 and Vw2 be the velocities of whirl at the inlet and outlet, respectively,

Vf1 and Vf2 be the velocities of flow at the inlet and outlet, respectively,
Velocity triangles and work done by centrifugal pump….
α and β be the angles made by absolute velocities at the inlet and outlet,
respectively,

θ and ϕ be the vane angles at the inlet and outlet, respectively

• Water is assumed to enters impeller radially for the best efficiency of the pump
meaning the whirl component Vw1 is equal to zero and the flow component Vf1
equals the absolute velocity V1.

In other words, α = 90° , Vw1 = 0 and V1= Vf1

• Work done by impeller per unit weight of water is given by the expression,

w= Nm/N
 Examples
1. The external and internal diameters of the impeller of a centrifugal pump are 0.4 m and 0.2 m,
respectively. The centrifugal pump runs at 1200 rpm and its vanes at the exit are set back at an angle of
25°. If a constant radial flow through the impeller is maintained at 2.5 m/s, then determine

(i) the inlet vane angle,

(ii) angle made by absolute velocity at the outlet and

(iii) work done by the impeller per unit weight of water.

2. The internal and external diameters of the impeller of a centrifugal pump are 200 mm and 400mm
respectively. The pump is running at 1200 r.p.m. The vane angles of the impeller at the inlet and outlet are 20°
and 30° respectively. The water enters the impeller radially and the velocity of flow is constant. Determine the
work done by the impeller per unit weight of water.

3. A centrifugal pump has external and internal impeller diameters as 600 mm 300 mm respectively. The vane
angle at inlet and outlet are 30° and 45° respectively. If the water enters the impeller at 2.5m/s, find

(a) speed of the impeller in r.p.m

(b) work done per kN of water

Answers

1.)i.11.25° ii. 7.2° iii. 50.644 Nm/N 2.) 44.1Nm/N 3.) (a) N=275.8 r.p.m (b) 5.44 kN-m or kJ
Efficiencies of centrifugal pump

A centrifugal pump has the following three types of efficiencies;

Manometric efficiency; Ƞmano it is the ratio of manometric head to the energy

supplied by the impeller/kN of water. Ƞmano=

Mechanical efficiency; Ƞm it is the ratio of the power delivered by the impeller

( )( )
to the liquid to the power input to the pump shaft. Ƞm =

Ƞm = .

Volumetric efficiency; the ratio of quantity of liquid discharged per second from
the pump to quantity passing per second through the impeller.

Ƞv = , where q is leakage of liquid per second from the impeller.

Efficiencies of centrifugal pump….

Overall efficiency; the ratio of power output of the pump to the power input to the

pump. Ƞo=

Discharge of a centrifugal pump; the discharge of a centrifugal pump maybe

found out by the same method as that of a reaction turbine.

Given by Q=πD1b1Vf1= πD2b2Vf2

Where D1D2= Diameters of impeller at inlet and outlet respectively

b1b2 = Width of impeller at inlet and outlet respectively

Vf1 ,Vf2 = Velocity of flow at inlet and outlet respectively

Example: A centrifugal pump is to discharge water at the rate of 110 liters/second at a speed
of 1450 r.p.m against a head of 23 metres. The impeller diameter is 250 mm and its width 50
mm. If the manometric efficiency is 75%, determine the vane angle at the outer periphery.
Answer 42.1°
Power Required to Drive a Centrifugal Pump

1. Shaft power: It is the power supplied by the motor (or prime mover) to the
pump shaft and it is denoted by P.

2. Impeller power: It is the power available at the impeller and will be equal to
the work done per second by the impeller on water. It is denoted by Pim and
given by, Pim = ρQVw2u2/1000 kW

3. Power output: It is the power output from the pump that is available at casing
exit. It is denoted by Po and given by; Po = ρgQHm/1000 kW or ρgQHm/Ƞo

4. Static power: It is the power available at delivery exit of the pump. It is

denoted by Ps and it is expressed as; Ps = ρgQHs/1000 kW

Example: A centrifugal pump is required to lift water to a total head of 40 metres

at the rate of 50 litres/s. Find the power required for the pump, if its overall
efficiency is 62%. Answer: P=31.6 kW
Multistage Centrifugal Pumps

A multistage pump consists of two or more identical impellers mounted on the

same shaft or on different shafts.

• Higher heads can be achieved by putting two or more pumps in series and large

quantities of liquid delivered by pumps arranged in parallel

• If one pump cannot produce sufficient head then two or more pumps may be

used in series. For pipeline it would be better to specify a larger pump instead.

• If the pump cannot produce sufficient flow then two or more pumps are used in

parallel. This arrangement is very common is water supply and sewerage

pumping stations.
Multistage Centrifugal Pumps
Specific Speed of Centrifugal Pumps, Ns
• Denoted as Ns and defined as the speed of a geometrically similar pump
which would deliver 1 m3 of liquid per second against a head of 1 m.

• It is used for the classification of pumps on the basis of their performance and
dimensions regardless of their actual size or speed at which they operate.

It is expressed as follows;

Since Q =πDBVf ………………………….(i)

or Q ∝ DBVf and B ∝ D

then Q ∝ D2×Vf from equation (i) ……………..(ii)

• Tangential velocity is given by u=πDN/60 ∝ DN ……………….(iii)

• Tangential velocity (u), velocity of flow (Vf) are related to the manometric head
Hm as u ∝ Vf ∝ ………………….(iv)
Specific Speed of Centrifugal Pumps, Ns…………..
• Substituting the value of u in equation (iii), we get

∝ DN or D ∝

Substituting the values of D in equation (ii)

Q∝ ×Vf, ∝ × from equation (iv)

Q=k ………………(v) where, k is a constant of proportionality

If Hm = 1 m and Q = 1 m3/s, N becomes Ns

When these values are substituted in equation (v), we get k= N s2

Specific Speed of Centrifugal Pumps, Ns…………..
• Substituting the value of k in equation (iv), we get

Ns= /
Principles of Similarity

• The notion of similarity is familiar from geometry.

• Two triangles are said to be similar if all of their angles are equal, even if the

sides of the two triangles are of different lengths.

• The two triangles have the same shape; the larger one is simply a scaled up

version of the smaller one.

• The design of the model is dictated by dimensional analysis.

Dynamic Similarity for Pumps: Many pumps are too large to be tested in a

laboratory therefore it is essential to be able to test small geometrically similar

ones and then scale the results up to the required size.

Model Testing of Centrifugal Pumps
• Tests are conducted on the models and performance of the prototypes are
predicted.

• The complete similarity between the model and actual pump (prototype) will
exist if the following conditions are satisfied;

i. Specific speed of model = Specific speed of prototype

(Ns)m = (Ns)p (Ns= /

)m= (Ns= /
)p

ii. Tangential velocity (u) is given by u= πDN/60

also u ∝ DN

= DN

= constant Or ( ) =( ) Head coefficient

Model Testing of Centrifugal Pumps…..
iii. Capacity or flow coefficient

Q ∝ D2×Vf Where Vf ∝ u ∝ DN

Q ∝ D3×N

= constant or ( )m = ( )

iv. Power coefficient

× × ×
P= , P ∝ Q × Hm but Q ∝ D3×N

∝ D3×N× Hm ∝ DN

∝ D3×N× D2N2 ,∝ D5N3 = constant Or ( ) =( )

Examples
1. A single stage centrifugal pump with impeller diameter of 30 cm rotates at
2000 r.p.m and lifts 3 m3 of water per second to a height of 30 m with an
efficiency of 75%. Find the number of stages and diameter of each impeller of
a similar multistage pump to lift 5 m3 of water per second to a height of 200
metres when rotating at 1500 r.p.m.

Answer: 391.3 mm
Characteristics of Centrifugal Pumps

• A pump provides maximum efficiency when it operates at designed values

of speed, discharge and head.

• In actual practice, a pump has to operate at different conditions than the

designed ones under which the behaviour of the pump may be different.

• In order to predict the behaviour and performance of a pump under varying

conditions, various tests are performed and the results of the tests are

plotted in the form of curves.

• These curves are known as the characteristic curves of the pump or pump

performance characteristics.
Characteristics of Centrifugal Pumps…

• The important characteristic curves of a pump are

(i) main characteristic curves,

(ii) operating characteristic curves,

(iii) constant efficiency or Muschel curves, and

(iv) constant head and constant discharge characteristic curves.

• It is these curves that are most helpful to the engineer responsible for

incorporating pumps into a given flow system.

Characteristics of Centrifugal Pumps…
•Performance characteristics for a given pump geometry and operating speed
are usually given in the plots of H, η, and bhp versus Q.

•Rise head curve: the head curve continuously rises as the flowrate flowrate
decreases.

•Falling head curve : H-Q curves initially rise as Q is decreased from the
design value and then fall with a continued decrease in Q.

•Shutoff head Shutoff head: the head developed by the pump at zero
discharge. It represents the rise in pressure head across the pump with the
discharge valve closed.

•Best efficiency points (BEP): the points on the various curves corresponding
to the maximum efficiency.
Characteristics of Centrifugal Pumps…
Typical performance characteristics for a centrifugal pump of a given size
operating at a constant impeller speed.
Characteristics of Centrifugal Pumps…

•As the discharge is increased from zero the brake horsepower increases,

with a subsequent fall as the maximum discharge is approached.

•The efficiency is a function of flowrate and reaches a maximum value at

some particular value of flowrate, commonly referred to as the normal or

design flowrate or capacity for the pump.

•Performance curves are very important to the engineer responsible for the

selection of pumps for a particular flow system.

Net Positive Suction Head
•Related to conditions on the suction side of the pump.

•On the suction side of a pump, low pressures are commonly encountered, with
the associated possibility of cavitation occurring within the pump.

•Cavitation occurs when the liquid pressure at a given location is reduced to the
vapor pressure of the liquid.

•When this occurs, vapor bubbles form; this phenomenon can cause a loss in
efficiency as well as structural damage to the pump.

•To characterize the potential for cavitation, net positive suction head (NPSH) is

define as; NPSH = + − where is the liquid vapour pressure head

and + is the total head on the suction side near the pump impeller inlet.
Net Positive Suction Head…..
• There are two values of NPSH of interest.

i. Required NPSH, denoted by NPSHR, that must be maintained or exceeded

so that cavitation will not occur.

• It is necessary to determine experimentally the value of NPSHR, for a given

pump since pressure lower than those in the suction pipe will always develop
in the impeller eye.

ii. Available NPSH, denoted by NPSHA, represents the head that occurs for a
particular flow system.

• It can be determined experimentally, or calculated if the system parameters are

known.
Reciprocating Pumps

• The reciprocating pumps are positive displacement pumps in which a

certain volume of liquid is taken in an enclosed volume and then it is forced

out against pressure to the required application.

• The mechanical energy is converted into pressure energy by sucking the

liquid into a cylinder in which a piston is reciprocating which exerts the thrust

on the liquid and increases its pressure energy.

• The cylinder is alternately filled and emptied by drawing and forcing the

liquid by mechanical motion.

Main parts of a reciprocating pump

•The main parts of a reciprocating pump are; (i) cylinder, (ii) piston (or

plunger), (iii) piston rod, (iv) crank, (v) connecting rod, (vi) suction pipe and

suction valve, and (vii) delivery pipe and delivery valve

Discussion Topics
1.Priming of a Centrifugal Pumps

2.Selection of Pumps

3.Operational Difficulties in Centrifugal Pumps

4.Classification of Reciprocating Pumps

5.Discharge, Work Done and Power Required for Driving a Single Acting
Reciprocating Pump

6.Working of a Double Acting Reciprocating Pump

7.Discharge, Work Done and Power Required for Driving a Double Acting
Reciprocating Pump

8.Co-efficient of Discharge and Slip of a Reciprocating Pump

9.Indicator Diagrams

10.Air Vessels
Dimensional Analysis

•It is a mathematical technique which deals with the dimensions of the physical

quantities of a phenomenon and finds applications in all fields of engineering.

•It is very useful in the design and performance of experiments.

•All physical quantities are measured by comparison with arbitrarily fixed values

for each independent quantity called fundamental dimensions i.e mass, length,

and time (M,L,T)

•Some other quantities are derived from fundamental dimensions and are called

derived or secondary quantities.

Fundamental dimensions
Table of Dimensions

Example: Determine the dimensions of discharge, force, pressure, power,

specific weight and surface tension in M-L-T system.
Dimensional Homogeneity
• An equation is called dimensionally homogeneous if the fundamental dimensions
have identical powers of M-L-T on both sides.

• Consider an equation of discharge Q = A.V

L3T-1 = LT-1= L3T-1

Examples: Check the dimensional homogeneity of the following common equations

in the field of Hydraulics.

i) Q = Cd.a 2

ii) v=c

• The two main methods commonly used in dimensional analysis are;

i. Rayleigh method and

ii. Buckingham π method.

Applications of principle of dimensional homogeneity

• The applications of dimensional homogeneity is used in the following ways.

(i) It helps in determining the dimensions of a physical quantity.

(ii) It helps in the conversion of units from one system to another.

(iii) It checks whether an equation is dimensionally homogeneous or not.

(iv) Dimensional analysis

Model Analysis

• Before the actual construction of the hydraulic structures (dams, spillways,

etc.) or hydraulic machines (turbines, pumps, etc.) their models are made and

tested to obtain the desired information.

• The model is a small scale replica of the actual structure or the machine while

the actual structure or machine is called the prototype.

• Models are mostly much smaller than its prototypes but in some cases the

models may be larger than the prototypes.

Applications of Model Studies

• Some of the important applications of model studies are;

(i) To determine the full size of civil engineering structures, such as dams,
spillways, etc.

(ii) To predict the performance of mechanical engineering devices, such as

turbines, pumps, compressors, etc.

(iii) To predict the behaviour of naval engineering devices, such as ships,

submarines, etc.

(iv) To predict the stability characteristics and wind loads of tall buildings in
architectural engineering.

(v) To predict the performance of aviation engineering equipment and devices,

such as airplanes, rockets and missiles
Importance of Model Studies

The following are some of the important advantages of model studies;

(i) The model tests are quite economical and convenient because without
incurring much expenditure, the design of the model may be changed until the
most suitable design is obtained.

(ii) Model testing can also be used to incorporate required modifications in an

existing prototype.

(iii) Based on the final results obtained from the model test, the performance and
behaviour of the prototype can be easily predicted in advance.

• In order to achieve this there should be a complete similarity between the

model and prototypes.
Similitude-Types of Similarities

• Similitude means the complete similarity between the model and its prototype.

The results obtained from experiments on models can be applied to the

prototype only if a complete similarity exists between them.

• For establishing a complete similarity between the model and its prototype,

the following three type of similarities are important from the subject point of

view;

(i) geometric similarity,

(ii) kinematic similarity and

(iii) dynamic similarity

Geometric Similarity

• Geometric similarity exists between the model and its prototype when the

ratios of their corresponding linear dimensions are equal.

• The ratio is known as scale ratio.

• For geometric similarity, the model must be of the same shape as the

prototype, but it may be scaled by some constant scale factor.

• Let Lp,Bp,Dp,Hp,Ap,and vp be the length, breadth, diameter, height, area and

volume of the prototype respectively and Lm,Bm,Dm,Hm,Am,and vm be the

corresponding length, breadth, diameter, height, area and volume of the

model respectively.
Geometric Similarity…..
• The length scale ratio (Lr ), area scale ratio (Ar ) and volume scale ratio (vr )
are respectively given as follows.

Linear ratio of the prototype and model,

Lr = = = =

Similarly, area ratio of the prototype and the model,

Ar = 2 = 2 = 2 = 2 = (Lr)2

And volume ratio of the prototype and the model,

vr = 3 = 3 = 3 = 3 = (Lr)3
Kinematic Similarity

• Kinematic similarity is the similarity of motion between the model and the

prototype.

• Kinematic similarity exists when the velocities at the points in the model have

a constant ratio to the velocities at the corresponding points in the prototype

and their relative directions are also same.

• Geometric similarity is a prerequisite for kinematic similarity.

• The velocity triangles, speed ratio and the flow ratio for the model and the

prototype will be equal.

Kinematic Similarity……

• Let Tp, Lp, Vp, ap and Qp be the time, length, velocity, acceleration and

discharge respectively for the prototype at any point and Tm, Lm, Vm, am and

Qm be the corresponding time, length, velocity, acceleration and discharge,

respectively for the model at the corresponding point.

• The time scale ratio (Tr), velocity scale ratio (Vr), acceleration scale ratio (ar)

and discharge scale ratio (Qr) are respectively given as follows;

Tr = , Vr =

ar = , Qr =
Dynamic Similarity
• Dynamic similarity is the similarity of forces between the model and the
prototype.

• Dynamic similarity exists when all forces at the points in the model have a
constant ratio to the corresponding forces at the corresponding points in the
prototype.

• The directions of the corresponding forces at the corresponding points should

also be same.

• Thus, dynamic similarity implies similarity in the magnitude and directions of

forces acting on the model and the prototype at all points.

• Both geometric and kinematic similarities are a prerequisite for dynamic

similarity

• Let Fp1= Force acting in the prototype at point 1 and

Dynamic Similarity…..
• Let Fp2= Force acting in the prototype at point 2

fm1, fm2 = corresponding values for the model

• The dynamic similarity exists between the prototype and the model, then the

force ratio of the prototype and the model, Fr = =

Procedure for Model Analysis

i. Selection of a suitable scale for the model

ii. Construction of the model

iii. Testing of the model- wind tunnel and water tunnel method

iv. Correct prediction

Types of Models
• The models used for testing can be classified into two broad categories,
namely;

1.Undistorted Models are models that are geometrically similar to their

prototypes. Therefore, scale ratios for corresponding linear dimensions of the
model and its prototype are same.

2.Distorted Models are models which are not similar to their prototypes. In
these models, one or more terms of the model are not identical with their
counterparts in the prototype.

Velocity of water in the prototype for the given velocity in an Undistorted

Model

Consider an undistorted model geometrically similar to a proposed prototype like

a weir, dam, spillway etc.
Let, h = Head of water over the model,

v = Velocity of water at a point in the model,

H, V corresponding values for the prototype.

= Scale ratio of the model to the prototype

Velocity of water in model v = cv 2ℎ …………………….(i)

Velocity of water on the corresponding point in the prototype, V = Cv 2 ….(ii)

Dividing the equation (i) by (ii)

= = cv= Cv = = but =

V= v
Examples
1. The velocity at a point on a spillway model of a dam is 1.3 m/s for a prototype
of model ratio 1:10. What is the velocity at the corresponding point in the
prototype.

2. A model of a harbour is made to a scale of 1:150. It was observed that the

waves strike the barrier with a velocity of 10 m/s. Find the velocity with which
the waves in the model will strike the barrier.
Discharge of the prototype for the given Discharge of an Undistorted model

Consider an undistorted model geometrically similar to a prototype like a weir,

notch or spillway.

Let, a = Area of the discharge of the model,

v = Actual velocity of water in the model,

q = Discharge of the model

And A, V, Q = corresponding values for the prototype

= Scale ratio of the model to the prototype

Discharge of the model q = area × velocity= a×v………….(i)

Discharge of the prototype Q = Q × A ……………..(ii)

×
Dividing eqn (i) and (ii) = ×
= ×
 = × .

Q = q ×s2.5

Examples

1. Adam 35 m long is to discharge water at the rate of 114 m3/s under a head of
2.7 m. Find the length of the model and head of water if the supply available
in the laboratory is 30 litres/s

2. A model of spillway is constructed to a scale of 1:30 in a flume. The length of

the spillway is 30 m. If the discharge over the spillway at the head of 6 m
(depth of flow over spillway) is 443.6 cumecs, calculate the corresponding
head and discharge of the model required for this model study.
Non-Dimensional Constants
• The effect of forces on model and prototype are considered.

• The forces present and important in a moving fluid include;

i. Inertia force

ii. Viscous force

iii. Gravity force

iv. Surface tension force

v. Pressure force and

vi. Elastic force

Dimensionless Numbers
• Conditions of dynamic similarity are always studied by considering the ratio of
the force of inertia which always exists in fluid flow and any other remaining
forces.

• The dimensionless constants considered in this course are;

i. Reynold's number

• It is the ratio of inertia force to the viscous force.

• Dynamic similarity is said to exist between the model and the prototype when
the Reynold's number of the model and the prototype is the same.

RN = Inertia force/Viscous force

Dimensionless Numbers…..
ii. Froude's number

• It is the ratio of inertia force to the gravity force.

• Dynamic similarity is said to exist between the model and the prototype when
the Froude's number of the model and the prototype is the same.

FN = Inertia force/Gravity force

Dimensionless Numbers…..
iii. Weber's number

• It is the ratio of inertia force to the surface tension force.

• Dynamic similarity is said to exist between the model and the prototype when
the Weber's number of the model and the prototype is the same.

WN = Inertia force/Surface tension force

Dimensionless Numbers…..
iv. Euler's number

• It is the ratio of inertia force to the pressure force.

• Dynamic similarity is said to exist between the model and the prototype when
the Euler's number of the model and the prototype is the same.

EN = Inertia force/Pressure tension force

Dimensionless Numbers…..
v. Mach's number or Cauchy’s number

• It is the ratio of inertia force to the elastic force.

• Dynamic similarity is said to exist between the model and the prototype when
the Mach's number of the model and the prototype is the same.

EN = Inertia force/Elastic force