CHAPTER

3 Matrices

Special Type of Matrices 11. Equal Matrices: Two matrices A and B are said to be equal,
1. Row Matrix (Row vector): A = [a11, a12, ... a1n] i.e., row if both having same order and corresponding elements of the
matrix has exactly one row. matrices are equal.
 a11  12. Principal Diagonal of a Matrix: In a square matrix, the
a  diagonal from the first element of the first row to the last
2. Column Matrix (Column vector): A =   i.e., column element of the last row is called the principal diagonal of a
21

  
  matrix.
 am1 
matrix has exactly one column. 1 2 3 
 
3. Zero or Null Matrix: (A = Om×n), an m × n matrix whose all e.g. If A = 7 6 5  , the principal diagonal of A is 1, 6, 2.
entries are zero. 1 1 2 
4. Horizontal Matrix: A matrix of order m × n is a horizontal
matrix if n > m. 13. Singular Matrix: A square matrix A is said to be singular
5. Vertical Matrix: A matrix of order m × n is a vertical matrix matrix, if determinant of A denoted by det (A) or | A | is zero,
if m > n. i.e. | A | = 0, otherwise it is a non-singular matrix.
6. Square Matrix: (Order n) if number of rows = number of Equality of Matrices
column, then matrix is a square matrix. Let A = [aij] & B = [bij] are equal if,
1. Both have the same order.
Key Note
2. aij = bij for each pair of i & j.
 The pair of elements aij and aji are called Conjugate
Elements. Algebra of Matrices
 The elements a11, a22, a33, ... amm are called Diagonal Addition: A + B = [aij + bij] where A & B are of the same order.
Elements. the line along which the diagonal elements 1. Addition of matrices is commutative: A + B = B + A.
lie is called “Principal or Leading diagonal.” The 2. Matrix addition is associative: (A + B) + C = A + (B + C).
quantity Saii = trace of the matrix written as, tr (A).
Multiplication of a Matrix By a Scalar
7. Unit/Identity Matrix: A square matrix, in which every non-
a b c   ka kb kc 
diagonal element is zero and every diagonal element is 1, is  b c a  , then kA =  kb kc ka 
called unit matrix or an identity matrix, If A =    
 c a b   kc ka kb 
0, when i ≠ j
i.e. aij = 
 1, when i = j Multiplication of Matrices (Row by Column)
Let A be a matrix of order m × n and B be a matrix of order
8. Upper Triangular Matrix: A square matrix A = [aij]n×n is
p × q then the matrix multiplication AB is possible if and only if
called a upper triangular matrix, if aij = 0, ∀ i > j.
n = p.
9. Lower Triangular Matrix: A square matrix A = [aij]n×n is
called a lower triangular matrix, if aij = 0, ∀ i < j. Let Am × n = [aij] and Bn × p = [bij], then order of AB is m × p and
10. Submatrix: A matrix which is obtained from a given matrix n

by deleting any number of rows or columns or both is called ( AB)ij = ∑ air brj
r =1
a submatrix of the given matrix.
Characteristic Equation 5. If A and B are square matrices of same order and AB = BA
then
Let A be a square matrix. Then the polynomial | A – xI |
(A + B)n = nC0An + nC1An–1B + nC2An–2B2 + ... + nCnBn.
is called as characteristic polynomial of A & the equation
| A – xI | = 0 is called characteristic equation of A. Transpose of a Matrix (Changing Rows & Columns)
Properties of Matrix Multiplication Let A be any matrix of order m × n. Then AT or A′ = [aij] for 1 ≤ i
1. If A and B are two matrices such that ≤ n & 1 ≤ j ≤ m of order n × m.
(i) AB = BA then A and B are said to commute
Properties of Transpose
(ii) AB = –BA then A and B are said to anticommute
If AT & BT denote the transpose of A and B
2. Matrix Multiplication is Associative: If A, B &
C are conformable for the product AB & BC, then 1. (A + B)T = AT + BT ; note that A & B have the same order.
(AB)C = A(BC). 2. (A B)T = BT AT (Reversal law) A & B are conformable for matrix
A( B + C ) = AB + AC  product AB
3. Distributivity: , provided A, B and C
( A + B)C =AC + BC  3. (AT)T = A
are conformable for respective products.
4. (kA)T = kAT, where is a scalar.

Positive Integral Powers of a Square Matrix General: (A1 · A2, ... An)T = ATn . ... AT2 · AT1 (reversal law for
1. AmAn = Am + n transpose)
2. (Am)n = Amn = (An)m Symmetric & Skew Symmetric Matrix
3. Im = I m, n ∈ N
1. Symmetric matrix: For symmetric matrix A = AT.
Orthogonal Matrix Note: Maximum number of distinct entries in any symmetric
A square matrix is said to be orthogonal matrix if AAT = I. n(n + 1)
matrix of order n is .
2
Key Note
2. Skew symmetric matrix: Square matrix A = [aij] is said to
 The determinant value of orthogonal matrix is either be skew symmetric if aij = –aji ∀ i & j. Hence if A is skew
1 or –1. symmetric, then aii = –aii ⇒ aii = 0 ∀ i.
Hence orthogonal matrix is always invertible.
Thus the diagonal elements of a skew square matrix are all
 AAT = I = A­TA. Hence A–1 = AT.
zero, but not the converse.
For a skew symmetric matrix A = –AT.
Some Square Matrices
3. Properties of symmetric & skew symmetric matrix:
1. Idempotent Matrix: A square matrix is idempotent provided
A2 = A. For idempotent matrix note the following: (a) Let A be any square matrix then, A + AT is a symmetric
matrix and A – AT is a skew symmetric matrix.
(a) An = A ∀ n ≥ 2, n ∈ N.
(b) The sum of two symmetric matrix is a symmetric matrix
(b) determinant value of idempotent matrix is either 0 or 1.
and the sum of two skew symmetric matrix is a skew
(c) If idempotent matrix is invertible then its inverse will be
symmetric matrix.
identity matrix i.e. I.
(c) If A & B are symmetric matrices then,
2. Periodic Matrix: A square matrix which satisfies the relation
AK+1 =   A, for some positive integer K, is a periodic matrix. (i) AB + BA is a symmetric matrix.
The period of the matrix is the least value of K for which this (ii) AB – BA is a skew symmetric matrix.
holds true.
4. Every square matrix can be uniquely expressed as a sum or
Note that period of an idempotent matrix is 1. difference of a symmetric and a skew symmetric matrix.
3. Nilpotent Matrix: A square matrix is said to be nilpotent
matrix of order m, m ∈ N, if Am = O, Am–1 ≠ O. 1 1
    A = ( A + AT ) + ( A − AT )
Note that a nilpotent matrix will not be invertible. 2
 2

symmetric skew symmetric
4. Involutary Matrix: If A2 = I, the matrix is said to be an
involutary matrix. 1 T 1
and     A = ( A + A) − ( AT − A)
Note that A = A–1 for an involutary matrix. 2 2
P Matrices 7
W
Adjoint of a Square Matrix Key Note
 a11 a12 a13 
   If A be an invertible matrix, then AT is also invertible and
Let A = [aij] =  a21 a22 a23  be a square matrix and let the (AT)–1 = (A–1)T.
a a32 a33 
 31  If A is invertible,
matrix formed by the cofactors of [aij] in determinant |A| is (a) (A–1)–1 = A
 C11 C12 C13   C11 C21 C31  (b) (Ak)–1 = (A–1)k = A–k ; k ∈ N
   
 C21 C22 C23  . Then (adj A) =  C12 C22 C32  .
C C33  C C23 C33 
 31 C32  13 System of Equation and Criteria for Consistency
Gauss - Jordan Method
Key Note Example:
a1x + b1y + c1z = d1
If A be a square matrix of order n, then
a2x + b2y + c2z = d2
1. A(adj A) = |A| In = (adj A) . A a3x + b3y + c3z = d3
2. | adj A | = |A|n–1  a1 x + b1 y + c1 z   d1   a1 b1 c1   x   d1 
3. adj(adj A) = |A|n–2 A   d  ⇒ a b c2   y = d 
⇒  a2 x + b2 y + c2 z =  2  2 2  2
2
4. | adj(adj A) | = |A|(n–1)  a3 x + b3 y + c3 z   d3   a3 b3 c3   z   d3 
5. adj (AB) = (adj B) (adj A) ⇒      AX = B ⇒ A AX = A–1B
–1

6. adj (KA) = Kn–1 (adj A), where K is a scalar Adj A

⇒      X = A–1 B = ·B
| A|

Inverse of a Matrix (Reciprocal Matrix) Key Note

A square matrix A (non singular) said to be invertible, if there
exists a matrix B such that, AB = I = BA.  If |A| ≠ 0, system is consistent having unique solution.
B is called the inverse (reciprocal) of A and is denoted by A–1.  If |A| ≠ 0 and (adj A) · B ≠ O (Null matrix), system is
Thus consistent having unique non-trivial solution.
   A–1 = B ⇔ AB = I = BA  If |A| ≠ 0 and (adj A) · B = O (Null matrix), system is
consistent having trivial solution.
We have, A · (adj A) = |A| In
 If |A| = 0, then
     A · A(adj A) = A–1 In |A|
–1
Matrix Method Fails
  In (adj A) = A–1 |A| In
(adj A)
\         A–1 = If (adj A) · B = O (null matrix) If (adj A) · B ≠ O
| A|
Note: The necessary and sufficient condition for a square matrix Consistent Inconsistent
A to be invertible is that |A| ≠ 0. (infinite solutions) (no solutions)
Theorem: If A and B are invertible matrices of the same order,
then (AB)–1 = B–1A–1.

8 JEE (XII) Module-1 PW