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Automation
Automation is the creation and application of technologies to produce and deliver goods and
services with minimal human intervention. The implementation of automation technologies,
techniques and processes improve the efficiency, reliability, and/or speed of many tasks that
were previously performed by humans.

Automation is being used in a number of areas such as manufacturing, transport, utilities,

defense, facilities, operations and lately, information technology.

According to Britannica.com, automation is application of machines to tasks once performed by

human beings or, increasingly, to tasks that would otherwise be impossible. Although the term
mechanization is often used to refer to the simple replacement of human labour by machines,
automation generally implies the integration of machines into a self-governing system.
Automation has revolutionized those areas in which it has been introduced, and there is scarcely
an aspect of modern life that has been unaffected by it.

The term automation was coined in the automobile industry about 1946 to describe the increased
use of automatic devices and controls in mechanized production lines. The origin of the word is
attributed to D.S. Harder, an engineering manager at the Ford Motor Company at the time. The
term is used widely in a manufacturing context, but it is also applied outside manufacturing in
connection with a variety of systems in which there is a significant substitution of mechanical,
electrical, or computerized action for human effort and intelligence.

In general usage, automation can be defined as a technology concerned with performing a

process by means of programmed commands combined with automatic feedback control to
ensure proper execution of the instructions. The resulting system is capable of operating without
human intervention. The development of this technology has become increasingly dependent on
the use of computers and computer-related technologies. Consequently, automated systems have
become increasingly sophisticated and complex. Advanced systems represent a level of
capability and performance that surpass in many ways the abilities of humans to accomplish the
same activities.

Types of Automation

According to Britannica.com, Three types of automation in production can be distinguished: (1)

fixed automation, (2) programmable automation, and (3) flexible automation.
Fixed automation, also known as “hard automation,” refers to an automated production

facility in which the sequence of processing operations is fixed by the equipment configuration.

In effect, the programmed commands are contained in the machines in the form of cams, gears,
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wiring, and other hardware that is not easily changed over from one product style to another.

This form of automation is characterized by high initial investment and high production rates. It

is therefore suitable for products that are made in large volumes. Examples of fixed automation

include machining transfer lines found in the automotive industry, automatic assembly machines,

and certain chemical processes.

Programmable automation is a form of automation for producing products in batches. The

products are made in batch quantities ranging from several dozen to several thousand units at a

time. For each new batch, the production equipment must be reprogrammed and changed over to

accommodate the new product style. This reprogramming and changeover take time to

accomplish, and there is a period of nonproductive time followed by a production run for each

new batch. Production rates in programmable automation are generally lower than in fixed

automation, because the equipment is designed to facilitate product changeover rather than for

product specialization. A numerical-control machine tool is a good example of programmable

automation. The program is coded in computer memory for each different product style, and the

machine tool is controlled by the computer program. Industrial robots are another example.

Flexible automation is an extension of programmable automation. The disadvantage with

programmable automation is the time required to reprogram and change over the production

equipment for each batch of new product. This is lost production time, which is expensive. In

flexible automation, the variety of products is sufficiently limited so that the changeover of the

equipment can be done very quickly and automatically. The reprogramming of the equipment in

flexible automation is done off-line; that is, the programming is accomplished at a computer

terminal without using the production equipment itself. Accordingly, there is no need to group

identical products into batches; instead, a mixture of different products can be produced one right

after another.
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Difference between hard automation and soft automation

Hard automation is fixed, suitable for large volumes of production, is used to manufacture only 1

kind of product, has less flexibility, initial capital required is high.

Soft automation is flexible, suitable for small volumes of production, can be used to manufacture

more than 1 kind of product, more flexible, initial capital required is less.

Soft automation robots tend to be slower than hard automation devices.

Hard Automation Soft Automation

These product machines are designed This product machine can produce parts
to produce a standardized product. having complex shape.
It is not controlled by computer. It is controlled by computer.
Not re-programmable. Re-programmable.
Only use for mass production. Used for small production.
High labor cost. Low labor cost.
High accommodation. Low accommodation.
High production and maintained cost. Low production and maintained cost.

Advantages of Automation
Advantages commonly attributed to automation include higher production rates and increased
productivity, more efficient use of materials, better product quality, improved safety, shorter
workweeks for labour, and reduced factory lead times. Higher output and increased productivity
have been two of the biggest reasons in justifying the use of automation. Despite the claims of
high quality from good workmanship by humans, automated systems typically perform the
manufacturing process with less variability than human workers, resulting in greater control and
consistency of product quality. Also, increased process control makes more efficient use of
materials, resulting in less scrap.
Another benefit of automation is the reduction in the number of hours worked on average per
week by factory workers.

1. Lower operating costs

Robots can perform the work of three to five people, depending on the task. In addition to
savings on the cost of labor, energy savings can also be significant due to lower heating
requirements in automated operations. Robots streamline processes and increase part accuracy,
which means minimal material waste for your operation.
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2. Improved worker safety

Automated cells remove workers from dangerous tasks. Your employees will thank you for
safeguarding them against the hazards of a factory environment.

3. Reduced factory lead times

Automation can keep your process in-house, improve process control and significantly reduce
lead times compared to outsourcing or going overseas.

4. Faster ROI

Automation solutions are based on your unique needs and goals and pay for themselves quickly
due to lower operating costs, reduced lead times, increased output and more.

5. Ability to be more competitive

Automated cells allow you to decrease cycle times and cost-per-piece while improving quality.
This allows you to better compete on a global scale. Additionally, the flexibility of robots
enables you to retool a cell to exceed the capabilities of your competition.

6. Increased production output

A robot has the ability to work at a constant speed, unattended, 24/7. That means you’ve got the
potential to produce more. New products can be more quickly introduced into the production
process and new product programming can be done offline with no disruption to existing
processes.

7. Consistent and improved part production and quality

Automated cells typically perform the manufacturing process with less variability than human
workers. This results in greater control and consistency of product quality.

8. Smaller environmental footprint

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By streamlining equipment and processes, reducing scrap and using less space, automation uses
less energy. Reducing your environmental footprint can save real money.

9. Better planning

Consistent production by robots allows a shop to reliably predict timing and costs. That
predictability permits a tighter margin on most any project.

10. Reduce need for outsourcing

Automated cells have large amounts of potential capacity concentrated in one compact system.
This allows shops to produce parts in-house that have previously been outsourced.

11. Optimal utilization of floor space

Robots are designed on compact bases to fit in confined spaces. In addition to being mounted on
the floor, robots can be mounted on walls, ceilings, rail tracks and shelves. They can perform
tasks in confined spaces, saving you valuable floor space.

12. Easy integration

Productivity will work with you to provide a complete system – hardware, software and controls
included. Your cell will be proven out at Productivity and shipped production-ready – allowing
you to start making parts as soon as it’s installed in your shop.

13. Maximize labor

Over the next three decades, statistics show that more than 76 million baby boomers will retire
and only 46 million new workers will be available to replace them. During this time, your
demand for labor will continue, making automation a real and viable solution.
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Disadvantages of Automation
Automation makes sure the techniques are used effectively in the delivery of products and
services. However, it inherently causes many workers to become unnecessary (especially
unskilled ones) and end up being displaced.

Automation will certainly have substantial negative effects on employment and wages for all
those occupations that do not require particular training or skills. However, many of these
employees could be easily retrained in new jobs, and the impact of this technology on our society
is revolutionary enough to create new opportunities for everyone.

According to the World Bank's World Development Report 2019, the positive economic effects
in terms of new industries and jobs available far outweigh the negative ones, but automation-
based technological unemployment still is a cause for concern.

Despite advances in automation, some manual intervention is always advised, even if the tool
can perform most of the tasks. Automation professionals involved in the creation, application,
and monitoring of such technologies are in high demand.

Why use automation?

Usually, automation is employed to minimize labor or to substitute humans in the most menial or
repetitive tasks. Automation is present in virtually all verticals and niches, although it’s more
prevalent in manufacturing, utilities, transportation, and security.

For example, most manufacturing plants make use of some automated process in the form of
robotic assembly lines. Human input is required only to define the processes and supervise them,
while the assembling of the various components is left to the machines, which automatically
convert raw materials into finished goods.

In the technology domain, the impact of automation is increasing rapidly, both in the
software/hardware and machine layer. The implementation of new artificial intelligence (AI) and
machine learning (ML) technologies is currently skyrocketing the evolution of this field.

Extended automation
In the information technology domain, a software script can test a software product and produce
a report. There are also various software tools available in the market which can generate code
for an application. The users only need to configure the tool and define the process.

Advanced business intelligence in applications is another new form of high-quality automation.

In other industries, automation has greatly improved productivity in the last decades, saving time
and cutting costs.
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From the simplest to the most complex application, automation is present in many forms in our
everyday life. Common examples include household thermostats controlling boilers, the earliest
automatic telephone switchboards, electronic navigation systems, or the most advanced
algorithms behind self-driving cars.

Design automation: For speedy automatic designing and drawing of parts and products.
Home automation - uses a combination of hardware and software technologies that enable
control and management over appliances and devices within a home.

Network automation - the process of automating the configuration, management and operations
of a computer network.

Office automation - involves using computers and software to digitize, store, process and
communicate most routine tasks and processes in a standard office.

Automated website testing - streamlines and standardizes website testing parameters for
configuration changes that occur during the development phase.

Data center automation - enables the bulk of the data center operations to be performed by
software programs. Includes automated system operations, also known as lights-out operations.

Test automation - software code goes through quality assurance (QA) testing automatically by
scripts and other automation tools.

Application area of Automation/Basic area of activity of automation

One of the most important application areas for automation technology is manufacturing. To
many people, automation means manufacturing automation.
I. Automated production lines
An automated production line consists of a series of workstations connected by a transfer system

to move parts between the stations. This is an example of fixed automation, since these lines are

typically set up for long production runs, perhaps making millions of product units and running

for several years between changeovers. Each station is designed to perform a specific processing

operation, so that the part or product is constructed stepwise as it progresses along the line. A

raw work part enters at one end of the line, proceeds through each workstation, and emerges at

the other end as a completed product. In the normal operation of the line, there is a work part

being processed at each station, so that many parts are being processed simultaneously and a
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finished part is produced with each cycle of the line. The various operations, part transfers, and

other activities taking place on an automated transfer line must all be sequenced and coordinated

properly for the line to operate efficiently. Modern automated lines are controlled by

programmable logic controllers, which are special computers that facilitate connections with

industrial equipment (such as automated production lines) and can perform the kinds of timing

and sequencing functions required to operate such equipment.

Automated production lines are utilized in many industries, most notably automotive, where they

are used for processes such as machining and pressworking. Machining is a manufacturing

process in which metal is removed by a cutting or shaping tool, so that the remaining work part

is the desired shape. Machinery and motor components are usually made by this process. In

many cases, multiple operations are required to completely shape the part. If the part is mass-

produced, an automated transfer line is often the most economical method of production.

II. Numerical control

Numerical control is a form of programmable automation in which a machine is controlled by

numbers (and other symbols) that have been coded on punched paper tape or an alternative

storage medium. The initial application of numerical control was in the machine tool industry, to

control the position of a cutting tool relative to the work part being machined. The NC part

program represents the set of machining instructions for the particular part. The coded numbers

in the program specify x-y-z coordinates in a Cartesian axis system, defining the various

positions of the cutting tool in relation to the work part. By sequencing these positions in the

program, the machine tool is directed to accomplish the machining of the part. A position

feedback control system is used in most NC machines to verify that the coded instructions have

been correctly performed.

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Today a small computer is used as the controller in an NC machine tool, and the program is

actuated from computer memory rather than punched paper tape. However, initial entry of the

program into computer memory is often still accomplished using punched tape. Since this form

of numerical control is implemented by computer, it is called computer numerical control, or

CNC. Another variation in the implementation of numerical control involves sending part

programs over telecommunications lines from a central computer to individual machine tools in

the factory, thus eliminating the use of the punched tape altogether. This form of numerical

control is called direct numerical control, or DNC.

III. Automated assembly

Assembly operations have traditionally been performed manually, either at single assembly

workstations or on assembly lines with multiple stations. Owing to the high labour content and

high cost of manual labour, greater attention has been given in recent years to the use of

automation for assembly work. Assembly operations can be automated using production line

principles if the quantities are large, the product is small, and the design is simple (e.g.,

mechanical pencils, pens, and cigarette lighters). For products that do not satisfy these

conditions, manual assembly is generally required.

IV. Robots in manufacturing

Today most robots are used in manufacturing operations; the applications can be divided into

three categories: (1) material handling, (2) processing operations, and (3) assembly and

inspection.

Materials handling, applications include material transfer and machine loading and unloading.

Material-transfer applications require the robot to move materials or work parts from one

location to another. Many of these tasks are relatively simple, requiring robots to pick up parts

from one conveyor and place them on another. Other transfer operations are more complex, such
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as placing parts onto pallets in an arrangement that must be calculated by the robot. Machine

loading and unloading operations utilize a robot to load and unload parts at a production

machine. This requires the robot to be equipped with a gripper that can grasp parts. Usually the

gripper must be designed specifically for the particular part geometry.

In robotic processing operations, the robot manipulates a tool to perform a process on the work

part. Examples of such applications include spot welding, continuous arc welding, and spray

painting. Spot welding of automobile bodies is one of the most common applications of

industrial robots in the United States. The robot positions a spot welder against the automobile

panels and frames to complete the assembly of the basic car body. Arc welding is a continuous

process in which the robot moves the welding rod along the seam to be welded. Spray painting

involves the manipulation of a spray-painting gun over the surface of the object to be coated.

Other operations in this category include grinding, polishing, and routing, in which a rotating

spindle serves as the robot’s tool.

The third application area of industrial robots is assembly and inspection. The use of robots in

assembly is expected to increase because of the high cost of manual labour common in these

operations. Since robots are programmable, one strategy in assembly work is to produce multiple

product styles in batches, reprogramming the robots between batches. Inspection is another area

of factory operations in which the utilization of robots is growing. In a typical inspection job, the

robot positions a sensor with respect to the work part and determines whether the part is

consistent with the quality specifications.

V. Flexible manufacturing systems

A flexible manufacturing system (FMS) is a form of flexible automation in which several

machine tools are linked together by a material-handling system, and all aspects of the system

are controlled by a central computer. An FMS is distinguished from an automated production

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line by its ability to process more than one product style simultaneously. At any moment, each

machine in the system may be processing a different part type. An FMS can also cope with

changes in product mix and production schedule as demand patterns for the different products

made on the system change over time. New product styles can be introduced into production

with an FMS, so long as they fall within the range of products that the system is designed to

process. This kind of system is therefore ideal when demand for the products is low to medium

and there are likely to be changes in demand.

The components of an FMS are (1) processing machines, which are usually CNC machine tools

that perform machining operations, although other types of automated workstations such as

inspection stations are also possible, (2) a material-handling system, such as a conveyor system,

which is capable of delivering work parts to any machine in the FMS, and (3) a central computer

system that is responsible for communicating NC part programs to each machine and for

coordinating the activities of the machines and the material-handling system. In addition, a

fourth component of an FMS is human labour. Although the flexible manufacturing system

represents a high level of production automation, people are still needed to manage the system,

load and unload parts, change tools, and maintain and repair the equipment.

VI. Computer process control

In computer process control, a digital computer is used to direct the operations of a

manufacturing process. Although other automated systems are typically controlled by computer,

the term computer process control is generally associated with continuous or semicontinuous

production operations involving materials such as chemicals, petroleum, foods, and certain basic

metals. In these operations the products are typically processed in gas, liquid, or powder form to

facilitate flow of the material through the various steps of the production cycle. In addition, these
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products are usually mass-produced. Because of the ease of handling the product and the large

volumes involved, a high level of automation has been accomplished in these industries.

The modern computer process control system generally includes the following: (1) measurement

of important process variables such as temperature, flow rate, and pressure, (2) execution of

some optimizing strategy, (3) actuation of such devices as valves, switches, and furnaces that

enable the process to implement the optimal strategy, and (4) generation of reports to

management indicating equipment status, production performance, and product quality. Today

computer process control is applied to many industrial operations, two of which are described

below.

An example of computer process control in the metals industry is the rolling of hot metal ingots

into final shapes such as coils and strips. This was first done in the steel industry, but similar

processing is also accomplished with aluminum and other metals. In a modern steel plant, hot-

rolling is performed under computer control. The rolling process involves the forming of a large,

hot metal billet by passing it through a rolling mill consisting of one or more sets of large

cylindrical rolls that squeeze the metal and reduce its cross section. Several passes are required to

reduce the ingot gradually to the desired thickness. Sensors and automatic instruments measure

the dimensions and temperature of the ingot after each pass through the rolls, and the control

computer calculates and regulates the roll settings for the next pass.

VII. Computer-integrated manufacturing

Since about 1970 there has been a growing trend in manufacturing firms toward the use of

computers to perform many of the functions related to design and production. The technology

associated with this trend is called CAD/CAM, for computer-aided design and computer-aided

manufacturing. Today it is widely recognized that the scope of computer applications must

extend beyond design and production to include the business functions of the firm. The name
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given to this more comprehensive use of computers is computer-integrated manufacturing

(CIM).

CAD/CAM is based on the capability of a computer system to process, store, and display large

amounts of data representing part and product specifications. For mechanical products, the data

represent graphic models of the components; for electrical products, they represent circuit

information; and so forth. CAD/CAM technology has been applied in many industries, including

machined components, electronics products, and equipment design and fabrication for chemical

processing. CAD/CAM involves not only the automation of the manufacturing operations but

also the automation of elements in the entire design-and-manufacturing procedure.

Computer-aided design (CAD) makes use of computer systems to assist in the creation,

modification, analysis, and optimization of a design. The designer, working with the CAD

system rather than the traditional drafting board, creates the lines and surfaces that form the

object (product, part, structure, etc.) and stores this model in the computer database. By invoking

the appropriate CAD software, the designer can perform various analyses on the object, such as

heat transfer calculations. The final object design is developed as adjustments are made on the

basis of these analyses. Once the design procedure has been completed, the computer-aided

design system can generate the detailed drawings required to make the object.

Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) involves the use of computer systems to assist in the

planning, control, and management of production operations. This is accomplished by either

direct or indirect connections between the computer and production operations. In the case of the

direct connection, the computer is used to monitor or control the processes in the factory.

Computer process monitoring involves the collection of data from the factory, the analysis of the

data, and the communication of process-performance results to plant management. These

measures increase the efficiency of plant operations. Computer process control entails the use of

the computer system to execute control actions to operate the plant automatically, as described
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above. Indirect connections between the computer system and the process involve applications in

which the computer supports the production operations without actually monitoring or

controlling them. These applications include planning and management functions that can be

performed by the computer (or by humans working with the computer) more efficiently than by

humans alone. Examples of these functions are planning the step-by-step processes for the

product, part programming in numerical control, and scheduling the production operations in the

factory.

Computer-integrated manufacturing includes all the engineering functions of CAD/CAM and the

business functions of the firm as well. These business functions include order entry, cost

accounting, employee time records and payroll, and customer billing. In an ideal CIM system,

computer technology is applied to all the operational and information-processing functions of the

company, from customer orders through design and production (CAD/CAM) to product

shipment and customer service. The scope of the computer system includes all activities that are

concerned with manufacturing. In many ways, CIM represents the highest level of automation in

manufacturing.

VIII. Automation in daily life

In addition to the manufacturing applications of automation technology, there have been

significant achievements in such areas as communications, transportation, service industries, and

consumer products. Some of the more significant applications are described in this section.

IX. Communications

One of the earliest practical applications of automation was in telephone switching. The first

switching machines, invented near the end of the 19th century, were simple mechanical switches

that were remotely controlled by the telephone user pushing buttons or turning a dial on the
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phone. Modern electronic telephone switching systems are based on highly sophisticated digital

computers that perform functions such as monitoring thousands of telephone lines, determining

which lines require service, storing the digits of each telephone number as it is being dialed,

setting up the required connections, sending electrical signals to ring the receiver’s phone,

monitoring the call during its progress, and disconnecting the phone when the call is completed.

These systems also are used to time and bill toll calls and to transmit billing information and

other data relative to the business operations of the phone company. In addition to the various

functions mentioned, the newest electronic systems automatically transfer calls to alternate

numbers, call back the user when busy lines become free, and perform other customer services in

response to dialed codes. These systems also perform function tests on their own operations,

diagnose problems when they arise, and print out detailed instructions for repairs.

Other applications of automation in communications systems include local area networks,

communications satellites, and automated mail-sorting machines. A local area network (LAN)

operates like an automated telephone company within a single building or group of buildings.

Local area networks are generally capable of transmitting not only voice but also digital data

between terminals in the system. Communications satellites have become essential for

communicating telephone or video signals across great distances. Such communications would

not be possible without the automated guidance systems that place and retain the satellites in

predetermined orbits. Automatic mail-sorting machines have been developed for use in many

post offices throughout the world to read codes on envelopes and sort the envelopes according to

destination.

Historical development of automation

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The technology of automation has evolved from the related field of mechanization, which had its

beginnings in the Industrial Revolution. Mechanization refers to the replacement of human (or

animal) power with mechanical power of some form. The driving force behind mechanization

has been humankind’s propensity to create tools and mechanical devices. Some of the important

historical developments in mechanization and automation leading to modern automated systems

are described here.

Early developments

The first tools made of stone represented prehistoric man’s attempts to direct his own physical

strength under the control of human intelligence. Thousands of years were undoubtedly required

for the development of simple mechanical devices and machines such as the wheel, the lever,

and the pulley, by which the power of human muscle could be magnified. The next extension

was the development of powered machines that did not require human strength to operate.

Examples of these machines include waterwheels, windmills, and simple steam-driven devices.

More than 2,000 years ago the Chinese developed trip-hammers powered by flowing water and

waterwheels. The early Greeks experimented with simple reaction motors powered by steam.

The mechanical clock, representing a rather complex assembly with its own built-in power

source (a weight), was developed about 1335 in Europe. Windmills, with mechanisms for

automatically turning the sails, were developed during the Middle Ages in Europe and the

Middle East. The steam engine represented a major advance in the development of powered

machines and marked the beginning of the Industrial Revolution. During the two centuries since

the introduction of the Watt steam engine, powered engines and machines have been devised that

obtain their energy from steam, electricity, and chemical, mechanical, and nuclear sources.

Each new development in the history of powered machines has brought with it an increased

requirement for control devices to harness the power of the machine. The earliest steam engines

required a person to open and close the valves, first to admit steam into the piston chamber and
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then to exhaust it. Later a slide valve mechanism was devised to automatically accomplish these

functions. The only need of the human operator was then to regulate the amount of steam that

controlled the engine’s speed and power. This requirement for human attention in the operation

of the steam engine was eliminated by the flying-ball governor. Invented by James Watt in

England, this device consisted of a weighted ball on a hinged arm, mechanically coupled to the

output shaft of the engine. As the rotational speed of the shaft increased, centrifugal force caused

the weighted ball to be moved outward. This motion controlled a valve that reduced the steam

being fed to the engine, thus slowing the engine. The flying-ball governor remains an elegant

early example of a negative feedback control system, in which the increasing output of the

system is used to decrease the activity of the system.

Negative feedback is widely used as a means of automatic control to achieve a constant

operating level for a system. A common example of a feedback control system is the thermostat

used in modern buildings to control room temperature. In this device, a decrease in room

temperature causes an electrical switch to close, thus turning on the heating unit. As room

temperature rises, the switch opens and the heat supply is turned off. The thermostat can be set to

turn on the heating unit at any particular set point.

Another important development in the history of automation was the Jacquard loom (see

photograph ), which demonstrated the concept of a programmable machine. About 1801 the

French inventor Joseph-Marie Jacquard devised an automatic loom capable of producing

complex patterns in textiles by controlling the motions of many shuttles of different coloured

threads. The selection of the different patterns was determined by a program contained in steel

cards in which holes were punched. These cards were the ancestors of the paper cards and tapes

that control modern automatic machines. The concept of programming a machine was further

developed later in the 19th century when Charles Babbage, an English mathematician, proposed
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a complex, mechanical “analytical engine” that could perform arithmetic and data processing.

Although Babbage was never able to complete it, this device was the precursor of the modern

digital computer. See computers.

Modern developments

A number of significant developments in various fields have occurred during the 20th century:

the digital computer, improvements in data-storage technology and software to write computer

programs, advances in sensor technology, and the derivation of a mathematical control theory.

All these developments have contributed to progress in automation technology.

Development of the electronic digital computer (the ENIAC [Electronic Numerical Integrator

and Computer] in 1946 and UNIVAC I [Universal Automatic Computer] in 1951) has permitted

the control function in automation to become much more sophisticated and the associated

calculations to be executed much faster than previously possible. The development of integrated

circuits in the 1960s propelled a trend toward miniaturization in computer technology that has

led to machines that are much smaller and less expensive than their predecessors yet are capable

of performing calculations at much greater speeds. This trend is represented today by the

microprocessor, a miniature multicircuited device capable of performing all the logic and

arithmetic functions of a large digital computer.

Along with the advances in computer technology, there have been parallel improvements in

program storage technology for containing the programming commands. Modern storage media

include magnetic tapes and disks, magnetic bubble memories, optical data storage read by lasers,

videodisks, and electron beam-addressable memory systems. In addition, improvements have

been made in the methods of programming computers (and other programmable machines).

Modern programming languages are easier to use and are more powerful in their data-processing

and logic capabilities.

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Advances in sensor technology have provided a vast array of measuring devices that can be used

as components in automatic feedback control systems. These devices include highly sensitive

electromechanical probes, scanning laser beams, electrical field techniques, and machine vision.

Some of these sensor systems require computer technology for their implementation. Machine

vision, for example, requires the processing of enormous amounts of data that can be

accomplished only by high-speed digital computers. This technology is proving to be a versatile

sensory capability for various industrial tasks, such as part identification, quality inspection, and

robot guidance.

Finally, there has evolved since World War II a highly advanced mathematical theory of control

systems. The theory includes traditional negative feedback control, optimal control, adaptive

control, and artificial intelligence. Traditional feedback control theory makes use of linear

ordinary differential equations to analyze problems, as in Watt’s flying-ball governor. Although

most processes are more complex than the flying-ball governor, they still obey the same laws of

physics that are described by differential equations. Optimal control theory and adaptive control

theory are concerned with the problem of defining an appropriate index of performance for the

process of interest and then operating it in such a manner as to optimize its performance. The

difference between optimal and adaptive control is that the latter must be implemented under

conditions of a continuously changing and unpredictable environment; it therefore requires

sensor measurements of the environment to implement the control strategy.

References:
1. https://www.techopedia.com/definition/32099/automation
2. https://www.ibm.com/topics/automation
3. https://www.britannica.com/technology/automation
4.