1 INTRODUCTION TO AUTOMATION

1.1 Definition

Automation can be defined as the process of following a pre-determined se-

quence of operations with little or no human labour, using specialized equip-
ment and devices that perform and control manufacturing processes. This
is achieved through the use of a variety of devices, sensors, actuators, tech-
niques and equipment that are capable of observing the manufacturing pro-
cess, making decisions concerning the changes that need to be made in the
operation, and controlling all aspects of it.

It should be noted that automation and mechanization are not the same.
Mechanization refers to the use of powered machinery to help a human op-
erator in some task; it is replacing human power with machine power. For
example, using a power saw instead of a hand saw is an example of mech-
anization. Automation, on the others hand, replaces human thinking (not
muscles) with computers and machines; it is a step beyond mechanization
where both body and mind find machine alternatives. Industrial robotics is
the most visible part of automation.

Manufacturing automation deals with the production of goods and includes

• Automatic machine tools to produce parts

• Automatic assembly machines

• Industrial robotics

• Automatic material handling

• Automated storage and retrieval services

• Automatic inspection systems

• Feedback control systems

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 • Computer systems for automatically transforming designs into parts

• Computer systems for planning and decision-making to support man-

ufacturing

1.2 Application of Automation

Factors to consider before automating are

(a) The type of the product

(b) The quantity and rate of production

(c) Skill level of workers available

(d) Reliability and maintenance of the system

(e) Economics

(f) The desired level of automation

1.3 Types of Automation

1.3.1 Hard / Fixed Automation

This refers to the use of special purpose equipment to automate a fixed

sequence in processing or assembly operations. Product design changes are
very difficult to accommodate. Hard automation makes sense where there
are

• High production rates

• Stable product design

• Long product cycles

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For example, General Electric produces billions of light bulbs a year and
uses specialized, high-speed automation equipment to make them. Because
all the above conditions are generally met in the production of light bulbs,
hard automation makes sense in such a case.

Advantages of Hard Automation:

i. Maximum efficiency

ii. Low product unit cost

iii. Fast and efficient movement of parts in automated material handling

iv. Very little work in progress

Disadvantages of Hard Automation:

i. High initial investment

ii. Inflexibility

1.3.2 Programmable Automation

In programmable automation, the equipment is designed to accommodate a

specific class of product changes and the processing or assembly operations
can be changed by modifying the control program. It is particularly suited
to batch production or the manufacture of a product in small or medium-
sized lots. Reconfiguring the system for a new product is time-consuming
because it involves reprogramming and set-up for the machines, new fixtures
and tools. Examples of where it is implemented is with CNC machining,
industrial robotics, etc.

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Advantages of Programmable Automation:

i. Flexibility to deal with variations and changes in product

ii. Low unit cost for large batches

Disadvantages of Programmable Automation:

i. New product requires long set-up time

ii. High unit cost relative to fixed automation

1.3.3 Flexible / Soft Automation

In this type of automation, the equipment is designed to manufacture a

variety of products or parts, and very little time is spent in changing from one
product to another. It can thus be used to manufacture various combinations
of products according to any specified schedule. It is also possible to introduce
design changes of entirely new products with ease and without having to
change the basic equipment. Such assembly lines have a modular structure
which allow for easy set-up.

For example, Bosch car electronics section utilized flexible automation to

enable it manufacture over 10 types of car sensors on a single production
line.

Advantages of Flexible Automation:

i. Flexibility to deal with design variations

ii. Customized products

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Disadvantages of Flexible Automation

i. Large initial investment

ii. High unit cost relative to fixed and programmable automation

1.4 Factors that would Hinder Automation

(a) If the task is too difficult to automate

(b) If the product has a short life cycle

(c) If we are dealing with specialized products

(d) If there is fluctuating demand for the product

(e) If not automating will reduce the risk of product failure

(f) If cheap manual labour is available.

1.5 Advantages of Automation

The main advantages of automation are:

(a) Replacing human operators in tasks that involve hard physical or monotonous
work.

(b) Replacing humans in tasks that should be done in dangerous environ-

ments (i.e. fire, space, volcanoes, nuclear facilities, underwater, etc)

(c) Making tasks that are beyond the human capabilities such as handling
too heavy loads, too large objects, too hot or too cold substances or the
requirement to make things too fast or too slow.

(d) Automation facilitates improvement of product quality by offering a con-

sistency of operation that may be impossible to achieve using human
labour.

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(e) Most automated systems are computer controlled and this facilitates
computer integrated manufacturing in a facility.

(f) Economy improvement.

1.6 Disadvantages of Automation

The main disadvantages of automation are:

(a) Technology limits. Current technology is unable to automate all the

desired tasks.

(b) Unpredictable development costs. The research and development cost of

automating a process is difficult to predict accurately beforehand. Since
this cost can have a large impact on profitability, it’s possible to finish
automating a process only to discover that there’s no economic advantage
in doing so.

(c) Initial costs are relatively high. The automation of a new product re-
quired a huge initial investment in comparison with the unit cost of the
product, although the cost of automation is spread in many product
batches. The automation of a plant required a great initial investment
too, although this cost is spread in the products to be produced.

(d) Automation may lead to the loss of jobs of certain groups of people.

(e) Specialized training/skills impartation will be needed for the installation

and maintenance of automated systems. This naturally comes at an
increased cost.

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2 INTRODUCTION TO ROBOTICS

2.1 Definitions

ISO defines a robot as an automatically controlled, reprogrammable, multi-

purpose manipulator programmable in three or more axes.

Robotics Industry Association (RIA) defines a robot as a re-programmable,

multifunctional manipulator designed to move material, parts, tools or spe-
cialized devices through variable programmed motion for a variety of tasks.

Many times, an industrial robot possesses certain anthropomorphic (human-

like) characteristics. The most obvious anthropomorphic characteristic of an
industrial robot is its mechanical arm,which is used to perform various in-
dustrial tasks. Other human-like characteristics are the robot’s capabilities
to respond to sensory inputs, communicate with other machines and make
decisions.

The development of robotic technology followed the development of numeri-

cal control and the two technologies are quite similar. (NC is the automated
operation of a machine tool by a series of coded instructions consisting of
numbers, letters of the alphabet, and symbols that the machine control unit
(MCU) can understand. These instructions are changed into electrical pulses
of current that the machine’s motors and controls follow to carry out man-
ufacturing operations on a workpiece. The numbers, letters, and symbols
are coded instructions that refer to specific distances, positions, functions,
or motions, that the machine tool can understand as it machines the work-
piece.) They both involve coordinated control of multiple axes (the axes are
called joints in robotics) and they both use dedicated digital computers as
controllers.
Whereas NC machines are designed to perform specific processes (eg machin-
ing sheet metal, hole punching and thermal cutting) robots are designed for
a wide variety of tasks. Typical production applications of industrial robots

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include spot welding, material transfer, machine loading, spray painting and
assembly.

2.2 Advantages of Robots

Some of the qualities that make industrial robots commercially and techno-
logically important includes

(a) Robots can be substituted for humans in hazardous or uncomfortable

work environments.

(b) A robot can perform its work cycle with a consistency and repeatability
that cannot be attained by humans, increasing productivity.

(c) Robots can carry out tasks with high precision and efficiency, which can
dramatically improve product quality and throughput.

(d) Robots offer untiring performance, which saves time and reduces the need
for a large human workforce.

(e) Because of their accuracy, Rework and material wastage are minimised.
These lead to reduced financial expenditures.

(f) Robots can be reprogrammed. When the production run of current task
is completed, a robot can be reprogrammed and equipped with the nec-
essary tooling to perform an altogether different task.

(g) Robots are controlled by computers and can therefore be connected to

other computer systems to achieve computer integrated manufacturing.

2.3 Disadvantages of Robots

Disadvantages or challenges of using robots in the workplace are

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(a) The initial cost of installing robots is very high. Costs that must be fac-
tored in when automating using robots are equipment cost, installation
cost, programming, maintenance, operating software and hardware.

(b) There is no guaranteed return on investment. Poor planning beforehand

can see a company have difficulty in achieving the goals it set out to
using robots.

(c) Specialized training and expertise is needed in the proper operation and
maintenance of the robot.

(d) Some groups of people will lose their jobs as a result of the robots.

(e) Robots are machines and still pose a danger to people working near them.

2.4 Basic Terms used in Robotics

There is a set of basic terminology and concepts common to all robots. These
terms follow with brief explanations of each.

2.4.1 Links and Joints

Links are the solid structural members of a robot, and joints are the movable
couplings between them. The number of joints determine the number of
degrees of freedom of the robot.

2.4.2 Degree of Freedom (DoF)

The DoF describes the number of independent ways in which a mechanical

device or system can move. In robots, each joint introduces a degree of
freedom. Each DoF can be provided by a slider, rotary, or other type of
actuator. Robots typically have 5 or 6 degrees of freedom. 3 of the degrees
of freedom allow positioning in 3D space, while the other 2 or 3 are used for

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orientation of the end effector. 6 degrees of freedom are enough to allow the
robot to reach all positions and orientations in a 3D space.

Figure 1: Degrees of Freedom in 3-D space

2.4.3 Orientation Axes

Basically, if the tool is held at a fixed position, the orientation determines

which direction it can be pointed in. Roll, pitch and yaw are the common
orientation axes used. Looking at the figure below it will be obvious that
the tool can be positioned at any orientation in space. (imagine sitting in a
plane. If the plane rolls you will turn upside down. The pitch changes for
takeoff and landing and when flying in a crosswind the plane will yaw.) The
orientation axes are used to position the end effector (wrist).

2.4.4 Positioning Axes

The tool, regardless of orientation, can be moved to a number of positions

in space. Usually, the first 3 axes are used to position a robot. Various
robot geometries are suited to different work geometries. (More on robot
geometries later)

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 Figure 2: Illustration of roll, pitch and yaw in orientation

2.4.5 Coordinate Systems

To accomplish a task in an application, we need to control the position and

orientation of the robot in various coordinate systems. Note that the coor-
dinates are a combination of both the position of the origin and orientation
of the axes. The position of the tool is measured relative to these coordinate
systems. Some of the ones that find wide application in robotics are

(a) World coordinate system — a Cartesian coordinate with an arbitrary lo-

cation. Used to reference/locate all objects within the robot’s workspace.

(b) Base coordinate system — a Cartesian coordinate system with its origin
at the base of the robot mounting plate. Used to reference all axes within
the robot itself.

(c) Joint coordinate system — defined in each joint, depending on the type of
joint. Used to define orientation and position of each joint. For rotational
joint, it can be in angles. The direct joint parameters can also be in
pulses or encoder counts. Robots without intelligence can only measure
and control the joints directly.

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Figure 3: View of all the position and orientation axes on an articulated
robot

(d) Tool interface coordinate system — a Cartesian coordinate system de-

fined at the tool mounting plate. In applications, there is another im-
portant coordinate system known as the TCP. It translates and rotates
from the tool interface coordinate system.

2.4.6 Tool Centre Point (TCP)

The tool centre point is the mathematical point that the robot is moving
through space. Typically the TCP is used when referring to the robot’s

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 Figure 4: World Coordinates - To Locate the TCP

Figure 5: Tool Coordinates - Describing Positions Relative to the Tool

Figure 6: Joint Coordinates - the Positions of the Actuators

position, as well as the focal point of the tool. E.g. for a materials-handling
robot, the TCP may be at a point on the gripper, while a welding robot will
have its TCP at the tip of the welding gun. As tools are changed, the TCP
changes and we will often reprogram the robot for the TCP.

A robot arm will have a centre point (at the centre of its wrist) programmed
at the factory. This point is the (0,0,0) coordinate that is used to define
the TCP for each tool. The TCP can be specified in cartesian, cylindrical,
spherical, etc. coordinates depending on the robot. But why is TCP a big

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 Figure 7: The Tool center point TCP

deal? Take the example of a welding torch: crashing or bumping the welding
torch during production will cause it to bend. This then causes the welding
wire to misalign with the TCP,and this leads to the welds being mispositioned
and possibly affecting the weld quality.

2.4.7 Work envelope/Workspace

The robot tends to have a fixed, and limited geometry. The work envelope is
the boundary of positions in space that the robot can reach, and is created
by the motion of the manipulator in all directions. For a cartesian robot (like
an overhead crane) the workspace might be a square, for more sophisticated
robots the workspace might be a shape that looks like a ”clump of intersecting
bubbles”. It is necessary to match the work envelope with the application
and shop setting in order to choose an appropriate robot for the task. Figure
11 shows the complete work envelopes for the different robot configurations.

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 Figure 8: Work envelope

Figure 9: Articulated robot work envelope - side view

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 Figure 10: Articulated robot work envelope - top view

2.4.8 Speed

Speed refers either to the maximum velocity that is achievable by the TCP,
or by individual joints. This number is not accurate in most robots, and will
vary over the workspace as the geometry of the robot changes (and hence the
dynamic effects). The number will often reflect the maximum safest speed
possible. Some robots allow the maximum rated speed (100%) to be passed,
but it should be done with great care.

2.4.9 Payload

The payload indicates the maximum mass the robot can lift before either
failure of the robots, or dramatic loss of accuracy. It is possible to exceed the
maximum payload, and still have the robot operate, but this is not advised.
When the robot is accelerating fast, the payload should be less than the
maximum mass. The end of arm tooling should be considered part of the
payload.

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Figure 11: Complete work envelopes

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2.4.10 Repeatability

This means that when the robot is repeatedly instructed to return to the
same point, it is able to do so. Repeatability is considered to be +/- 3 times
the standard deviation of the position, or where 99.5% of all repeatability
measurements fall. This figure will vary over the workspace, but manufac-
turers will give a single value in specifications.

2.4.11 Accuracy

This is determined by the resolution of the workspace. If the robot is com-

manded to travel to a point in space, it will often be off by some amount,
the maximum distance should be considered the accuracy. This is an effect
of a control system that is not necessarily continuous.

2.4.12 Settling Time

During a movement, the robot moves fast, but as the robot approaches the
final position is slows down, and slowly approaches. The settling time is
the time required for the robot to be within a given distance from the final
position.

2.4.13 Control Resolution

This is the smallest change that can be measured by the feedback sensors, or
caused by the actuators, whichever is larger. If a rotary joint has an encoder
that measures every 0.01 degree of rotation, and a direct drive servo motor
is used to drive the joint, with a resolution of 0.5 degrees, then the control
resolution is about 0.5 degrees (the worst case can be 0.5+0.01).

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3 ELEMENTS OF A ROBOT

An industrial robot is made up of SIX basic elements as shown below. These

six elements communicate with each other throughout a robot’s operation in
order to enable it carry out the function for which it was intended.

Figure 12: Six basic elements of an industrial robot

3.1 Computerized Digital Controller

The computerized control system in an industrial robot controls each part to

operate properly. It can input and store different programs where working
sequence, linkage and relationships can be determined. The actuation of the
individual joints must be controlled in a coordinated fashion for the manip-
ulator to perform a desired motion cycle. Microprocessor-based controllers
are commonly used today in robotics as the control system hardware. The

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controller is organized in such a way that each joint has its own feedback con-
trol system, and there is a supervisory controller to coordinate the combined
actuation of the joints according to the sequence of robot program. Different
types of controls are required for different applications. In a process system,
the computer may need to control or connect to other machines like the belt,
the process machines, etc.

It is important to note that hardware changes necessitate software changes, so

finalize mechanical and sensor design early and then develop software based
upon a stable hardware platform (e.g. values that are written into your code
that were obtained from calibrating servos, and then different servos are used
on the final design). Incidences of robots getting stuck in a corner or running
into a wall are usually not a result of mechanical, electrical or sensor failure,
but of poor software design. The program may not have accounted for this
situation and did not provide a “way out” of this dilemma.

3.1.1 Types of Control

Robots controllers can be classified into FOUR categories

(a) Limit sequence control

(b) Playback with point-to-point control

(c) Playback with continuous path control

(d) Intelligent control

Limit Sequence Control — This is the most elementary control type. It

can be utilized only for simple motion cycles, such as pick and place oper-
ations. It is usually implemented by setting limits or mechanical stops for
each joint and sequencing the actuation of the joints to accomplish the cy-
cle. Feedback loops are sometimes used to indicate that the particular joint
actuation has been accomplished so that the next step in the sequence can

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be initiated. However, there is no servo-control to accomplish precise posi-
tioning of the joint. Many pneumatically driven robots are limited sequence
robots. (E.g) Bosch in-line assembly robots.

Playback with Point-To-Point Control — Playback robots represent

a more sophisticated form of control than limited sequence robots. Playback
control means that the controller has a memory to record the sequence of
motion in a given work cycle as well as the locations and other parameters
(such as speed associated with each motion) and then to subsequently play
back the work cycle during execution of the program. Individual position
of the robot arm are recorded into memory. Each position in the robot
program consists of a set of values representing locations in the range of
each joint of the manipulator. Thus, each “point” consists of five or six
values corresponding to the positions of each of the five or six joints of the
manipulator. Feedback control is used during the motion cycle to confirm
that the individual joints achieve the specified location in the program.

Playback with Continuous Path Control — Continuous path (CP)

robots have the same playback capability as the PTP robots. A playback
robot with continuous path control is capable of one or both of the following:

i. Greater storage capacity — The controller has a far greater storage ca-
pacity than its PTP counterpart, so the number of locations that can be
recorded into memory is far greater than for PTP. Thus, the points con-
stituting the motion cycle can be spaced very closely together to permit
the robot to accomplish a smooth continuous motion.

ii. Interpolation calculations — The controller computes the path between

the starting point and the ending point for each move using interpolation
routines which generally include linear and circular interpolation (similar
to NC machines).

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The difference between PTP and CP control can be distinguished in the
following mathematical way; Consider a three axes cartesian coordinate ma-
nipulator in which the end-of-arm is moved in x − y − z space. In the PTP
systems, the x, y and z axes are controlled to achieve a specified point lo-
cation within the robot’s work volume. In CP systems, not only are the
x, y and z axes controlled, but the velocities dx/dt, dy/dt and dz/dt are
controlled simultaneously to achieve the specified linear or curvilinear path.
Servo-control is used to continuously regulate the position and speed of the
manipulator.

Intelligent Control — An intelligent robot is one that exhibits behavior

that makes it seem intelligent. Some of the characteristics that make a robot
appear intelligent include

i. The capacity to interact with its environment

ii. Make decisions when things go wrong during the work cycle

iii. Communicate with humans

iv. Make computations during the motion cycle

v. Respond to advanced sensor inputs such as machine vision.

These features require a relatively high level of computer control and an

advanced programming language to input the decision-making logic and other
“intelligence” into memory.

3.1.2 Robot Control Strategies

There are THREE types of robot control methods / strategies that may be
implemented on any robotic system. The strategy implemented depends on
cost, level of accuracy and nature of task being implemented.

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Negative Feedback Control — Corrections decrease the error. Compute
an error signal by comparing the output signal with the desired signal and
make a change that’s proportional to the error. (E.g) wall-following robot
- sense values, determine if robot is too far or too close, adjust position
accordingly. If the parameters are to be tuned well, this control method
offers robust and stable performance.

Open-Loop Control — Figure out a priori how long or how well you can
perform an action and program the robot for it, without measuring the result.
(E.g.) use a shaft encoder to generate pulses and calculate the relationship
between pulses and distance. Disadvantages

i. requires high degree of accuracy or predictability

ii. requires careful tuning

iii. errors accumulate.

Feed-Forward Control — Changes are detected at the process input

(through measurement) and an anticipating correction signal is applied be-
fore process output is affected, the aim being to maintain a specified state.
Requires an extensive and accurate mathematical model of the system, there-
fore difficult and expensive to develop.

3.2 Joint Actuators

An actuator is a source of movement. Actuators control each of the axes

(by controlling the joints) and maintain the direction of moving. The type
of actuator chosen depends on the cost implications, the robot’s payload,
environment in which it will be working, required speed of motion, level of
computer integration, etc.

Robot joints are mostly actuated using any of three types of drive systems

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(a) Electric

(b) Pneumatic

(c) Hydraulic

3.2.1 Electric Drives

Electric drive systems use electric motors as joints actuators (eg servo motors
or stepper motors).

Advantages of electric drives are

(a) High speed and precision

(b) Easily controllable

(c) Relatively low cost

(d) Simple to use

(e) Small dimensions

Disadvantages of electric drives are

(a) Reduction gears (increasing size and cost)

(b) Non-linear effects (e.g. backlash and dead zones) due to reduction gears

(c) Not enough power for certain applications

Electric drives have become the preferred drive system in commercially avail-
able robots (appox 50% as electric motor technology has greatly advanced in
recent years. It is more readily adaptable to computer control which is the
dominant technology used today on robot controllers.

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3.2.2 Pneumatic Drives

Pneumatic drives use air as the primary actuator.

Advantages of pneumatic drives are

(a) Air is infinitely available

(b) Relatively low cost.

(c) Suitable for clean room environments

(d) High velocity

Disadvantages of pneumatic drives are

(a) Many accessories required (compressors, filters, etc)

(b) Low accuracy

(c) Noisy

(d) Leakages

Pneumatic drive is typically limited to smaller robots used in simple material

transfer applications.

3.2.3 Hydraulic Drives

Hydraulic drives use oil as the actuating medium. Utilizes hydraulic pistons
and rotary vanes

Advantages of hydraulic drives are

(a) High power

(b) High speeds

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(c) Easy to be controlled

(d) Once in position, the configuration is maintained thanks to the oil.

Disadvantages of hydraulic drives are

(a) Relatively high costs for small dimensions

(b) Noisy

(c) Oil leakages

(d) Requires additional hardware (filters, etc)

3.3 Dynamic System

Dynamic system is needed for movement in the working area. The most
important of which is the robotic arm. According to the designs of the
robots, the main axis will move linearly or rotationally. The movements of
the robotic arm are enabled by drives which can either be electric, hydraulic
or pneumatic. The various robot configurations will be covered in Chapter
4.

3.4 End Effector

Robots interact with their environment through their end effectors. The
robot’s great flexibility is not extended to its end effector. The arm of the
robot can be fitted with various tools and grippers that can be used to accom-
plish various tasks. One end effector is used for a single purpose. Examples
are welding guns, hooks, clamps, spraying guns, electromagnets, vacuum
cups, etc.

End effectors can be divided into tools and grippers.

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3.4.1 Tools

The robot uses tools to perform processing operations on the workpart. The
robot manipulates the tool relative to a stationary or slowly moving object
(e.g. workpart or subassembly). Examples of the tools used as end effec-
tors by robots to perform processing applications include spot welding gun,
arc welding tool; spray painting gun; rotating spindle for drilling, routing,
grinding, and similar operations; assembly tool (eg automatic screwdriver);
heating torch; ladle (for metal casting); and water jet cutting tool. In each
case, the robot must not only control the relative position of the tool with
respect to the work as a function of time, it must also control the operation
of the tool.

3.4.2 Gripers

Grippers are end effectors used to grasp and manipulate objects during the
work cycle. Owing to the variety of part shapes, sizes and weights, most
grippers must be custom designed.

Types of grippers Types of grippers used in industrial robot applications

include the following

(a) Mechanical grippers — consisting of two or more fingers that can be

actuated by the robot controller to open and close to grasp the workpart
(e.g. robotic arms)

(b) Vacuum gripper — in which suction cups are used to hold flat objects
(e.g. for glass)

(c) Magnetized devices — for holding ferrous parts

(d) Adhesive devices — which use an adhesive substance to hold a flexible

material such as a fabric

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(e) Simple mechanical devices — such as hooks and scoops.

Mechanical grippers are the most common gripper type. Some of the inno-
vations and advances in mechanical gripper technology include:

Mechanical Gripper Innovations

(a) Interchangeable fingers — that can be used on one gripper mecha-

nism. To accommodate different parts, different fingers are attached to
the gripper.

(b) Sensory feedback — in the fingers that provide the gripper with ca-
pabilities such as sensing the presence of the workpart or applying a
specified limited force to the workpart during gripping (for fragile work-
parts)

(c) Multiple fingered grippers — that possess the general anatomy of

the human hand.

(d) Standard gripper products — that are commercially available, thus

reducing the need to custom-design a gripper for each separate robot
application.

3.5 Feedback System

Feedback systems of a robot measure the position, moving velocity and ac-
celeration of each axis. Each axis can set any point as the reference point,
then relative or absolute linear movement can be performed.

The feedback systems can be either open loop or closed loop.

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3.5.1 Open-loop Nonservo-Controlled Systems

These are systems without feedback information. They are controlled by

ON-OFF switches or by simple speed adjustments without feedback. These
systems would mostly use stepper motors to achieve

3.5.2 Closed-loop Servo-Controlled Systems

These use continuous monitoring to tell how well a task is being performed.
They have internal sensors to measure the various parameters that are to be
controlled.

Components of a Closed-loop Servo Systems

(a) Command / input signal — specifies a desired speed or position

(b) Comparator — compares the input signal and the feedback signal. If
the two signals are the same, the output device stops. If the two signals
are different, a signal to the output device is created.

(c) Amplifier — it raises the comparator signal to a power level capable of

activating the output device

(d) Output device — is usually the motor that is to be controlled.

(e) Sensor — This sends back a feedback signal. The sensors used in feed-
back systems are internal sensors. Internal sensors are components of
the robot and are used to give feedback on the positions and velocities
of the various joints of the robot. Typical sensors used to control the
position of the robot arm include potentiometers and encoders (e.g. ro-
tary, linear, optical). Tachometers of various types are used to control
the speed of the robot arm.

(f) Feedback signal — Identifies how well the machine has carried out the
command by noting actual position or speed of the machine.

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3.6 Sensors

Robots use sensors to identify and evaluate the change in position, difference
in patterns and the hindrances or failures of external systems. The types of
sensors used depends on the quantity that it is to measure.

Sensors can be internal to the robot or external. Internal robots have been
mentioned above and are part of the servo feedback control system. External
sensors are external to the robot and are used to coordinate the operation
of the robot with the the other equipments in the cell. In many cases, these
external sensors are relatively simple devices, such as limit switches that
determine whether a part has been positioned properly in a fixture or that
a part is ready to be picked up at a conveyor. Other situations require more
advanced sensor technologies, including the following:

(a) Tactile sensors:— These are used to determine whether contact is made
between the sensor and another object. Tactile sensors can be divided
into two types in robot applications:

i. Touch sensors — these indicate simply that contact has been made
with the object.
ii. Force sensors – these indicate the magnitude of the force on the
object. These might be useful in grippers to measure and control
the force being applied to grasp a delicate object.

(b) Proximity sensors:— These indicate when an object is close to the

sensor. When this type of sensor is used to indicate the actual distance
of the object, it is called a range sensor

(c) Optical sensors: Photocells and other photometric devices can be uti-
lized to detect the presence or absence of objects and are often used for
proximity detection.

(d) Machine vision: Machine vision is used in robotics for inspection, parts
identification, guidance, and other uses.

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(e) Other sensors: A miscellaneous category includes other types of sensors
that might be used in robotics, such as devices for measuring temper-
ature, fluid pressure, fluid flow, electrical voltage, current, and various
other physical properties

3.7 Robot Programming

A robot program can be defined as a path in space to be followed by a

manipulator, combined with peripheral actions that support the work cycle.
Robots can perform complex tasks under the control of stored programs. The
process of robot programming includes teaching it the task to be performed,
storing the program, executing the program and debugging it. Some of the
peripheral actions include opening and closing the gripper, logical decision-
making, and communicating with other devices within the robot cell. The
principal task of robot programming is to control the motions and actions of
the manipulator..

a number of different techniques are used to program robots. A robot is pro-

grammed by entering the programming commands into its controller memory.
the methods of entering the commands are

(a) Manual programming

(b) Lead-through programming

(c) Walk-through programming

(d) Off-line programming

3.7.1 Manual Programming

Various controlling components of a robot, like cams, stops, switches, control

relays, etc, are set through this method. Can only be employed for robots
with relatively short work cycles and simple operations like pick-and-place,
load and unload, etc.

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3.7.2 Walk-Through Programming

In this method, the arm and hand of the robot are initially moved manually
and these movements are stored in computer memory for being followed
during further operations. This method is well suited to welding and spray-
painting robots.

3.7.3 Lead-Through Programming

In lead-through programming, the work cycle is taught to the robot by mov-

ing the manipulator through the required motion cycle and simultaneously
entering the program into the controller memory for later playback. This
is achieved through a teach pendant. There are two types of lead-through
programming

(a) Manual lead-through programming

(b) Powered lead-through programming

Manual Lead-Through Programming In this method, the operator

physically grasps and moves the wrist end of the robot in the path of op-
eration, which is recorded in memory. He uses a teach button while in teach
mode. During “run” mode, the wrist end repeats the taught motion. This
method lends itself well to continuous operation (i.e. CP robots).

It finds use in spot welding operations, point-to-point movements, machine

loading and unloading, etc.

Powered Lead-Through Programming In this method, the operator

uses the teach pendant to control the joint actuators. The points of mo-
tion are recorded into memory and converted into motion programs. Sub-
sequently, the program is utilized to play back the motion during the work
cycle. This method lends itself to PTP operation.

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It finds use in spray painting operations.

Advantages of Lead-Through Programming

i. Easily learned by shop personnel

ii. Logical way to teach a robot

iii. No computer programming

Disadvantages of Lead-Through Programming

i. Downtime during programming

ii. Limited programming logic capability

iii. Not compatible with supervisory control

3.7.4 Off-Line Programming

This programming method works hand-in-hand with simulation. Program

is prepared at a remote computer terminal and downloaded to the robot
controller for execution without need for lead-through methods. This method
does not require any robot down-time since it is prepared offline.

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4 ROBOTIC DYNAMIC SYSTEMS

4.1 Introduction

Robots come in a wide variety of shapes and configurations and are designed
for specific purposes. The major classes of robots include,

(a) Mobile Robots - these robots are free to move

(b) Robotic Arms - fixed in place, but can reach and manipulate parts and
tools.

4.2 Mobile Robots

Mobile robots can be wheeled robots or walking robots.

4.3 Robotic Arms

These robot manipulators consist of two sections

(a) Body-and-arm — for positioning of objects in the robot’s work volume

(b) Wrist assembly — for orientation of objects

The manipulator is composed of joints and links. Joints provide relative

motion and links are rigid members between joints;

There are two joint types: linear and rotary.

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4.3.1 Types of Manipulator Joints

Two types of motion are provided by joints: translatory motion and rotary
motion. Each joint provides a degree-of-freedom. Most robots possess five or
six degrees-of-freedom

These joints are:

Translation Motion:— This is enabled slider joints in which the link is

supported on a linear slider bearing, and linearly actuated by ball screws and
motors or cylinders. There are two types of joints that provide linear motion:

(a) Linear joint (type L)

(b) Orthogonal joint (type O)

Rotary Motion:— This is provided by rotational joints often driven by

electric motors and chain/belt/gear transmissions, or by hydraulic cylinders
and levers. There are three types of rotary joints

(a) Rotational joint (type R)

(b) Twisting joint (type T)

(c) Revolving joint (type V)

These joints are illustrated in figure 13 below.

Joint notation scheme:— The joint symbols (L, O, R, T, V) are used

to designate joint types used to construct the robot manipulators. A colon
is used to separate the body-and-arm assembly from the wrist assembly. e.g.
TRL:TR would be the configuration for a polar coordinate robot.

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 Figure 13: Typical Joint Types in Robotics

4.3.2 Cartesian / Gantry Robot

Positioning is done in the workspace with translatory joints. This configura-

tion is well used when a large workspace must be covered, or when consistent
accuracy is expected from the robot.

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 Figure 14: Cartesian Robot

4.3.3 Cylindrical Robot

The robot has a rotational motion about a base, a prismatic joint for height,
and a prismatic joint for radius. This robot is well suited to round workspaces.

Figure 15: Cylindrical Robot

4.3.4 SCARA Robot

This robot conforms to cylindrical coordinates, but the radius and rotation
is obtained by a two planar links with revolute joints.

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 Figure 16: Scara robot

4.3.5 Spherical Robot

Two rotational joints and one prismatic joint allow the robot to point in
many directions, and then reach out some radial distance.

Figure 17: Spherical Robot

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4.3.6 Articulated Robot

The robot uses 3 rotational joints to position the robot. Generally the work
volume is spherical. This robot most resembles the human arm, with a waist,
shoulder, elbow, wrist.

Figure 18: Articulated/Revolute/ Jointed Spherical Robot

4.3.7 Parallel Axis Robot

Students to find out about this.

4.4 Assignment 1

(a) i. What are the advantages and disadvantages of mobile robots over
fixed arm robots?
ii. What are the areas of application of mobile robots?

(b) For each of the SIX basic robot configurations, make short notes on the
following

i. Description and properties of the robot. Include a drawing of the

robot

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 ii. Advantages
iii. Limitations
iv. Areas of application
v. Complete joint notation

4.5 Application of Industrial Robots

Robots in industry will typically be used for the following tasks

(a) Material handling

i. Material transfer applications

ii. Machine loading and unloading applications
iii. Palletizing applications

(b) Processing applications

i. Arc welding
ii. Spot welding
iii. Spray painting
iv. Paint scraping

(c) Assembly applications

i. The assembly task

ii. Peg-in-hole assembly

(d) Inspection applications

i. Sensor based inspection

ii. Vision based inspection
iii. Testing

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