Group Automorphisms 1 Automorphisms ofa Group Definition : An isomorphic mapping of a group G onto itself is called an automorphism of G. rm Thus £:G —, ° Gis an automorphism of G if one-one F (ab) = f (a) f (b) ¥a, be. IfG is any group, then the identity mapping !:G— G such that I (x)=x,¥x €G is an automorphism of G. Obviously, / is one-one onto and T(xy) = xy =1 (x) I(y), ¥x, ye. The identity mapping J of G is called a trivial automorphism of G. lnustrative Examples Example 1: Show that the mapping f:1-1 such that f (x)=-x¥xel is an automorphism of the additive group of integers I. Solutton: Obviously the mapping f is one-one onto. Let x1 ,x2 be any two elements of . Then F (xy + XQ) = = by + x9) = (xq) + (-x2) =f (x1) + f (xg). Hence f is an automorphism of I. Example 2: Show that a— a" is an automorphism of a group G iffG is abelian, Solution: Let f :G — G be such that f (x) =x"! ¥ x eG, The function f is one-one because Fo=fly) = x tay Ss Tey ony Also if x € G, then x ~ €G and we have fe Nactyp lex, 4. fis onto, Now suppose G is abelian. Let a, bbe any two elements of G. Then F (ab) = (aby? [By def. of f ] ebt@teg yt (Gis abelian} =f (aft ceedKrishna's T.B. Group and Ring Theory «fis an automorphism of G. Conversely suppose that f is an automorphism of G, Leta, be G. We have f (ab) = (ab)~! [By def. of f | =blal =f (bf (a) [By def. of f } = f (ba). [fis an automorphism] Since f is one-one, therefore f(ab)=f (ba) => ab=ba => Gis abelian. Example 3: Let G be a group. H a subgroup of G. f an automorphism of G. Let J(H)=(f th):heH) Prove that f (H ) is a subgroup of G Solution: Let a, b be any two elements of f (H ) Then a=f hy) and b= f thy) where hy. hy eH Now hy. hp eH > by hp eH (> H isa subgroup] = J thy hy ")e fH) = Jhy) {thy "ye fH) [of is an automorphism] “ PUES rg UH) oe ob be fH) Jf (H )is a subgroup of G Note: Some authors use the symbol Af in place of f (hj to denote the image of an element. Example 4: LetG be a group, { an outqrnorphiwn of G. N a normal subgroup of G. Prove that f (N ) is a normal subgroup of G Solution; First show as in Example 3 that / (N ) is a subgroup of G Now to show that f (N ) is a normal subgroup of G Let xe€G and ke f (N) Thenx = f ( y)where y € G because f is a function of G ontoG. Alsok = f (n)wherene N Wehave ——xkx “=f (y)f indi f(y = fyb fd f(y =F (pny) Since N is normal in G, therefore yny~! € N. Consequently f ( yny™)e f (N). Thus xkx7) € f (N). 1 (N )is a normal subgroup of GGroup Automorphisms a, 2 Group of Automorphisms of a Group Theorem 1: The set of all automorphisms of a group forms a group with respect to composite of functions as the composition. Proof: Let A (G) be the collection of all automorphisms of a group G. Then A(G)={f:f is an automorphism of G }. We shall prove that A (G )is a group with respect to composite of functions as. composition. Closure Property: Let f,g ¢ A(G). Then f, g are one-one mappings of G onto itself. Therefore g f is also a one-one mapping of G onto itself. If a, bbe any two elements of G, we have (gf) (ab)=g 1 f (ab) =g 1 f (a) f (b)) =a fl F(DI=l gf) @I{ gf) (b). :. gf is also an automorphism of G. Thus A (G) is closed with respect to composite composition. Associativity: We know that composite of arbitrary mappings is associative. Therefore composite of automorphisms is also associative. Existence of Identity: The identity function i on G is also an automorphism of G. Obviously i is one-one onto and if a, be G, then i (ab) = ab =i (a) i (b). Thusie A (G ) and if f€A(G),we have if = f = fi. Existence of Inverse: Let f ¢A(G ). Since f is a one-one mapping of G onto itself, therefore f ~) exists and is also a one-one mapping of G onto itself. We shall show that f lig also an automorphism of G. Let a, b € G. Then there exist a’ , b’ eG such that Fl@=a @ fld)=a and fl (b= © f(b )=b We have F(ab) = FL f(a’) F (6) SITUS (a B= ab =f (0) f(b, . flisan automorphism of G and thus feA(G)=> fleAG). Therefore each element of A (G) possesses inverse. Therefore A (G ) is a group with respect to composite composition. Theorem 2: LetG be a group. Let. A (G) denote the set of all automorphisms of G and P(G) be the group of all permutations of G. Then A (G) is a subgroup of P (G). Proof: We have P(G) ={f:f is a permutation of Gi.e., f:G — Gis one-one onto}. We know that P (G) isa group for the composite of two permutations as the binary operation. ee Ee eee~~ Kiishna's T.B. Group and Ring Theory Al A(G)=({f :f isan automorphism of G}. IsO, Th ping f :G > G is said to be an automorphism of G if f is one-one onto and f is a e Map 7 7 homomorphism i.e., f(ab) = f(a) f(b), ¥ a, be G. Obviously, feA(G)=feP(C). Thus A(G)cP(G). , Also, A (G) # @, because I € A (G), where I is the identity mapping ofthe group G, In oeder to show that A (G} is a subgroup of P (G) it is sufficient to show that feAG),geA(G)=> foe AG), where g? is the inverse of g in the group P (G). First we shall show that g € A (G) = gleA@). Now g € A(G) = g is an automorphism of G = gis one-one onto and g (ab) = g(a) g(b), ¥.a, be G. Since the mapping g : G -» G is one-one onto, therefore its inverse mapping g~! : iG exists and is also one-one onto. Let a, bbe any two elements of G. Then there exist elements a’, b’e G such that g(a) =a .g7(b)=b and g(a’) =a,g (b’)=b. (2) We ahve Mab) = g"g (a) ab"). [From (2)} =g gla’ b’)| [egisa homomorphism} ela! [By def. of gy =a) g7(b) {From (1)] v-the mapping g~! : G + G is a homomorphism of G. . Since g7}:G 4G is one-one onto and is a homomo: mphism of G, therefore g~ is an automorphism of Giie.,g~! € A(G) ; ; Thus ge AG) AG) Now we shall show that fe AG), ge AG) => foe AG), where fg”) is the composite Mapping of the mappings f and gt Since the mappings f:G + Gandg! :G + Gare one-one onto = efore their composite mapping fg”) :G > Gis also one-one onto. Now we shall show that the Mapping fg~! :G + Gis < homomorphism. Let a, bbe any two elements of G. Then fa" Nab)= ftg7Nab)) [By det <2 Composite of two mappings! pe- Group Automorphisms ; (05 =flg Mag "b)) fg" is a homomorphism of G} =fla Mafia (be f isa homomorphism} = fo Malfa™"(by {By def. of the composite of two mappings} the mapping fg"! :G 3G is a homomorphism of G. fais an automorphism of Gice., fg”! € A(G) Thus fe AG).geAG)> fg! AG) Hence, A (G) is a subgroup of P (G). Theorem 3: LetG be a group and f an automorphism of G. Ifa Gis of order greater than zero, then prove that o[ f(a)] = o(a). Proof : Suppose the mapping f is an automorphism of a group G. Let abe any element of G such that o (a) =n, where n > 0, Let olfla)] =m. Let e be the identity of G. Then f(e) =e. Now olaj=n => d'=e = f(d")=f(e) => f (aaa...n times) = e => fla) f(d f(d)....ntimes =e = [f@"]=e = olf(aisn => msn. Again olfla|=m = [f(aJ"=e => F(a) fla) f(q)....mtimes=e => f (aaa....m times) =e \ = fla") = fle) anes [fl =e] =e [+f is one-one] > o(a) nsm. Thus, msn and nsm => m=n. Hence, olf(a)] = ofa). 3 Inner Automorphisms We shall now study a special type of automorphisms known as inner automorphisms. First we shall prove a preliminary theorem, Theorem 1: Let abe a fixed element of agroup G. Then the mapping fa :G > Gdefined by fa (x) =a"? xa ¥ x eG is an automorphism of G. Proof: The mapping f, is one-one: Let x, y be any two elements of G. Then fa() = fa(y) = a *xa=a7 ya x = y, by cancellation laws in G. Therefore the mapping Ja is one-one. > _Xx Kriskea's T.B. Group and Ring Theory Aa as } The mapping f, is also ontoG: Ifyisany element ofG, then aya” Gand we have fy (aya?) = a7 (aya?) a= y. fais ontoG. Finally ic, ye G then fo (ay) =a (xy) a= (axa) (aya) = fa) fa (3) Hence f, is an automorphism of G. Inner Automorphism Definition: [fG is a group, the mapping fa:G> G defined by fy (x)=a"! xa ¥ x eG is an automorphism of G known as inner automorphism. Also an automorphism which is not inner is called an outer automorphism. Theorem 2: For an abelian group the only inner automorphism is the identity mapping whereas for non-abelian groups there exist non-trivial automorphisms, Proof: Suppose G is an abelian group and f, is an inner automorphism of G. Ifx €G, we have fa («)=a7! xa=a7 ox [Gis abelian] =ex=Xx. Thus fa(x)=x ¥ xeG. +. fq is the identity mapping of G. Let now G be non-abelian. Then there exist at least two elements say a, be G such that ba#ab = a! bazb = f, (b)#b. Hence fq is not the identity mapping of G. Thus for non-abelian groups there always exist non-trivial inner automorphisms. 3.1 Applications of Factor Groups to Automorphism Groups Theorem 3: The set! (G ) of all inner automorphisms of a group G is a normal subgroup of the group of its automorphisms isomorphic to the quotient group (factor group) G/ Z ofG where Z is the centre of G. Proof: Let A (G) denote the group of all automorphisms of G. Then I(G)cAG). Let a, be G, We shall first prove the following two results: @) fas fy"! i.e., the inner automorphism f, 1 is the inverse function of the inner automorphism f, . (ii) fa fy = fa « TR een oneGroup Automorphisms Proof of (i): If x €G, then we have Salt) 00 fal f,-1 Gell = falla} xa] =falaxa™} =a" (axaa=x, © fof, is the identity function on G. fv =(fa). Proof of (ii): Ifx eG, then we have (fafo) (x) = fal fo (x)1= fa (bIxb) =a (bx b) a= (ab) x (ba) = (ba)“"x (ba) = fg (x). Sa fo = foa- Now we shall prove that! (G )isa subgroup of A (G ).Let fy , fy be any two elements of I (G ). Then fa (JB =fa fy = fy €1 (G) since 6 ae, Thus farfoel(G) = fa (fy 1 eG). . L(G) isa subgroup of A (G). Now we shall prove that I (G) is a normal subgroup of A (G). Let fe A(G)and f, €1 (G). Ifx €G, then we have Fh F106) =F fa)E FON =F fa (I Ged = flat f(x) a] =F) FEF GIF (a) {+f is composition preserving] =f (0) x f (a) [fF (lex) =Lf (al x f (a) =e! xe, where f (a)=ceG=f.(x). f fa f 1 =f €1(G) since ceG, +. 1(G)is anormal subgroup of A G). Now we shall show that I (G ) is isomorphic to G/ Z. For this we shall show that I (G) is a homomorphic image of G and Z is the kernel of the corresponding homomorphism. Then by the fundamental theorem on homomorphism of groups we shall have G/Z=I1G). Consider the mapping 6 : GI (G) defined by o()=f.1 ¥ aeG.) Aaos| Obviously @ is onto I (G ) because f, €/(G) = a€G and this implies a~! . G Now o(a"!) = fet =f +. dis onto I (G). Now to prove that $ (ab) = 9 (a) (b) ¥ a, beG. We have $ (ab) = fyyy-1 = S541 gt f-1 ft = 4 (0) 6 (6). Now to show that Z is the kernel of 6. The identity function i on G is the identity of the group I (G). Let K be the kernel of o. Then we have zeK @ o(2)=1 @f-1 =i fa (x)=i(x) ¥ xeG ° (ylxzt=x ¥xeGe zxzt=x ¥ xeG e 2x=xz ¥xeG @zeG. K=Z. Hence the theorem. 4 Group of Automorphisms of Finite and Infinite Cuclic Groups Suppose G = {a} is a cyclic group generated by a. An automorphism f of G is co defined by a relation of the form f(d=a", where m is some suitable integer. Mpletely (I) For if k is any integer, then for f to be an automorphism of G, we have Flak) =1 f (a =(a)*. waf2h The relation (2) gives the f-image of each element of G and the mapping f is thus completely defined. < Now let bbe any element of G. Since f isa mapping of G onto itself, therefore there must exist an element a € G such that b=fiaky= (a), ' a) From (3) we conclude that for the mapping J defined in (1) to be an automorphism of G, 0" must be a generator of G. Now if G is infinite, the only generators of G are a and a”. So in this case the only automorphisms of G are, (i) _ the identity mapping | for which Ma)=a = 1at)=ak ¥ kerae Group Automorphisms 0-9 Py (i) the mapping f defined by f (a) = a7! Therefore the group of automorphisms of an infinite cyclic group is of order 2. On the other hand if Gis of finite order n,then a isa generator of G if and only if m is prime tonand less than n. We shall show that for each such m, the mapping f defined in (1) is an automorphism of G f isone-one: Leta‘ and a *2 be any two elements of G where Usk Sn, 1skgsn and ky 2kg. Then Flakty=y (ake) ay (gmt = (a2 3 => aM = gmke 7 aM ky ~ kp) =e = n|m(ky -kp). But m is prime to n and 0 < (ky - kg) ky=kp => aM =a*2, Thus F(a") =f (a'2) = ahi =e, Therefore the mapping f is one-one. fis onto: Since Gis finite and f is one-one, therefore f{ must be onto G. Finally ifa "1, a *2 are any two elements of G, then Flak ake) = ¢ (ght +key = fatty, where u is some integer and 0 Ggiven byo (x) =nx isan automorphismoy G. Solution: The mapping o is one-one. Let x, y be any two elements of G. Then o(x)=o(y) = nx=ny > n(x — y) =0, where 0 is the identity of the group G => o(x -y)|n = o(x-y)[n and — o(x ~y)|0(G) Fob ~Jloigy => o(x-y)=1 [+ if o(x — y) #1, then o(x — y) >1=>nand o(G) are not Telatively Prime] > x-y=o i.e., the identity of G > x=y. Therefore the mapping c is one-one. The mapping ¢ is also onto G. Since Gis finite andcis one-one, therefore o must be onto G. Finally if x, ye G, then 6 (x + y) =n(x + y) =nx + ny=a(x)+a(y). Hence, o is an automorphism of G. Example 6: Let R* be the multiplicative group of all positive real numbers. Show that the mapping f: R* — R* defined by f (x)=x2,Vx €R* isan automorphism. Solution: We have R* = {x : x € R and x > 0}. The mapping f is one-one : Let x, ye R. Then flx)=fly) => x?=y = xay [+x >Oand y>0] «. f is one-one. The mapping f is onto : Let x be any element of R*. Then there exists vx €R* such that fix) =x}? =x. -. f is onto. : The mapping f is a homomorphism : Let x,y be any two elements of R*. Then Sley) = (xy)? = x2y? = f(x) fly). +. f isa homomorphism. Hence, f is an automorphism of R*. Example 7; Find the automorphism group of Az, where As is the alternating group of degree 3 on three symbols, .Group Automorphisms (on rN Solution: Let Ag be the altemating group on three symbols a, b,c. Then A3 ={e, fa), where e = the identity permutation, f = (abe) and g=(acb) Let ! be the identity mapping of A3i.e., He)=e,1 (f) =f and I(g)=g. Then obviously I is an automorphism of A. Now consider the mapping T : 3 — Ag defined by Tle)=e,T(f)=9,T(g) =f. Obviously T is a one-one mapping of A3 onto A3. We have Tlef)=Tif)=9 =eg =Tle)T(f), T(fe) =T(f) = Tleg) =T(g) = f = T(ge) = T(g) Tie). Also, T(fg) =T(e) abc)\(ac b : fa = ote -(? c lt b H =e and T(f) T(g) = gf =(acb) (abc) = e, * T(fg) =T(f)T(g). Similarly T(@f)=T(g) Tif). (Note that A3 is an abelian group] :. ThemappingT isa homomorphism. Thus the mappingT is also an automorphism of. ‘A3. Hence, the automorphism group Aut(A3) of A3 contains only two elements, namely I andT. Thus Aut (Ag) ={I, T}. ea Example 8: If f :G -> G such that f(a) = d", Va €G is an automorphism of G, show that a”1eZ for all ae, where Z is the centre of the gruop G. Solution: Let x, abe any two elements of G, We have f(a"xd") = (a"xa")" [By def. of the mapping f] sa"x"" [- if, bare any elements of a group G, then (b“lab)" = ba” b for any integer n} =( (a) )MxMan = fla) flr) fla) [By def. of the mapping f] = fa *xa), [+ the mapping f is a homomorphism] Thus flaxa") = (axa), Since the mapping f is one-one, therefore a~"xa"= a7 !xa > xa" te aye Vx, aeG > a" eZ, VaeG,ep eee : Krishna's T.B. Group and Ring Theory Ad oi2) Example 9: Let f :G + Gbeahomomorphismi.e., f isan endomorphism of G. Suppose f commutes with every inner automorphism of G. Show that (i) K={x €G: f2(x) = f(x)} is a normal subgroup of G (ii) G/K is abelian. Solution: (i) Let e be the identity of the group G. . We have fle) = flfle)) = fle). . eeK andsoKk #@. Now let x, y be any two elements of K. Then f(x) = f(x) and f(y) = f2(y). We have Poy) =f by) = flfle) f")] f+ fis a homomorphism] = fF) LIT) [- f is a homomorphism = f(y~}) =r yy = fF FYI) {+ fis a homomorphism} = Figur [- f is a homomorphism = ALT) =F yy = FP) Fy = foxyifyr tex, ye = f(x) = f(x) and f2(y) = fiyy = feof) [+ fis a homomorphism =9(f(y)I"? = s(y-ly = fly), [efisa homomorphism} xy eK. Thus K #@andx, ye K axyJ eK. «.K isa subgroup of G. Now to show that K is normal in G. Let g €Gand x eK. Then Plaxe™)=ftflaxg) =f [ffg(x)], where Jq is the inner automorphism corresponding to g = flfg f(x) [+ By hypothesis f commutes with every inner automorphism of G and = fg flx)g7) = flaflfx)) fg) = flglfbe)f(g7}) =fla)flx)fg7) =flgxg), 9x9" eK forallx cK, g eG. * Kisanormal subgroup of G. \ oe ee Be 80 f fy = ffl [By def. of the inner automorphism fq] [- f is a homomorphism] lex eK = f(x) = f(x] [- f is a homomorphism]Group Automorphisms 1 mens. a, (i) To show that G / K is abelian, By definition of a quotient group, we have G/K ={Kx :x eG}. We have G / K is abelian es Kx Ky=KyKx, Vx, yeG = Kxy = Kux,¥x, peG e wlyx) eK,Vx,yeG e xy Te Kx, yeG, Al) Now for all x, ye G, we have Poy) = fifty) = flfyx™ f(y] =A FV), (- f isa homomorphism] where f, si the inner automorphism corresponding to x = flfeFFW (Sf = fell = fff) =fExfyyoey, where Jityy is the inner automorphism corresponding to f(y) = Fle) fUffy@x4)] [- f is a homomorphism] = flodffo4) (Fh = fru = Foe\fWifoe YF = fod AVMFO Fy) wie , z xyxlyt ek, Hence, by virtue of (1), G/ K is abelian. Example 10: Let G be a group and f an automorphism of G. If, for aeG, we have N(a)={x €G: xa = ax}, prove that N(f(a)) = f(N(a)). Solution : If a€G, then by the definition of N(a), we have N(a)={x €G: xa= ax}. Let y be any arbitrary element of f(N(a)). Then ye f(N(a)) = 3x © N(a) such that y=f(x)and xa = ax = f(xa) = f(ax) and y = f(x) for some x € N(a) > J(x)fla) = f(a) f(x) and y = f(x) for some x e N(a) [- f is a homomorphism] = of (a) = fla) y, ¥ ye f (N(a)) ve N(f(a)), Vy e f(N(a)). . FIN(a)) < N(f(a)) (1) a a eSKrishna's T.B. Group and Ring Theory ny arbitrary element of N(f(a)) Then ve Nif{a)) - ve Gand y’ fla) = fla)y’ = flay’ [the mapping f :G — G is onto} Agnin let 1" be #8 3.4" G such that y’ = f(x’) and y’ fla) fix’ )f (a) = f(a) f(x’ )for some x’ € G f(x’ a) = flax’ )for some x’ €G [fis a homorphism] x’a = ax’ for some x” [- f is a one-one] xe N(a) fix’ ye f(N(a)) y’e f(N(a)),.¥ ve N(f(o)). Nif(a)) < f(N(a)). ...(2) From (1) and (2), we have N(f(a)) = f(N(a))- Example 11: Let G be an infinite cyclic group. Determine Aut G, the group of all automorphisms of G. Solution: Let G = (a) be an infinite cyclinc group generated by a. Let f e AutGie., let f be an automorphism of G. First we shall show that f(a) is also a generator ofGi.e., G =(f(a)), the cyclic gruop generated by fla) Let x be any element of G. Since thhe mapping f :G — G is onto, therefore there exists y € G such that x = f(y). But yeG=>y=d for some integerr [- ais a generator of G] x =f(y)=fla’)=(fla)). ©. f(a) is a generator of Gi.e.,G =(f(a)). But the infinite cyclic group G = (a) has only two generators, namely a anda}, Zz flo)=a or fla)=a". Thus f has only two choices and so o (AutG) <2. e(1) Define a mapping T : G — G such that Tix) =x71,¥x eG. Then T eAutG. Also T#lasT=I1 = T(x)=x,¥xeG = xlex,¥xeG = a! =a=a" =e = o(a)is finite, one isa contradiction because the generator a of an infinite cyclic group cannot be of finiteGroup Automorphisms Thus G has at least two automorphisms. 0 (Aut) > 2 (2) fom (1) and (2), we have o (Aut G) = In fact, we have Aut G ={1,T :T’ (x) = eo) Since 0 (Aut G) = 2, therefore Aut Gis a cyclic group of order 2. We know that any vale group of order n is isomorphic to the group. 2n ={0,1,2.....n-1} under addition modulo n. Hence, Aut G = Zo, where Zo= (0, 1}is a group under addition modulo 2. Example 12: Show that the group of automorphisms of a cyclic group is abelian. Solution: LetG = (a)be acyclic group generated bya Then the following two cases arise. Case I. If G is an infinite cyclic group, then its group of automorphisms is given by Aut G={I,T :T(x) =x 1 vx eG}. Since o (Aut G) = 2, therefore Aut G is abelian, Case Ill. If Gis a cyclic group of finite order n, then Aut G={fn: fol) =x", 1 1, n>0, show that nl old" - 1), Solution: Let G =(b)be the cyclic group generated by b, where o(b)=0(G)=a" -1, Consider the mapping f, :G -> G defined by falx)=x°,¥x eG, Since (a, a" 1) = 1, therefore f, « Aut G. Hx eG, then f2(x) = falfalx)) = fal) = (x2)2 = x0 In general, fg (x) =x", for every positive integer r. fale) =x0 =xx" TV axxGeenx — frx™@ ce Vx eG] =I (x),¥x eG._ Kaiahna! + 1.8. Group and Ring Theory. Ao 16 | fp =t a) Again if fy’ = /. then fMix)=lx)=xvxeG > far(b) = b (- beG] = prreb = bw 1=e = o(b)| (a” - 1) ~ (a"—1)}(a"=1) = a-1sa™1 = a" a"-1sa™-1 a"sa™ => nsm > m2n. -+.(2) From (1) and (2), we conclude that 0 (fa) ="- Also, o (Aut GG) =4 (a” - 1) fpeAutG = off,)|o(AutG) = nlo(d’ -2) External Direct Product Definition: Let G, and Gz be any two groups the composition in each being denoteg multiplicatively. Then G1 x Gp ={(g1. 92): 91 € G1 92 © Gd- Let us define a binary operation on G, xG2 denoted multiplicatively as follows: : (a1, g2) (hy, he) = (a1 fa, 92 he) where gi ,hy € Gy and go , hg € Gp. For this binary operation G, x Gg is a group and this group is called the external direct product of G; by Go. Proof of the fact that G, x Gg is a group for the binary operation we have defined on it: 1. Closure Property: We have g; h, € Gj because G, is a group. Similarly 92h eGo. Thus (a1, 92) (hy, he) = (91 hy, g2 he) € Gy x Go. 2. Associativity: If (g1, 92), (hy, hg), (ky, kg) € Gy x Go, then [(g1, 92) (hy, ha)] (ky, ko) = (9 hy, 92 he) (ky, ko) = (L91 hy] ky, Lg2 he] ka) = (gy [hy ky], ge [ho kp) 3. Existence of in Nee ae nie ity: Let e,e2 be the identity elements of Gy.G2 respectively. If (9), 9) eG, xG : th Therefore (e1, eg) is the left identity ofG, SG, iat eee a eee oeCG Group Automorphisnrs o17 4 Existence of Left Inverse: Let (q). 99) € 6} » Gz Then (yao \eG, «G, ‘Also 9.2 Ne, 92) = (9; 191.92 192) =(e1.€2) 91", a2" ")is the lett inverse of g}..ap)in Gy ¥ Gy Hence Gy x Go is @ group under the binary operation as defined above Theorem 1: 1/6, and G2 are groups, then the subsets G1 x ep) and {ey} x Gy of G; x Gy are normal subgroups of Gy x Gy isomorphic to Gy and Go respectively Proof: Let (gi. ¢2) and (hy, ep) be any two elements of Gy x {e9} where gy, hy € Gy. (81, €2) (hy, e2)* = (91,9) hy*, €9°4) = (gy, €9) 7, ep) = (gy hy}, ep ep) = (9 yt, ey). Now gy hy! € G; because G; is a group. Then G1 hr”, 9) eG, x {ep}. Hence G x {ep} is a subgroup of Gy xGp. Now to show that G, x {9} is normal inG, xGo. Let (x1, xg) be any element of Gy x Gp and (g}, e9) be any element of G x {eg}. Then 1.2) (G1, ep) be, x9)? = (1,2) a1, €9) O12, x97) = bey 91 xy, x2 ep x27) = gr x11 ele % {ep} because x; g1 x1 1G). «+ G, x (eis normal in Gy x Gy . Now to show that G, =G, x {eg}. Let 6:G, + G x{ep} be defined by $(g1)=(g1,e2) ¥ gy eG). Obviously 6 is one-one onto. Also if 91,hy €G, , then (G1 hy) = (84 hy, €9) = (94, €2) thy, €9) =6 (g1) 6 (hy). Gy =G, x {ep} Similarly we can show that {@)} x Gy is a normal subgroup of G) x Gy and is isomorphic toGp. Theorem 2: IfG, and Gy are groups, then () Gy x{eginfey}x Go ={ (e1, 2) }ie., the identity is the only element common to G x {e9} and {e1} x Gp. (ii) Every element of Gy x {eg} commutes with every element of {e} x Go.’~ Kiiskna's T.B. Group and Ring 7, Alois) (iii) Every element of Gy x G2 can be uniquely expressed as the Prodluct of an clement, Gy x {e2} by an element in {e,} xGo. (iv) Gy x Gg ¥G2 XG, Proof: (i) Let (g,h) €Gy x(e9) 0 (e1l x Ga: Then (g,h) eG, x {eg} and (g ,h) €{e) xG2- Now (g,h) eG, x {e2} > h=e2 and (g,h) e {e}xG2 > 9=41- (g,h) = (e1, €2)- . Gy x {2} 0 eq) x Go = {(e1, €2))- (i) Let (a1, ep) Gy x {eghand {e ,92}€ {41} Ge . Then (a1, €2) (e1, $2) = (91 @1» €2 92) = (91, G2) =(e, 91,92 2) = (€1, 92) (91, €2). (iii) Let (a1, 92)€G, xGe- Then (a1, 92) =(g1 €1, €2 92) = (a1, &2) (€1, 92)- Thus (g;, gg) can be expressed as a product of a member of G, x {e9} by a member of {ey} xG2. If possible , let there be another representation (91, 92) = (hy, €2) (e1, ha). Then (31, 92) = (hye, eaha) = (hy, ha). 91 =hy, g2 =hg by the equality of ordered pairs. The representation is unique. (iv) Define a mapping f : Gy x Gz > Gz x G, by f (G1, 92) =(g2, 91)- Obviously f is one-one and onto. Also if (a1, 92), (M1, Ag) € Gy x Ga, ’ then ((g1, g2) (hy, ha) = f (a1 hy, g2 he) = (ge he, g1 hy) = (G2, 91) (ha, hy) = f (G1, 92) f (hy, ho). Gy x Gg =Ge x Gy. Internal Direct Products: Definition: Suppose H and K are subgroups of a group G. Then we say that G is an internal direct product of H and K if (i) every element of H commutes with every element of K. (ii) every element of G is uniquely expressible as a product of an element of H by element of K.Qroup Automorphisms 3-19 Theorem 8: Suppose a group G is an internal direct product of its subgroups H and K Then (i) Hand K have only the identity in common (ii) Gis isomorphic to the extemal direct product of H by K. Proof: (i) LeteeH xeK Since H and K are subgroups, therefore x-1 €H,x eK Since G is an internal direct Product of H and K, therefore every element g inG can be uniquely expressed in the form g=hkwhereheH ,keK. Also we can write g = (hx) (x~! k) where hx €H x" ke K. Since the expression for g is unique, therefore bx =h= hx =he= x =e, » eis the only element common to both H and K. (ii) Let g be an arbitrary element of G. Then g =hk where hisa unique element of H and k is a unique element of K. Consider the function @ : G+ H x K defined by $(g)=(h,k) ¥ geG. ois one-one: Let g; =hy ky, go =hy ka be any two elements of G where hy, hy € H and ky .kp eK. We have G1) =6 (G2) => (hy, ky) = (ha, ka) > hy =ho, ky = ko => hy ky =hg kg => gy =go. -. gis1-1. is onto H x K: Let (h, k) be any element of H x K. Then hk eG and we have 6 (hk) = (hk). Therefore @ is onto H x K. ¢ preserves compositions in G and H x K: Let 91 =hy ky, g2 =hp kp be any two elements of G. Then (a1 92) =6 (hy ky hy kp) =6 (hy hy ky kp) [every element of H commutes with every element of K } = (hy ho, ky ka) = (hy, ky) (ho, ka) =$ (hy ky) 6 (he kp) =6 (91) 6 (ga). G=HxK. Note: If G is an internal direct product of its subgroups H and K, then Gis isomorphic to the external direct product of H by K. On account of this isomorphism we shall identify the intemal direct product with the external direct product. IfG is the internal direct product of its subgroups H and K we shall write G = H x K.Ksiekna's T.B. Group and Ring Th - - A 0-20 [ee Theorem 4: If. K are two subgroups of a group G such that G =H x kK then i OO! - normal subgroups of G, and G/H =K andG/K =H. Proof: Let g €G. Then g = hk where his a unique element of H andk is a unique elem of K. So consider the mapping 6: G > H defined by 6 (g) = 6 (hk) = Obviously ¢ is onto H Let gy = hy ky. g2 = hg ky be any two elements of G where hy, hg are unique elements : and ky, kg are unique elements of K. =0 (hy ky he ko) Then $ (a1 g2) n fe k, be) [- Every element of Hy comm with every element of =hy hg [- MEH A kek) = 0 (hy ky) 6 (he ka) = (93) 6 (ga). © is a homomorphism of G onto H. The kernel of consists of all those elements of which are mapped by @ on the identity of H i.e., which are of the form ek=kkeK, Thus K is the kemel of . *. K isa normal subgroup of G. Also by the fundamental theorem on homomorphism of groups, we have G/K =H. Similarly we can show that H is a normal subgroup of G and G/ H =K. Theorem 5: A group G is the direct Product of its two sub. (i) Hand K are normal subgroups of G, (ii) HK ={e }and (iti) G =HK. groups H and K if and only if Proof: Suppose the conditions (i), (ii) and (iii) hold. Then to show that G=HxK, Lethe H , ke K. Consider the element hk"! hk. Since H is normal in G, therefore khk ¢ H. Also h” © H. Therefore hk hk ¢ H. Again K is normal in G. Therefore h71,-1 heK. Also ke K. Therefore hk! hk e K. hk hee HK, Hak =[e}, hot gl But Ke => hk =kh,drop Automorphisms =| 021) Hence every element of H commutes with every element of K Lets €G. Then by the condition (ii) there exists he H and ke K such that x = hk: tt possible let x = hy ky where hy © H ky @ K Then hk hy ky oe hy he ky kt But hy he Handky he K hy hake le HK But HK ={e). by hek else hy =hyky =k, Thus the expression x = hk for x is unique. Hence G =H x K. Conversely let G = H x K. Then to show that the conditions (i, (ii) and (ii) are satisfied. Let abe ay element of H and x be any element of G. Then there exist h eH, k € K such that x = hk. We have x ax7! = (hk) a (hk)! =k ak"! A“ ~ shakk A — [ ke K and ae H =k commutes with a] shah eH, :. His anormal subgroup of G. Similarly K is a normal subgroup of G. Now we establish condition (ii). Suppose if possible be H 7 K and b#e. . Then b=be=eb. This shows that there exist at least two different ways of expressing an element beG as product ofan element ofH withan element of K. But this contradicts the assumption that G=HxK. Therefore b = e. Hence H 1 K ={e}. Finally HK cG.Alsox eG > x shkwhereheH ,keK. Thus xeG> x HK. Therefore G ¢ HK. Hence G = HK. Thus the theorem is completely established. 6 Characteri ic Subgroup A subgroup of a group G that is stable under every characteristic subgroup of G. ofa group Gis called a characteristic subgroup of H and we write H char G. automorphism on G is called a Definition : A subgroup H Gif for every automorphism 6 of G, we have o(H) =Krishna's 7.8, Grou and 4 iP Ring Ther, Alor eA Rig h 1895, e term characteristic was first applied by G, Frobenius in 3 lf. | follows that each automorphism of G maps H to itse f 6(H Remark : The stronger condition 4(H) = H is required In pe of 9( , SH, M8 fp every automorphism > of G, > lH) SH implies the reverse inclusion SO(H), Sincg fe every X the mapping y—> xyx7! is an automorphism (specially an inner automorphism on G it follows that every characteristic subgroup of G is also a normal subgroup ofG, Every group is a characteristic subgroup of itself, A trivial subgroup of a Soup 5 characteristic, Leta natural numbern divi divides n is a characteristic therefore every subgroup ides the order of G, then the set of elements a0fG for Which Ord fq ic subgroup of G. Since every subgroup of cyelic Group ig vei of cyclic group is a characteristic group. , Basic properties : Each automorphism of Gmaps H to itself. If H be a unique Subgroup agiven index of group G, then H is characteristic inG. IfH charG, then every automomhis, of the quotient group G/H, yields a homorphism Aut (G)> Aut (G/H). IfNisa characteristic sul bgroup and H = G/H, then there is an natural homorphism $ from Aut (G) to Aut (H). Theorem 1: If H is a characteristic sul Proof : Let H be a characteristic 9g :G > G such that q(x) ibgroup of G, then H is a normal subgroup ofG, subgroup of G, then for )=axg7), This is an automorphism of G with the inverse og-}, Since H is the characteristic, we have $g(H)=H gHg™! =H. Hence H is a normal subgroup of G, Theorem 2 : If His the unique subgroup of G of a given order, then for any automorphism $¢€ Aut (G), we have each g €G, define a Mapping > 9(H) <9) =Gand|H|=|6 (H)|, The uniqueness of H implies that H=9(H). Hence H is characteristic, Theorem 3 : Ifa subgroup K is characteristic in @group H and H is the normal subgroup of G, then K isa normal subgroup in G, Remark : 1, 2. The property of beiGroup Automorphisms { 0-23] 7 Commutator Subgroup and Its Properties Definition: Let G be a group and a,beG. The element aba-!b™! Is called the commutator of the ordered pair (a, b), Let U ={aba™™b"? 0, be G).1fG isthe subgroup of G generated by U, then iscalled the commutator subgroup of G. We recall that if’’is the subgroup of G generated byU, then G’ is the smallest subgroup of G containing U. Therefore the commutator subgroup G’ of a group G is the smallest subgroup of G containing the set of all commutators in G, Note: We can also define the commutator of the ordered pair (a, b) as the element ab lab. It will not change the set U of all commutators in G and consequently the commutator subgroup G’ will also not change. Note that a, beG => a™!, be. Also a1 abcan be written as a!b'(a-1)-1 (5-1) Thus, we can take U=(aba'b: 4 beG) or we can take U=(a'blab:a,beG), Theorem 1: Let G’ be the commutator subgroup of a group G. Then G is abelian if and only if G’ = (e), e being the identity element of G. Proof: Let G be any group and let U ={aba!b™ : a, be G}. If G’ is the commutator subgroup of G, then G’ is the subgroup of G generated by U, i.e. , G’ is the smallest subgroup of G containing U. Suppose G is abelian. Then to prove that G’ = (e). If G is abelian, then ¥ a, be G, we have aba"'b" = abla"! = aea™! = aa! =e, Thus in this case U consists of only one element, i. e., e. Now {e} is the smallest subgroup of G containing {e}. Consequently G’ = {e}. Conversely, suppose that G’={e}. Then to prove that G is abelian, Let a, b be any two elements of G. Then aba!b € U. Consequently aba'b" €G’, But G’ contains only one element, i.e., e. Therefore aba'b!=e — = (ab) (ba)! =e = (ab) =[(ba! = ab=ba > Gis abelian. Theorem 2: Let G be a group and G’ be the commutator sub-group of G. Then (i) G’ is normal inG. (i) G/G' is abelian. (iii) IFN is any normal subgroup of G, then G / N is abelian if and only ifG’c N. (iv) If His a subgroup of G such that H 2G’, then H is a normal subgroup of G.Kaidkoa'y 1.5, Group and Ring 7 I Cory 1 Proofs Let = {aba Vy hs, be G}.IEG’ is the commutator subgroup of G, then S'isthe smallest subgroup of G containing U, (i) Let x be any element of G and ¢ be any element of G’. Then xen” hs (nex) ote = (xox te \ceG’ box, ce G = xex ten! eg, Also ¢ <6) Hence G’ is a normal subgroup of G. (ii) Since G’ is normal in G, therefore the quotient group G / G’ is meaningful, Leta, any two elements of G, Then G’ a, G’ bare any two elements of G / GG’, i We have aba'bteU = aba tb! eG [eu SC] = (ab) (bay! eG’ = G' (ab) = G'(ba) = (Ga) (G’b) = (G’b) (Ga) => G/ G’ is abelian. (iii) Let N be any normal subgroup of G. Let a, be G. Then Na, Nbare any two elements of G/N. LetG/ N be abelian. Then (Na) (Nb) = (Nb) (Na) => Nab = Nba = (ab) (ba)! = N = aba“! e N > UCN. {+ aba" 1b" is any element of y Thus N is a subgroup of G containing U. Since G’ is the smallest subgroup of G containing U, therefore G’ muist be contained in N, i. e., we must have G’c N Conversely, let G’c N. Then UCN [-UcG} > aba'bteN = (ab) (bate N > Nab=Nba=> (Na) (Nb)=(Nb)(Na) => G/ Nis abelian. (iv) Let g be any element of G and let h be any element of H. Then gha™ = (ghg~) (hh) = (ghgh) he HH fhe H. Also ghgth € G’ and H 2G’ = ghg—h~ eH) Hence H is a normal subgroup of G. Remark: Suppose G’ is the commutator subgroup of a group G. Then G’ is a group in its own right. So we may speak of its commutator subgroup G@) = (G’ y. Thus G®) is a subgroup of G’ and hence the subgroup of G generated by all elements a Ba’? (6) where a! Be G’. Also by Part (i) of the above theorem 2, G2) is a normal subgroup of G’. It can also be proved that) in this way, we can define higher commutator called mth commutator 'sanormal subgroup of G as well. Continuing subgroup G" by Gl) — (G™Dy ThisG™ is subgroup or mth derived subgroup of G. It can be easily shown that each Gis a normal subgroup of G. Also by part (i) of the above theorem 2, each G'"-) / GI" is an abelian group. oeOrowap Automorphtems nnn 023 Py Jn terms of higher commutator « tharoume of & grown G. we dhall pow give a very important criterion for solvability of G Example 14:1) Nie o normal subgroup ofGeuchthat N~ Sohutfon: Letn © N and x €G Then hehe x nme = {e}, show that N ¢ Z(G) We have etl = tne N (- Nis a normal subgroup of G] xh me GAN =(e} = x thn se = men. ¥xeG = neZiG).¥neNn =» NeZ@) Comprehensive Exercise 1. LetG bea non-abelian group. Show that the mapping f :G > Gsuch that f(x) = x7, ¥x €Gisnotan automorphism. 2. Verify the following statement for being true or false : If G=(a) is @ cydic group of order 10 then the mapping o:G-—G such that oc) =a for all k, is an automorphism of G. 3. Given an example of a group in which (i) the inner automorphisms corresponding to any two elements are the same, (ii) the inner automorphisms corresponding to no two elements are the same. 4. Iffor group G, the mapping f :G + G given by f(x) =x3, x ¢ G, is an automorphism, then prove that G is abelian. 5. Show that the group of all automorphisms of a cyclic group G of order r is isomorphic to the group of intgers less than and relatively prime tor under multiplication modulo r 6. Let f be an automorphism of a group G. Show that o(f (a)) = o(a), for every aeG. Deduce that 0 (bab!) = 0 (a) for all a, be G. 7. Prove that the group of automorphisms of an infinite cyclic group is or order 2. 8. Let G be a cyclic group of order 4. Show that Aut G= {I, T} where T (x) = x3, for all xeG 9. Ifo (AugG) > 1, then show that 0(G) > 2 10. If G is any group in which g® #e for some g eG, then G has a non-trivial automorphism. 11. IG = Ss, then show that AutG = S3, 12. Let G be a finite cyclic group of order n. Determine Aut G, the group of all automorphisms of G.Kiishea's T.B. Group and Ring > So Ab 026) 18. IfG = Sg; prove that G’= A3. Answers 2. False, 8. (i) Every abelian group, (ii) The symmetric group P3. Multiple Choice Questions Indicate the correct answer for each question by writing the corresponding letter fy, (b), (c) and (d). 1, The identity mapping / of G is called a ........... automorphism of G. (a) trivial (b) non-trivial (c) normal (d) unity 2. The group of automorphisms of an infinite cyclic group is of order (a) 0 (b) 1 (c) 2 (d) 4 3. The group of automorphisms of a cyclic group is (a) abelian (b) identity (c) non-abelian (4) none of these 4. The centre of a group is (a) normal (b) abelian (c) characteristic (dd) automorphism 5. IfG, and Gp are groups, then G, x {eg} n {ey} x Gp is (a) {(e), e2)} (b) {0} (c) Gy Gg (d) {ey} fe} 6. Ifa group Gis an internal direct product of its subgroups H and K sthen H and kK hay, only the ........... in common. (a) HUF (b) identity (c) { } (d) {0} 7. IfGbe a group and a, be G, then the element aba~}b~! is the commutator of (a) (a,b) (b) (ba) (c) (a,b) (4) (a, b) 8. IfG’ is the commutator of a group G, then G is abelian iff (a) (Q)=G’ (b) (e)=G" (c) (0)=G (d) ()\=Ga@ 9. IfG’ is the commutator subgroup of G, then (a) G’ is normal in G (b) G’ and G are abelian (c) GAG’ is normal (d) G/G’ is normal 10. If G’ is the commutator subgroup of G, then (a) G-G’ is abelian (b) G is abelian (c) G/G’ is abelian (d) G’ is abelian ~~ Answers (a) 2. (c) 3. (a) 4. (c) 5. (a) 6. (b) 7. (d) 8. (b) o *) 10. (c)