Definition

Let (G , ·, e) be a group. The subgroup

G 0 = hxyx −1 y −1 , ∀x, y ∈ G i

is the commutator subgroup of G , also denoted [G , G ].

Definition
Let (G , ·, e) be a group. The subgroup

G 0 = hxyx −1 y −1 , ∀x, y ∈ G i

is the commutator subgroup of G , also denoted [G , G ].

Theorem
Let G be a group. Then the following statements hold:
(1). G 0  G .
(2). If N  G , then G /N is abelian ⇐⇒ G 0 ⊆ N.
Proof. (1). Denote aba−1 b −1 := [a, b]. Then we must have
(aba−1 b −1 )−1 = [b, a]. Then for x ∈ G , [a, b] ∈ G 0 ,

x[a, b]x −1 = x[a, b]x −1 [a, b]−1 [a, b]

= [x, [a, b]] [a, b] ∈ G 0 .

Thus G 0  G .
Proof. (1). Denote aba−1 b −1 := [a, b]. Then we must have
(aba−1 b −1 )−1 = [b, a]. Then for x ∈ G , [a, b] ∈ G 0 ,

x[a, b]x −1 = x[a, b]x −1 [a, b]−1 [a, b]

= [x, [a, b]] [a, b] ∈ G 0 .

Thus G 0  G .
(2). We have

G /N is abelian ⇐⇒ aNbN = bNaN

⇐⇒ aNbNa−1 Nb −1 N = N
⇐⇒ aba−1 b −1 N = N
⇐⇒ [a, b] ∈ N, ∀a, b ∈ G
⇐⇒ G 0 ⊆ N.
Proof. (1). Denote aba−1 b −1 := [a, b]. Then we must have
(aba−1 b −1 )−1 = [b, a]. Then for x ∈ G , [a, b] ∈ G 0 ,

x[a, b]x −1 = x[a, b]x −1 [a, b]−1 [a, b]

= [x, [a, b]] [a, b] ∈ G 0 .

Thus G 0  G .
(2). We have

G /N is abelian ⇐⇒ aNbN = bNaN

⇐⇒ aNbNa−1 Nb −1 N = N
⇐⇒ aba−1 b −1 N = N
⇐⇒ [a, b] ∈ N, ∀a, b ∈ G
⇐⇒ G 0 ⊆ N.

Corollary
Let G be a group. Then G is abelian if and only if G 0 = {e}.
Automorphism Groups

Definition
A permutation on a nonempty set A is a bijective map
ϕ : A → A. The set of all permutations on A, denoted by SA (or
Sym(A)) is the symmetric group of A.

If ϕ, ψ ∈ SA , then both ϕ−1 , ϕ ◦ ψ ∈ SA . We will simply write

ϕ ◦ ψ = ϕψ. Associativity is well-defined and is given by
(f ◦ g ) ◦ h = f ◦ (g ◦ h).

Hence, SA is a group.
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group. An isomorphism from G to G is called an
automorphism of G . We denote

Aut(G ) = {all automorphisms of G } ⊆ SG .

Do we have equality Aut(G ) = SG ?

Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group. An isomorphism from G to G is called an
automorphism of G . We denote

Aut(G ) = {all automorphisms of G } ⊆ SG .

Do we have equality Aut(G ) = SG ?

Theorem
Aut(G ) ≤ SG .
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group. An isomorphism from G to G is called an
automorphism of G . We denote

Aut(G ) = {all automorphisms of G } ⊆ SG .

Do we have equality Aut(G ) = SG ?

Theorem
Aut(G ) ≤ SG .
Proof. (1). Nonemptyness: Clearly, Id ∈ Aut(G ) 6= ∅.
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group. An isomorphism from G to G is called an
automorphism of G . We denote

Aut(G ) = {all automorphisms of G } ⊆ SG .

Do we have equality Aut(G ) = SG ?

Theorem
Aut(G ) ≤ SG .
Proof. (1). Nonemptyness: Clearly, Id ∈ Aut(G ) 6= ∅.
(2). Closure: Take σ1 , σ2 ∈ Aut(G ). So σ1 σ2 ∈ SG . We know that
σ1 σ2 is a homomorphism. So σ1 σ2 ∈ Aut(G ).
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group. An isomorphism from G to G is called an
automorphism of G . We denote

Aut(G ) = {all automorphisms of G } ⊆ SG .

Do we have equality Aut(G ) = SG ?

Theorem
Aut(G ) ≤ SG .
Proof. (1). Nonemptyness: Clearly, Id ∈ Aut(G ) 6= ∅.
(2). Closure: Take σ1 , σ2 ∈ Aut(G ). So σ1 σ2 ∈ SG . We know that
σ1 σ2 is a homomorphism. So σ1 σ2 ∈ Aut(G ).
(3). Inverse: If σ ∈ Aut(G ) then σ −1 ∈ Aut(G ). So
Aut(G ) ≤ SG . 
Now, for all g ∈ G , we define the function

ig : G → G , where x 7→ gxg −1 , ∀x ∈ G .
Now, for all g ∈ G , we define the function

ig : G → G , where x 7→ gxg −1 , ∀x ∈ G .

Lemma
Let (G , ·) be a group, and g ∈ G . Then ig ∈ Aut(G ).
Now, for all g ∈ G , we define the function

ig : G → G , where x 7→ gxg −1 , ∀x ∈ G .

Lemma
Let (G , ·) be a group, and g ∈ G . Then ig ∈ Aut(G ).
Proof. We know that ig is bijective (1-1 and onto). Let’s check
the homomorphism property:

ig (xy ) = gxyg −1
= gxg −1 gyg −1
= ig (x)ig (y ).

So ig ∈ Aut(G ). 
Define the inner automorphism group of G as

Inn(G ) = {ig |g ∈ G } ⊆ Aut(G ).

Define the inner automorphism group of G as

Inn(G ) = {ig |g ∈ G } ⊆ Aut(G ).

Theorem
Let (G , ·) be a group. Then Inn(G )  Aut(G ).
Proof. First, prove that Inn(G ) ≤ Aut(G ): for all g1 , g2 ∈ G we
have
ig1 ig2 (x) = ig1 (g2 xg2−1 ), ∀x ∈ G
= g1 (g2 xg2−1 )g1−1
= (g1 g2 )xg2−1 g1−1
= (g1 g2 )x(g1 g2 )−1
= ig1 g2 (x)
Proof. First, prove that Inn(G ) ≤ Aut(G ): for all g1 , g2 ∈ G we
have
ig1 ig2 (x) = ig1 (g2 xg2−1 ), ∀x ∈ G
= g1 (g2 xg2−1 )g1−1
= (g1 g2 )xg2−1 g1−1
= (g1 g2 )x(g1 g2 )−1
= ig1 g2 (x)
Thus ig1 ig2 = ig1 g2 ∈ Inn(G ). So, closure is proved.
For the identity, we know that ie ∈ Inn(G ) 6= ∅, so we know that
Inn(G ) is nonempty.
Proof. First, prove that Inn(G ) ≤ Aut(G ): for all g1 , g2 ∈ G we
have
ig1 ig2 (x) = ig1 (g2 xg2−1 ), ∀x ∈ G
= g1 (g2 xg2−1 )g1−1
= (g1 g2 )xg2−1 g1−1
= (g1 g2 )x(g1 g2 )−1
= ig1 g2 (x)
Thus ig1 ig2 = ig1 g2 ∈ Inn(G ). So, closure is proved.
For the identity, we know that ie ∈ Inn(G ) 6= ∅, so we know that
Inn(G ) is nonempty. For the inverse, we know that

ig1 ig −1 = ie = id, ig −1 ig1 = ie = id.

1 1
Proof. First, prove that Inn(G ) ≤ Aut(G ): for all g1 , g2 ∈ G we
have
ig1 ig2 (x) = ig1 (g2 xg2−1 ), ∀x ∈ G
= g1 (g2 xg2−1 )g1−1
= (g1 g2 )xg2−1 g1−1
= (g1 g2 )x(g1 g2 )−1
= ig1 g2 (x)
Thus ig1 ig2 = ig1 g2 ∈ Inn(G ). So, closure is proved.
For the identity, we know that ie ∈ Inn(G ) 6= ∅, so we know that
Inn(G ) is nonempty. For the inverse, we know that

ig1 ig −1 = ie = id, ig −1 ig1 = ie = id.

1 1

Thus (ig )−1 = ig −1 ∈ Inn(G ). So Inn(G ) ≤ Aut(G ).

Proof. First, prove that Inn(G ) ≤ Aut(G ): for all g1 , g2 ∈ G we
have
ig1 ig2 (x) = ig1 (g2 xg2−1 ), ∀x ∈ G
= g1 (g2 xg2−1 )g1−1
= (g1 g2 )xg2−1 g1−1
= (g1 g2 )x(g1 g2 )−1
= ig1 g2 (x)
Thus ig1 ig2 = ig1 g2 ∈ Inn(G ). So, closure is proved.
For the identity, we know that ie ∈ Inn(G ) 6= ∅, so we know that
Inn(G ) is nonempty. For the inverse, we know that

ig1 ig −1 = ie = id, ig −1 ig1 = ie = id.

1 1

Thus (ig )−1 = ig −1 ∈ Inn(G ). So Inn(G ) ≤ Aut(G ).

The rest will be proved in the assignment (to show it is normal). 
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group. The group Aut(G ) is called the
automorphism group of G , and the group Inn(G ) is called the
inner automorphism group of G .
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group. The group Aut(G ) is called the
automorphism group of G , and the group Inn(G ) is called the
inner automorphism group of G .

Example
Show that Aut(Q, +) ∼
= (Q∗ , ·).
Definition
Let (G , ·) be a group. The group Aut(G ) is called the
automorphism group of G , and the group Inn(G ) is called the
inner automorphism group of G .

Example
Show that Aut(Q, +) ∼
= (Q∗ , ·).
Proof. For any r ∈ Q∗ we define the map

φr : (Q, +) → (Q, +), x 7→ rx, ∀x ∈ Q

It is easy to verify that φr ∈ Aut(Q, +).

Proof. For any r ∈ Q∗ we define the map

φr : (Q, +) → (Q, +), x 7→ rx, ∀x ∈ Q

It is easy to verify that φr ∈ Aut(Q, +).

For any φ ∈ Aut(Q, +), let φ(1) = r . Then r ∈ Q∗ , φ(1) = r ,

φ(m) = φ(1) + φ(1) · · · + φ(1) = r| + r {z

· · · + r} = mr , ∀m ∈ N,
| {z }
m m

and φ(−m) = −rm for any m ∈ N.

Proof. For any r ∈ Q∗ we define the map

φr : (Q, +) → (Q, +), x 7→ rx, ∀x ∈ Q

It is easy to verify that φr ∈ Aut(Q, +).

For any φ ∈ Aut(Q, +), let φ(1) = r . Then r ∈ Q∗ , φ(1) = r ,

φ(m) = φ(1) + φ(1) · · · + φ(1) = r| + r {z

· · · + r} = mr , ∀m ∈ N,
| {z }
m m

and φ(−m) = −rm for any m ∈ N. Thus

φ(x) = rx, ∀x ∈ Z.

Let x = p/q ∈ Q where p, q ∈ Z. Then x + · · · + x = p.

Applying φ to both sides we obtain that qφ(x) = rp, i.e.,
φ(x) = rp/q = rx. Thus φ = φr , i.e.,

Aut(Q, +) = {φr : r ∈ Q∗ }.
Applying φ to both sides we obtain that qφ(x) = rp, i.e.,
φ(x) = rp/q = rx. Thus φ = φr , i.e.,

Aut(Q, +) = {φr : r ∈ Q∗ }.

One can easily verify that

τ : Aut(Q, +) → (Q∗ , ·), φr 7→ r , ∀r ∈ Q∗

is a group isomorphism. Hence Aut(Q, +) ∼

= (Q∗ , ·). 
Theorem
Let G be a cyclic group of order n. Then AutG ' Zn∗ .

Proof.
Recall that G =< a >' Zn and |Zn∗ | = φ(n). Let φ ∈ AutG . Then
φ is determined by the image of a: φ(a) = as . Since φ ∈ AutG , as
is a generator of G , that is gcd(s, n) = 1 and s ∈ {1, . . . , n − 1}.

The correspondence φ 7→ s gives a bijective map

Φ : AutG → Zn∗ .

The map Φ is a homomorphism. Indeed, let φ, ψ ∈ AutG such

that φ(a) = as and ψ(a) = ar . Then Φ(φ ◦ ψ) = rs ∈ Zn∗ , that is
(modn). Hence, Φ(φ ◦ ψ) = Φ(φ)Φ(ψ). Then Φ is an
isomorphism. 
Corollary
If G is a cyclic group of order p and p is odd prime, then AutG is
a cyclic group of order p − 1. Similarly for cyclic p-groups.
Corollary
If G is a cyclic group of order p and p is odd prime, then AutG is
a cyclic group of order p − 1. Similarly for cyclic p-groups.

Example
Let G = Z8 . Then AutG ' Z2 × Z2 (not cyclic). Prove it!
Corollary
If G is a cyclic group of order p and p is odd prime, then AutG is
a cyclic group of order p − 1. Similarly for cyclic p-groups.

Example
Let G = Z8 . Then AutG ' Z2 × Z2 (not cyclic). Prove it!

Example
Let G be an elementary abelian group, |G | = p n for some prime p.
Then G is n-dimensional vector space over Zp . The automorphisms
of G are exactly the invertible linear maps on G , or equivalently,
invertible n × n-matrices with coefficients in Zp . hence,
AutG ' GL(G ) ' GLn (Zp ). In particular, AutV4 ' GL2 (Z2 ).
Simple Groups

Definition
A group is simple if it has exactly two different normal subgroups
(i.e., the group itself and the identity group).
Theorem
Let G be an abelian group. Then G is simple if and only if |G | is
prime.
Theorem
Let G be an abelian group. Then G is simple if and only if |G | is
prime.
Proof. (⇐). Suppose that |G | is prime. For all
a ∈ G \ {e} , hai ≤ G . We know that

1 < |hai| ≤ |G |.
Theorem
Let G be an abelian group. Then G is simple if and only if |G | is
prime.
Proof. (⇐). Suppose that |G | is prime. For all
a ∈ G \ {e} , hai ≤ G . We know that

1 < |hai| ≤ |G |.

Since
|hai| |G |
and |G | is prime, then it follows that |hai| = |G | ⇒ hai = G .
Theorem
Let G be an abelian group. Then G is simple if and only if |G | is
prime.
Proof. (⇐). Suppose that |G | is prime. For all
a ∈ G \ {e} , hai ≤ G . We know that

1 < |hai| ≤ |G |.

Since
|hai| |G |
and |G | is prime, then it follows that |hai| = |G | ⇒ hai = G . So
any subgroup of G not {e} is G . So G is simple.
(⇒). Suppose that G is simple and abelian. Every subgroup of G
is normal. Since G is simple, the only subgroups of G are {e} and
G , and |G | > 1, so for any x ∈ G \ {e} we have hxi = G .
(⇒). Suppose that G is simple and abelian. Every subgroup of G
is normal. Since G is simple, the only subgroups of G are {e} and
G , and |G | > 1, so for any x ∈ G \ {e} we have hxi = G . Suppose
x has infinite order. Then hx 2 i ≤ G but {e} =
6 hx 2 i =
6 hxi, a
contradiction. So x, and therefore G , has finite order.
(⇒). Suppose that G is simple and abelian. Every subgroup of G
is normal. Since G is simple, the only subgroups of G are {e} and
G , and |G | > 1, so for any x ∈ G \ {e} we have hxi = G . Suppose
x has infinite order. Then hx 2 i ≤ G but {e} =
6 hx 2 i =
6 hxi, a
contradiction. So x, and therefore G , has finite order. Suppose x
has composite order n so for some p > 1 that divides n, hx p i is a
proper non-trivial subgroup of G , so G is not simple.
(⇒). Suppose that G is simple and abelian. Every subgroup of G
is normal. Since G is simple, the only subgroups of G are {e} and
G , and |G | > 1, so for any x ∈ G \ {e} we have hxi = G . Suppose
x has infinite order. Then hx 2 i ≤ G but {e} =
6 hx 2 i =
6 hxi, a
contradiction. So x, and therefore G , has finite order. Suppose x
has composite order n so for some p > 1 that divides n, hx p i is a
proper non-trivial subgroup of G , so G is not simple. Thus G is a
cyclic group of prime order. 
Theorem
Let ϕ : G → G 0 be a group homomorphism.
(1). If H  G , then ϕ(H)  ϕ(G ).
(2). If H 0  G 0 , then ϕ−1 (H 0 )  G .
Theorem
Let ϕ : G → G 0 be a group homomorphism.
(1). If H  G , then ϕ(H)  ϕ(G ).
(2). If H 0  G 0 , then ϕ−1 (H 0 )  G .

Proof. Leave (2) as an exercise. Let’s prove (1):

Theorem
Let ϕ : G → G 0 be a group homomorphism.
(1). If H  G , then ϕ(H)  ϕ(G ).
(2). If H 0  G 0 , then ϕ−1 (H 0 )  G .

Proof. Leave (2) as an exercise. Let’s prove (1):

Since ϕ(H) ≤ G 0 , ϕ(H) ⊆ ϕ(G ), so ϕ(H) ≤ ϕ(G ).
Theorem
Let ϕ : G → G 0 be a group homomorphism.
(1). If H  G , then ϕ(H)  ϕ(G ).
(2). If H 0  G 0 , then ϕ−1 (H 0 )  G .

Proof. Leave (2) as an exercise. Let’s prove (1):

Since ϕ(H) ≤ G 0 , ϕ(H) ⊆ ϕ(G ), so ϕ(H) ≤ ϕ(G ). Then for
x ∈ ϕ(H), y ∈ ϕ(G ), there exist h ∈ H, g ∈ G such that

x = ϕ(h), y = ϕ(g ).

Since H  G , we see that ghg −1 ∈ H.

Theorem
Let ϕ : G → G 0 be a group homomorphism.
(1). If H  G , then ϕ(H)  ϕ(G ).
(2). If H 0  G 0 , then ϕ−1 (H 0 )  G .

Proof. Leave (2) as an exercise. Let’s prove (1):

Since ϕ(H) ≤ G 0 , ϕ(H) ⊆ ϕ(G ), so ϕ(H) ≤ ϕ(G ). Then for
x ∈ ϕ(H), y ∈ ϕ(G ), there exist h ∈ H, g ∈ G such that

x = ϕ(h), y = ϕ(g ).

Since H  G , we see that ghg −1 ∈ H. Now, consider

yxy −1 = ϕ(g )ϕ(h)ϕ(g )−1

= ϕ(ghg −1 ) ∈ ϕ(H).

So ϕ(H)  ϕ(G ). 
Corollary
Let ϕ : G → G 0 be an onto (surjective) homomorphism with kernel
N. Define

S = {H ≤ G |H ⊇ N} , S 0 = H 0 ≤ G 0 .


(1). Φ : S → S 0 , H 7→ ϕ(H) is 1-1 and onto (i.e. bijective).

(2). For any H ∈ S, H  G if and only if ϕ(H)  G 0 .
Proof. (1). For all H 0 ≤ G 0 , take

H = ϕ−1 (H 0 ) ≤ G .

Then N ⊆ H. Since ϕ is onto, it follows that ϕ(H) = H 0 , i.e.

Φ(H) = H 0 . Thus Φ is onto.
Proof. (1). For all H 0 ≤ G 0 , take

H = ϕ−1 (H 0 ) ≤ G .

Then N ⊆ H. Since ϕ is onto, it follows that ϕ(H) = H 0 , i.e.

Φ(H) = H 0 . Thus Φ is onto.
To prove that Φ is injective, let H1 , H2 ∈ S and assume that
ϕ(H1 ) = ϕ(H2 ). We will show that H1 = H2 .
Proof. (1). For all H 0 ≤ G 0 , take

H = ϕ−1 (H 0 ) ≤ G .

Then N ⊆ H. Since ϕ is onto, it follows that ϕ(H) = H 0 , i.e.

Φ(H) = H 0 . Thus Φ is onto.
To prove that Φ is injective, let H1 , H2 ∈ S and assume that
ϕ(H1 ) = ϕ(H2 ). We will show that H1 = H2 . We know that

H1 = H1 N = ϕ−1 ϕ(H1 ) = ϕ−1 ϕ(H2 ) = NH2 = H2 .

Proof. (1). For all H 0 ≤ G 0 , take

H = ϕ−1 (H 0 ) ≤ G .

Then N ⊆ H. Since ϕ is onto, it follows that ϕ(H) = H 0 , i.e.

Φ(H) = H 0 . Thus Φ is onto.
To prove that Φ is injective, let H1 , H2 ∈ S and assume that
ϕ(H1 ) = ϕ(H2 ). We will show that H1 = H2 . We know that

H1 = H1 N = ϕ−1 ϕ(H1 ) = ϕ−1 ϕ(H2 ) = NH2 = H2 .

So Φ is injective. Thus Φ is a bijection.

(2). Let H ≤ G with N ⊆ H. Then N = gNg −1 ⊆ gHg −1 for any
g ∈ G , and

H  G ⇐⇒ gHg −1 = H, ∀g ∈ G
⇐⇒ gHg −1 N = HN, ∀g ∈ G
⇐⇒ ϕ(gHg −1 ) = ϕ(H), ∀g ∈ G
⇐⇒ ϕ(g )ϕ(H)ϕ(g )−1 = ϕ(H), ∀g ∈ G
−1
⇐⇒ g 0 ϕ(H)g 0 = ϕ(H), ∀g 0 ∈ G 0
⇐⇒ ϕ(H)  G 0 .


(2). Let H ≤ G with N ⊆ H. Then N = gNg −1 ⊆ gHg −1 for any
g ∈ G , and

H  G ⇐⇒ gHg −1 = H, ∀g ∈ G
⇐⇒ gHg −1 N = HN, ∀g ∈ G
⇐⇒ ϕ(gHg −1 ) = ϕ(H), ∀g ∈ G
⇐⇒ ϕ(g )ϕ(H)ϕ(g )−1 = ϕ(H), ∀g ∈ G
−1
⇐⇒ g 0 ϕ(H)g 0 = ϕ(H), ∀g 0 ∈ G 0
⇐⇒ ϕ(H)  G 0 .


Definition
A maximal normal subgroup of a group G is a normal subgroup
M 6= G such that there does not exist a proper normal subgroup N
properly containing M.
Theorem
Let M
G . Then M is maximal if and only if G /M is simple.
Theorem
Let M
G . Then M is maximal if and only if G /M is simple.
Proof. Consider the canonical homomorphism ϕ : G → G /M
which has kernel M and onto.
Theorem
Let M
G . Then M is maximal if and only if G /M is simple.
Proof. Consider the canonical homomorphism ϕ : G → G /M
which has kernel M and onto. Set

S1 = {H  G : M ≤ H}, S10 = {K  G /M}.

Then |S1 | = |S10 |. Thus M is maximal if and only if |S1 | = 2 if and

only if |S10 | = 2 iff G /M is simple.