CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project entitle

Ecosystem by Jawahar Navodaya Vidyalaya

Kunihar Solan of Sen. Sec. School has

submitted her project to Mrs. under her
supervision.

Teacher’s sign. Principal sign.

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my special thanks of
gratitude to my teacher Mr Avinash Rani as well
as our principal Mr. D.S Rawat who gave me the
golden opportunity to do this wonderful project
on the Topic Ecosystem which also helped me in
doing a lot of Research and I came to know about
so many new things am really thankful to them.
Secondly I would also like to thank my
parents and friends who helped me a lot in
finalizing this project within the limited time
frame .

Tanzin Youdon
 Human Reproductive System

The human reproductive system usually involves internal

fertilization by sexual intercourse. During this process, the male inserts
his erect penis into the female'svagina and ejaculates semen, which
contains sperm. A small portion of the sperm pass through the cervix
into the uterus, and then into the fallopian tubes for fertilization of
the ovum. Only one sperm is required to fertilize the ovum. Upon
successful fertilization, the fertilized ovum, or zygote, travels out of the
fallopian tube and into the uterus, where it implants in the uterine wall.
This marks the beginning of gestation, better known as pregnancy, which
continues for nine months as the fetus develops. When the fetus has
developed to a certain point, pregnancy is concluded with childbirth or
labor. During labor, the muscles of the uterus contract and the cervix
dilates over the course of hours, and the baby passes out of the vagina.
Human infants are nearly helpless and require high levels of parental
care. Infants rely on their caregivers for comfort, cleanliness, and food.
Food may be provided by breastfeeding or formula feeding.[1]
The female reproductive system has two functions: The first is to
produce egg cells, and the second is to protect and nourish the fetus until
birth. The male reproductive system has one function, and it is to
produce and deposit sperm. Humans have a high level of sexual
differentiation. In addition to differences in nearly every reproductive
organ, numerous differences typically occur in secondary sexual
characteristics.
 Structure
Female

The human female reproductive system is a series of organs primarily

located inside of the body and around the pelvic region of a female that
contribute towards the reproductive process. The human female
reproductive system contains three main parts: the vagina, which leads
from the vulva, the vaginal opening, to the uterus; the uterus, which
holds the developing fetus; and the ovaries, which produce the female's
ova. The breasts are involved during the parenting stage of reproduction,
but in most classifications they are not considered to be part of the
female reproductive system.
The vagina meets the outside at the vulva, which also includes
the labia, clitorisand urethra; during intercourse this area is lubricated
by mucus secreted by the Bartholin's glands. The vagina is attached to
the uterus through the cervix, while the uterus is attached to the ovaries
via the fallopian tubes. Each ovary contains hundreds of egg cells or ova
(singular ovum).
Approximately every 28 days, the pituitary gland releases
a hormone that stimulates some of the ova to develop and grow. One
ovum is released and it passes through the fallopian tube into the uterus.
Hormones produced by the ovaries prepare the uterus to receive the
ovum. The lining of the uterus, called the endometrium, and unfertilized
ova are shed each cycle through the process of menstruation. If the ovum
is fertilized by sperm, it attaches to the endometrium and the fetus
develops.
Male

The male reproductive system is a series of organs located outside of the

body and around the pelvis region of a male that contribute towards the
reproduction process. The primary direct function of the male
reproductive system is to provide the male sperm for fertilization of the
ovum.
The major reproductive organs of the male can be grouped into three
categories. The first category is sperm production and storage.
Production takes place in the testes which are housed in the temperature
regulating scrotum, immature sperm then travel to the epididymis for
development and storage. The second category are the ejaculatory fluid
producing glands which include the seminal vesicles, prostate, and
the vas deferens. The final category are those used for copulation, and
deposition of the spermatozoa (sperm) within the male, these include
the penis, urethra, vas deferens, and Cowper's gland.
Major secondary sexual characteristics includes: larger, more muscular
stature, deepened voice, facial and body hair, broad shoulders, and
development of an adam's apple. An important sexual hormone of males
is androgen, and particularly testosterone.
The testes release a hormone that controls the development of sperm.
This hormone is also responsible for the development of physical
characteristics in men such as facial hair and a deep voice.
Development of the reproductive system
Development of the urinary system and Development of the reproductive
system
The development of the reproductive system and the development of the
urinary system are closely tied in the development of the human fetus.
Despite the differences between the adult female and male are derived
from the intermediate mesoderm. The three main fetal precursors of the
reproductive organs are the Wolffian duct, Mü llerian ducts, and
the gonad. Endocrine hormones are a well known and critical controlling
factor in the normal differentiation of the reproductive system.
The Wolffian duct forms the epididymis, vas deferens, ductus
deferens, ejaculatory duct, and seminal vesicle in the male reproductive
system and essentially disappears in the female reproductive system. For
the Mü llerian Duct this process is reversed as it essentially disappears in
the male reproductive system and forms the fallopian tubes, uterus, and
vagina in the female system. In both sexes the gonad goes on to form the
testes and ovaries, because they are derived from the same undeveloped
structure they are considered homologous organs. There are a number of
other homologous structures shared between male and female
reproductive systems. However, despite the similarity in function of the
female fallopian tubes and the male epididymis and vas deferens, they
are not homologous but rather analogous structures as they arise from
different fetal structures.
Examples of homologous human reproductive organs
Female organMale organShared functionBartholin's glandsCowper's
glandLubrication secretionsClitorisPenisErectile tissue and
sensationOvaryTestesGamete productionSkene's glandProstate
glandEjaculatory fluid and sensation

Process
Production of gametes

Spermatogenesis and Oogenesis

The production of gametes takes place within the gonads through a
process known as gametogenesis. Gametogenesis occurs when certain
types of germ cellsundergo meiosis to split the normal diploid number
of chromosome(n=46) into haploids cells containing only 23
chromosomes.[3]
In males, this process is known as spermatogenesis and takes place only
after puberty in the seminiferous tubules of the testes. The
immature spermatozoon or sperm are then sent to the epididymis where
they gain a tail and motility. Each of the original diploid germs cells or
primary spermatocytes forms four functional gametes which is each
forever young. The production and survival of sperms require a
temperature that is lower than the normal core body temperature. Since
the scrotum, where the testes is present, is situated outside the body
cavity, it provides a temperature about 3 °C below normal body
temperature.
In females, gametogenesis is known as oogenesis which occurs in
the ovarian follicles of the ovaries. This process does not produce mature
ovum until puberty. In contrast with males, each of the original diploid
germ cells or primary oocytes will form only one mature ovum, and
three polar bodies which are not capable of fertilization It has long been
understood that in females, unlike males, all of the primary oocytes ever
found in a female will be created prior to birth, and that the final stages
of ova production will then not resume until puberty. However, recent
scientific data has challenged that hypothesis. This new data indicates
that in at least some species of mammal oocytes continue to be
replenished in females well after birth.

Disease
Reproductive system disease
Like all complex organ systems the human reproductive system is
affected by many diseases. There are four main categories of
reproductive diseases in humans.
They are:
1) genetic or congenital abnormalities,
2) cancers,
3) infections which are often sexually transmitted diseases,
4) functional problems cause by environmental factors, physical damage,
psychological issues, autoimmune disorders, or other causes. The best
known type of functional problems include sexual
dysfunction and infertility which are both broad terms relating to many
disorders with many causes. The human reproductive system usually
involves internal fertilization by sexual intercourse. During this process,
the male inserts his erect penis into
the female'svagina and ejaculates semen, which contains sperm. The
sperm then travels through the vagina and cervix into
the uterus or fallopian tubes for fertilization of the ovum. Upon
successful fertilization and implantation, gestation of the fetus then
occurs within the female's uterus for approximately nine months, this
process is known as pregnancy in humans. Gestation ends with birth, the
process of birth is known as labor. Labor consists of the muscles of the
uterus contracting, the cervix dilating, and the baby passing out the
vagina (the female genital organ). Human's babies and children are
nearly helpless and require high levels of parental care for many years.
One important type of parental care is the use of the mammary glandsin
the female breasts to nurse the baby.
Specific reproductive diseases are often symptoms of other diseases
and disorders, or have multiple, or unknown causes making them
difficult to classify. Examples of unclassifiable disorders
include Peyronie's disease in males and endometriosis in females. Many
congenital conditions cause reproductive abnormalities but are better
known for their other symptoms, these include: Turner
syndrome, Klinefelter's syndrome, Cystic fibrosis, and Bloom syndrom