What is Reproduction?

Reproduction is the process by which a living organism is able

to produce more of its own kind. Or
Producing young-ones of their kind, generation after
generation.
TYPES
1. ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Single parent capable of producing offspring.
Basic features of asexual reproduction
i) It involves only one organism i.e.; different sexes or gametes are not involved.
ii) New individuals produced are genetically identical to the single parent.
iii) It is a fast mode of multiplication.
2. SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Two parents are involved in producing offspring.
Basic features of sexual reproduction
i) It is the production of offspring by the fusion of egg and sperm, which are the sex cells or gametes.
ii) Upon fertilization, the male and female gametes unite to form a zygote, which develops into a mature organism.
iii) It results in the combination of genetic material from two parents leads to genetic diversity
This type of reproduction occurs both in plants and animals.
HUMAN REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:
The human reproductive system is a complex network of organs and
tissues that work together to facilitate reproduction. Human beings
are unisexual or dioecious or heterophrodite, they are either male or
female having testes and ovaries respectively in body, each with
distinct structures and functions that contribute to the reproductive
process.
The male reproductive system generates and delivers sperm to the
female reproductive system.
while the female reproductive system produces and prepares eggs for
fertilization and provides support for fetal development during pregnancy.
MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
The male reproductive system consists of internal and external genitalia and divided as:
1. Organs : It consists of following organs
i. A pair of testes (where sperms are produced) ii. Epididymis (accessory structures that store the sperm)
iii. Vas – Deferens iv. Urethra v. The penis and scrotum are the external genitalia.)
2. Glands: Produce secretions that activate and nourish them. Three sets of accessory glands
i. The seminal vesicles ii. Prostate and iii. Bulbourethral glands.

GALAXY COACHING ACADEMY UMERKOT

GONADS (TESTES)
The testes produce both sperm and male sex hormones.
Though they develop inside the abdomen but come to lie, before birth
in scrotum a pouch of skin located outside of the abdomen between the
thighs.
Since the sperms are unable to develop at body temperature. The
scrotum maintains the testes at around 34°C, slightly lower than the
body temperature (37 °C).
The testis is composed of 250 to 300 lobules, Each lobule contain 1 to 4
tightly coiled seminiferous tubules, which make up most of each testis.
The sertoli cells in the tubules responsible for the production of sperm, process of sperm production is called
spermatogenesis.
ACCESSORY DUCTS
Sperm cells move towards the epididymis through the rete testis after being produced in the and rete testis are
connected by a network of tubes known as the efferent ducts. Sperm cells are kept in the epididymis until they are
ready for ejaculation and are fully developed.
Ductus deferens or vas deferens is a thick-walled tube that carries sperm from the epididymis, where the sperm are
stored before being released during ejaculation.
Each ductus deferens has an ampulla, which is an expanded part that serves as a reservoir.
Ejaculatory duct one of two hollow tubes created by joining the excretory duct of a seminal vesicle and the ampulla
of a ductus deferens.
The ducts serve to combine the sperm deposited in the ampulla with the fluids generated by the seminal vesicles
and transfer these substances to the prostate. They enter into the urethra about halfway through the prostate gland.
The urethra also called urinogenital duct is a common tube for the urinary and reproductive discharge.
PENIS:
The male external genitalia and copulatory organ consists of:
Glans or head or tip of penis, the glans is very sensitive and
contains the opening of the urethra. In some men, a fold of
skin that called the foreskin may cover the glans.
Shaft Contains layers of erectile tissues.
Root is where the penis attaches to the pelvic area.
SCROTUM: The male external genitalia, like penis. It protect
the testes and keep them at a temperature several degree
below the normal body temperature.
Glands: Three sets of accessory glands (the seminal vesicles,
prostate and bulbourethral glands).
A pair of seminal vesicles contributes about 60% of total volume of semen.
The prostate gland is the largest of the semen-producing glands. It secretes (30%) its products directly into the
urethra.
The bulbourethral glands are a pair of small glands along the urethra below the prostate. Before ejaculation they
secrete clear mucus (5%) that neutralizes any acidic urine remaining in the urethra.

GALAXY COACHING ACADEMY UMERKOT

FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM:
The female reproductive system consists of:
1. A Pair of Ovaries 2. A Pair of Ovi-Ducts or Fallopian Tubes
3. Uterus 4. Cervix 5. Vagina 6. Vulva
1. OVARIES: The small solid pair of oval bodies and female
reproductive organ called ovaries.
Location: A pair of ovaries lies in the lower part of the
abdominal cavity, one on each side of the body, attached
with mesentery, to a uterus. Protected in tough capsule.
Functions
Each female ovary contains about 200,000 follicles, formed before her birth
Ovaries produce ova/egg and the process of formation of egg in the ovary is known as oogenesis.
Also secrete female sex hormones, oestrogen and progesterone.
Ovary also perform the function of ovulation and discharged only one ovum from the ovary at one time.
2. OVIDUCT OR FALLOPIAN TUBES: After ovulation, the ova are immediately sucked up by a pair of tubes called
fallopian tubules, each around 10cm long.
It leads from ovary to uterus. It has a funnel like opening lying close to the ovary called fallopian funnel with ciliated
fingers called fimbriae. It makes easy for the eggs to enter the oviduct. Function: The egg is fertilized in the oviduct.
3. UTERUS: Both the oviducts open at their other end into a small pear shaped muscular but distensible sac called
uterus. Its inner lining, the endometrium is soft and smooth. Function: In the uterus development of embryo takes
place. Uterus releases oestrogen hormone.
4. CERVIX: At the narrow end of the uterus is a circular ring of muscles known as Cervix. Function: The cervix dilates
during birth and allows the head of the infant to pass through vagina the cervix also prevents from infections to
developing embryo.
5. VAGINA: Cervix opens into a long muscular tube called Vagina. Function: The vagina serves as birth canal.
6. VULVA: The opening of vagina is called Vulva. Function: Semen is deposited in the vagina during intercourse.
FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE CYCLE: The female reproductive cycle are as follows:
1. Oestrous Cycle 2. Ovarian Cycle
1. Oestrous Cycle: The cycle in which egg mature and the hormonal secretion of female indicates their readiness for
mating and animal is said to in heat a period of sexual receptivity during breeding season are called oestrous cycle.
This cycle found in all animals except human beings. In some animal it is once twice or some time in a year. Oestrous
cycle indicate that egg is ready for fertilization.
2. Ovarian Cycle: In female human being the reproductive cycle in which ova become mature and take part in
fertilization are called ovarian cycle.
In ovarian cycle one egg become mature and released from the ovary about once every 28 days.
A human female contains around 200,000 oocytes in each of her ovary.
Only about 450 of these oocytes develop into mature egg. Hormone helps in this process.
After 50 year of age maturation of ova and ovulation stop it is called menopause.

GALAXY COACHING ACADEMY UMERKOT

MENSTRUAL CYCLE:
In female human beings the reproductive cycle involves certain uterine changes which occur to prepare it for a
possible pregnancy this ovarian cycle is called uterine cycle.
This monthly egg saturation and uterine preparation is collectively called menstrual cycle or menses.
Menstruation begins (Menarche) around
the age of thirteen and stops
(Menopause) at the age of fifty.
Menstruation cycle is controlled by
hormones.
Menstrual cycle completes in 28 days.
Phases of Menstrual Cycle: Menstrual
cycle completes in four distinct phases
1. Menstruation Or "M" Phase
2. Follicle Or "F" Phase
3. Ovulation Or "O" Phase
4. Corpus Luteum Or "L" Phase
1. MENSTRUATION ((DESTRUCTIVE) PHASE
When fertilization does not occur, the inner lining of uterus which because
thickened and well developed to received fertilized ovum is broken.
The progesterone hormone is stopped to secrete from the ovary.
These broken tissues along with unfertilized ovum, mucus and blood are discharged out of the body through vagina
its is called menstrual stage.
When menstruation starts it is considered as the beginning of menstrual cycle. It extends from day 1 to 5 during
which menstrual flow occur.
2. THE PROLIFERATIVE (FOLLICULAR) PHASE:
The following events occur during this phase:
a. Maturation of follicle (ovary)
b. Endometrium re-building (uterus)
This phase starts just after the menstruation and ends with the release of ovum. It lasts about 7 days (day 6 to 12)
During this stage one or more ova start to develop. Only one follicle matures to produce an egg. This egg producing
follicle is sometimes called Graafian follicle, while rest of follicle degenerates.
This process initiated by FSH secrete by pituitary gland. FSH stimulates the ovary to produce a hormone called
Oestrogen while oestrogen inhibit the secretion of FSH. Oestrogen take part in thickening the uterine wall. Low FSH
level and high oetsrogen level in blood initiates the secretion of LH hormone from the pituitary gland.
3. THE OVULATORY PHASE
It is a short phase and is lasts in three days (13 to 15). During this phase graafian follicle of the ovary recaptures and
the mature ovum is released. This process is called ovulation. Mature ova enter into the oviduct. This stage is initiated
by the increase of LH level.

GALAXY COACHING ACADEMY UMERKOT

4. THE SECRETORY (LUTEAL) PHASE
During this phase, following events occur
a. Formation of corpus luteum b. Development of Endometrium c. Feedback control
This phase is the longest period of menstrual cycle. It lasts about 12-14 day (16 to 28). LH causes the ruptured follicle
to change into a yellowish body called corpus
luteum. Corpus luteum start producing
another hormone called Progesterone.
Progesterone enhances the growth of the
mucous lining (endometrium) of the uterus. If
the mature ovum, in oviduct is not fertilized,
the Corpus Luteum gradually degenerates.
Progesterone secretion stops and the internal
lining of uterus disintegrates and sloughs off
with blood. Menstruation begins and the cycle
starts again.
SPERMATOGENESIS:
Formation of sperm from the germ cell in the testes is spermatogenesis. The process begins at puberty.
Spermatogonia present in the lining of seminiferous tubules undergo mitotic division to increase their number.
Each spermatogonium is diploid (2n) which contain 46 chromosomes. Innermost layer of spermatogonial becomes
larger called primary spermatocyte.
Primary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis-I to form two equal haploid (n) secondary spermatocytes (n). Each
secondary spermatocyte undergoes meiosis-II to form two equal, haploid spermatids. Each primary spermatocyte
produces four spermatids.
Spermatids transformed into spermatozoa (sperms) by the process called spermiogenesis.
The sperm head embedded in the Sertoli
cell. Release of sperm from the
seminiferous tubule is called
spermiation.
MATURE SPERM CELL (Structure)
Ultrastructure of sperm consists of a
head, neck, a middle piece and a tail.
Whole body of sperm surrounded by
plasma membrane.
The sperm head contain an elongated
haploid nucleus. Above the nucleus a cap
like structure present called acrosome.
The acrosome contains enzymes which
help in fertilization of ovum.
The middle piece contains mitochondria, which provide energy for movement of tail that facilitate sperm motility.

GALAXY COACHING ACADEMY UMERKOT

HORMONAL REGULATION (In Males)
This process is initiated at puberty due to secretion of gonadotrophins releasing hormone (GnRH). GnRH secreted
form hypothalamus and stimulate anterior pituitary to secrete two gonadotrophins.
Luteinizing hormone (LH) and Follicle stimulating Hormone (FSH)
LH acts on Leydig cells and stimulates synthesis of androgens. Androgen stimulates spermatogenesis. FSH acts on
Sertoli cells and stimulates spermatogenesis in other ways.
OOGENESIS:
The production of eggs is called oogenesis. It
takes place in the ovaries and begins before
birth.
The outer layer of the ovary (the germinal
epithelium) produces primary oocytes. It also
produces follicle cells that congregate around
the oocytes, forming a structure called
the primary follicle.
By the time a baby girl is born, the primary
oocytes in the primary follicles have started the
first meiotic division but the process halts at the
first stage (prophase I). After puberty one of
these develops each month. It completes
meiosis I to form a secondary oocyte and first
polar body (the latter of which will eventually
disintegrate).
The follicle cells around it proliferates to form a
wall many cells thick called the theca. Fluid
collects inside the structure to form a fluid-filled cavity. The whole structure is called a Graafian follicle. At a time
controlled by hormones the secondary oocyte is released from the Graafian follicle and it leaves the ovary - a process
called ovulation. The secondary oocyte with some surrounding follicle cells leaves the ovary and enters one of the
oviducts. What is left behind on the surface of the ovary turns into a structure called the corpus luteum.
HORMONAL REGULATION (In Females)
The hypothalamus releases GnRH: this stimulates the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
The pituitary gland releases FSH: this stimulates the development of follicles within the ovary.
The follicle secretes oestrogen: this stimulates the repair of the uterus wall. It also inhibits the further release of FSH
so no new follicles develop in case pregnancy results. It also inhibits the release of LH from the pituitary gland until
shortly before ovulation.
Then the level of oestrogen rises which actually stimulates the release of LH and FSH.
A surge of LH: this causes ovulation and the development of the corpus luteum.
LH feeds back to inhibit oestrogen release so, as a result, the levels of LH and FSH begin to fall.
The corpus luteum secretes progesterone: this stimulates the thickening and the vascularization of the uterus wall in
preparation for pregnancy.

GALAXY COACHING ACADEMY UMERKOT

If no pregnancy occurs: the corpus luteum degenerates, progesterone is no longer released and the lining of the
uterus breaks down. The discharge of the wall is called menstruation.
FSH release is no longer inhibited so the cycle can begin again and a new follicle can develop.
If pregnancy occurs: the corpus luteum persists due to a hormone (CG - chorionic gonadotrophin) being released.
SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES (STDS)
Sexually transmitted diseases are a group of ailments that may infect a healthy person during sexual contact with an
infected person. A few of these are discussed below
1. GONORRHEA
Gonorrhea is a sexually transmitted disease, caused by the bacterium Neisseria gonorrhoeae. It primarily affects the
reproductive system
Causes of Gonorrhea:
Gonorrhea is primarily transmitted through sexual contact, usually through genital and oral contact, with an infected
person. The bacteria can infect the genital tract, mouth, throat, and rectum.
Symptoms of Gonorrhea:
Painful or burning sensation during urination.
Increased vaginal discharge in females and discharge
Pain or swelling in the testicles (in males).
Painful bowel movements or rectal itching.
Sore throat or difficulty swallowing.
Treatment of Gonorrhea:
Gonorrhea can be effectively treated with antibiotics. However, due to increasing antibiotic resistance, it is crucial to
follow the prescribed treatment regimen and complete the entire course of antibiotics as directed by a healthcare
professional.
2. SYPHILIS
Syphilis is a sexually transmitted disease caused by the bacterium Treponema pallidum. It is a serious health concern
that can affect various organs and systems if left untreated.
Causes of Syphilis:
Syphilis is primarily transmitted through sexual contact, usually through genital and oral contact
Symptoms of Syphilis:
Syphilis progresses through distinct stages.
The primary stage is characterized by the presence of a painless sore called a chancre at the infection site.
In the secondary stage, a rash, along with flu-like symptoms, develops.
The latent stage is symptom-free, but the infection can still be transmitted.
If left untreated, syphilis can progress to the tertiary stage, which can cause severe complications affecting various
organs, including the heart, brain, and bones. Symptoms during this stage can range from neurological problems to
cardiovascular issues.
Treatment of Syphilis:
Syphilis can be effectively treated with antibiotics; The specific antibiotic and treatment duration depend on the stage
and severity of the infection.

GALAXY COACHING ACADEMY UMERKOT

3. AIDS
Acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) is caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), which attacks
helper T cells, a type of lymphocyte.
Global Impact:
AIDS has had a profound impact on a global scale. Since the onset of the epidemic, millions of people worldwide have
been infected with HIV, leading to substantial morbidity and mortality.
It has disproportionately affected regions with limited access to healthcare, education, and resources, exacerbating
social and economic disparities.
Sub-Saharan Africa has been particularly affected, accounting for the majority of HIV infections and AIDS- related
deaths globally.
However, it is crucial to note that AIDS is a global concern, affecting people of all ages, genders, and geographical
locations
4. GENITAL HERPES
Causative Agent: It is caused by a virus, herpes simplex.
Symptoms: The main symptoms of Genital herpes are
Painful blisters and ulcers are produce around the external genital organ.
It may cause inflammation and pain.
The nervous system and eyes are also affected by the disease.
Transmission: It is most frequently transmitted by sexual contact causing infection of the genitalia. In infected
pregnant woman, virus can be transmitted to infant during birth, causing damage to eye and CNS of the infant.
Precautions and Treatment
Sexual contact with affected person should be avoided.
Use of antibiotics to develop immunity in the body.

Complete

GALAXY COACHING ACADEMY UMERKOT