Topics to be covered

1. Evolution of networking
2. Data communications terminologies
3. Transmission Media
4.Network Devices
5. Network Topologies
6. Network Types
7. Network Protocols

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What is Network?
It is a collection of Inter-connected computers and other devices that are able to
communicate with each other i.e. it is a collection of hardware and software components
that are connected together for effective information interchange wherein, one
system/device is the sender and the other is the receiver.

Advantages of Computer Network:

a. Resource sharing
b. Remote access
c. Cost saving
d. Collaborative user interaction
e. Time saving
f. Enhanced storage
Drawbacks
a. Poor handling can cause chaos
b. If the files are stored centrally, it may sometimes become impossible to carry out any
task
c. File security becomes high priority task in case of shared network
d. One may need specified staff to ensure data security

Evolution of Networking
Network Communication dates back to the earliest times since the evolution of human race
on earth. All the living organisms communicate with each other on one way or the other. The
early man used to communicate using the symbolic language, then with the development of
modern languages and intelligence, the communication media came into picture. And, with
the advent of computer systems, the data communication became important so as to take
necessary decisions and pass the messages quickly.
In year 1967, the very first network came into existence, namely-ARPANET.
ARPANET
(Advanced Research Project Agency Network) that was designed to survive any nuclear threat.
It was the first system to implement the TCP/IP protocol suite and was based on Client-Server
architecture.
NSFNet
National Science Foundation Network, was started in 1980 with a view to enhance Academic
and Scientific Research. It connected its server with the ARPANET in year 1986.
In the year 1990, the NSFNet, ARPANET and other smaller networks clubbed together to form
the INTERNET (Interconnected Networks) and hence the foundation of modern INTERNET was
laid down.

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Internet:
It is the global network of interconnected devices that may/may not follow same set of rules,
and connect together for sharing information and establishing communication. It is made up
of two parts:
a. IntraNet:
The word Intra means inside or within. Therefore, Intranet
means the network within an organization. It is created
using the protocols of LANs and PANs. Example: Wipro uses
internal network for business development
b. Extranet:
It is the network that lies outside the limits of the IntraNet.
Dell and Intel use network for business related operation.
c. Interspace:
It is the client-server software program that allows multiple users to communicate with
each other using real-time audio, video and text in a dynamic 3D environment.

Data Communication
Data:
It is raw facts and figures that are yet to get a defined meaning. Examples: 11, A123x@r67Y,
etc.
Information:
The processed form of data that had a defined meaning is known as the information.
Examples: Roll No. 11, Password: A123x@r67Y, etc.
Data Channel:
It is a medium to carry information or data from one point to another.
Baud:
It is the measurement of the data transfer rate in a communication channel.
Bits per Second:
It is the rate by which the data transfer is measured. It is used to measure the speed of
information through high-speed phone lines or modems. It is denoted ad Bps, kbps, Mbps,
Gbps, etc.

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Bandwidth:
It is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies in a channel. The high
bandwidth channels are known as Broadband Channels, and the low bandwidth channels are
called as the Narrowband Channels.

Data Transfer Rate:

It is the amount of data transferred per second by a communication channel or a computing
storage device. When applied to the data transmission rate, the abbreviations like K, M, G, T
are added to the data rate that denote Kilo, Mega, Giga, and Tera respectively. They work in
the power of 1024. Example 1 GB = 1024 MB, 1 TB = 1024 GB.

Switching Techniques:
These are used for transmitting data across the networks. The various switching techniques
are:
a. Circuit Switching:
Here, the connection between the sender and receiver is established first, and then the
data is transmitted from the source computer to destination computer. Before
transferring the data, a call setup is required for establishing connection between sender
and receiver. It is best for connections that require consistent bit rate for communication.

b. Message Switching:
In this technique, the message is sent to the switching office first that stores the data in
the buffer, and then the switching office finds the free link to the receiver, and then sends
the data to the receiver. There is no limit to the size of the message block to be
transmitted over the network.

c. Packet Switching:
It is the most efficient data communication technique used to send and receive data over
the internet. Instead of using the dedicated circuit for data communication, the data is
independently routed through the network and reassembled at the destination computer
system. Data is divided into fixed size packets before transmission. Each packet contains
a fraction of data along with addressing information.

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Transmission Medias
A transmission media refers to the medium by which the data is transferred from one device
to another. A transmission media can be:
a. Wired Transmission Media
b. Wireless Transmission Media

Wired Transmission Medias

In computer networks, wired transmission media refers to the physical mediums through
which data is transmitted from one device to another. These media provide a pathway for
electrical signals to travel, facilitating communication between network devices. Some
common types of wired transmission media used in computer networks include:

A. Twisted Pair Cable:

Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) and Shielded Twisted Pair (STP) cables are widely used for
Ethernet networking. UTP is commonly used in home and office networks
due to its cost-effectiveness and ease of installation. STP provides better
noise immunity and is suitable for environments with higher
electromagnetic interference.

B. Coaxial Cable:
Coaxial cables consist of a copper conductor surrounded by a
dielectric insulating material and a metallic shield. They are
commonly used in Cable Television (CATV) networks and some older
Ethernet installations.

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C. Fiber Optic Cable:
Fiber optic cables use strands of glass or plastic to transmit data as pulses of light. They offer
high data transfer rates, long-distance capabilities, and immunity
to electromagnetic interference. Fiber optics are commonly used in
high-speed data networks, telecommunications, and internet
backbone connections.

D. Ethernet Cable:
Ethernet cables, such as Cat5e, Cat6, and Cat7, are a subset of twisted
pair cables specifically designed for Ethernet networking. They are used
to connect devices in local area networks (LANs) and provide reliable
data transmission.

E. Power Line Communication (PLC):

PLC enables data transmission over existing electrical power lines. It is sometimes used to
provide networking in situations where laying dedicated network cables is impractical.

F. Structured Cabling Systems:

Structured cabling refers to a standardized cabling infrastructure used to support various
communication technologies within a building or campus. It typically involves a combination
of twisted pair and fiber optic cables organized in a structured manner.
The choice of wired transmission media depends on factors such as data transfer speed
requirements, distance, environmental conditions, and cost considerations. Each type of cable
has its advantages and limitations, and network designers choose the most appropriate
medium based on the specific needs of the network.

Wireless Transmission Medias

In computer networks, wireless transmission media refers to the means of transmitting data
between devices without the use of physical cables. Wireless communication relies on
electromagnetic waves to carry information. Some common types of wireless transmission
media used in computer networks include:

A. Wi-Fi (Wireless Fidelity):

Wi-Fi is a widely used wireless technology for local area networking (LAN) and internet access.
It operates in the unlicensed radio frequency bands, such as 2.4 GHz and 5 GHz, allowing
multiple devices to connect to a wireless access point (router).

B. Bluetooth:
Bluetooth is a short-range wireless technology commonly used for connecting devices like
smartphones, laptops, and peripherals (e.g., wireless keyboards, mice, and headphones). It

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operates in the 2.4 GHz frequency band and supports relatively low data transfer rates
compared to Wi-Fi.

C. Infrared (IR):
Infrared communication uses infrared light to transmit data between devices.
It is commonly found in remote controls for TVs, audio systems, and other
consumer electronics.

D. Microwaves:
These are high frequency waves that can be used to transmit data
over long distances, in a straight line, but these can not penetrate
through solid objects. It consists of a transmitter, receiver, and air.

E. Radio Frequency Identification (RFID):

RFID uses radio waves to identify and track objects equipped with RFID tags. It is
used in various applications, including supply chain management, access control,
and asset tracking.

F. Satellite Communication:
Satellite communication involves transmitting data to and from
Earth through communication satellites. It is used for long-distance
communication in remote areas or where traditional wired
communication is not feasible.

G. Near Field Communication (NFC):

NFC enables short-range communication between devices (typically within a few
centimeters). It is commonly used for contactless payment systems and data exchange
between smartphones.

H. Cellular Networks:
Cellular networks provide wireless communication over a large geographic area using cell
towers. They are the foundation for mobile phone networks and mobile internet access.

I. Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs):

WSNs consist of interconnected sensors that wirelessly communicate with each other to
gather and transmit data from the environment. They are used in various applications, such
as environmental monitoring and industrial automation.

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Wireless transmission media offer the advantage of mobility and flexibility, allowing devices
to connect without the constraint of physical cables. However, they may be susceptible to
interference, have limited range, and typically offer lower data transfer rates compared to
wired media. The choice of wireless media depends on factors such as the required coverage
area, data transfer speed, power consumption, and potential interference in the operating
environment.
Sink Node:
It is a node with no outward connections to other nodes. In other words, it sends information
to other nodes, but cannot receive the information by itself.

Network Devices:
For smooth functioning of computer network, other than computers and wirings, many
devices play an important role. These devices are known as the Network Devices.

A. Modem:
Modulator-Demodulator allows us to reach the global network with ease. It is used to
send and receive the data over the telephone lines or cable connections. Since, the
ordinary telephone lines cannot carry the digital information, a modem changes the
data from analog to digital format and vice versa.
Modems are of two types:
1. Internal modems: The modems that are fixed in the computer systems are Internal
Modems.
2. External Modems: The modems that are connected externally are called External
Modems.

B. Registered Jack-45 (RJ-45):

Registered Jack-45 of Rj-45 is an 8-wire connector that is
commonly used on computers in a local area network. It
looks similar to a standard phone connector (RJ-11), but is
wider than the RJ-11 connector, as it uses 8 wires instead
of 4. These are used to connect computers in Ethernet
LAN.

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C. NIC:
Network Interface Card (NIC) is a device used to connect the network with the
Internet. It is sometimes called ad the TAP (Terminal Access Point). Since different
manufacturers give different names to this device, hence, it is sometimes referred to
as NIU (Network Interface Unit).
The NIC has a unique physical address to each card, and it is known as MAC (Media
Access Control) Address.

D. MAC Address:
It is a b-byte address assigned to each NIC card and is separated by a colon. Example:
10 : E8 : 05 : 67 : 2A : GS
Manufacturer ID Card No.

E. Ethernet Card:
It is a LAN architecture developed by Xerox Corp along with the
DEC and Intel. It uses a bus or star topology for data transfer and
can attain a speed of up to 10 Gbps. It can connect devices in both
wired and wireless LAN or WAN.

F. Router:
It is responsible for forwarding data from one network to another. The main purpose
of router is sorting and distribution of the data packets to their destination based on
the IP address. The router uses the Logical address scheme.

G. Hub:
It is a device that connects several devices to a network and transmits the information
to all the connected devices via broadcast mode.
The hubs are of two types:
 Active hubs: these electrically amplify the signal as it moves
from one connected device to another.
 Passive hubs: these allow the signals to pass from one device
to another without any change.

H. Switch:
It is a device that is used to divide network into smaller
networks called subnets or LAN segments. This helps to avoid
network traffic as it divides the traffic into smaller parts. It is
responsible for filtering of data packets and then
transmission over the network.

I. Repeaters:
A repeater is a network device that amplifies, restores and re-broadcasts signals for
long-distance transmission.

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 J. Bridge:
It is a device that links two networks. It is smart system that knows which system lies
on which side and in which network. These can handle the networks that follow
different protocols.

K. Gateway:
It connects two dissimilar networks and establishes an intelligent connection between
local and external networks with completely different architecture. It is also known as
protocol translator.

L. Wi-Fi Card:
It is the LAN adapter whether external or internal with a built-in antenna
and wireless radio. Its main benefit is that it allows a computer to setup
the system as workstation without considering the availability of hard-
line access.

Network Topologies
The term topology means the way of connecting different systems to form a network. Some
of the commonly used topologies are as follows:

A. Bus Topology:
1. In a bus topology, all devices are connected to a single communication line called the
bus or backbone.

2. Data is transmitted from one end of the bus to the other, and all devices receive the
data simultaneously.
3. It is relatively easy to implement and works well for small networks. However, a single
break in the bus can disrupt the entire network.

B. Star Topology:
1. In a star topology, all devices are connected to a central hub
or switch.
2. Each device has a dedicated point-to-point connection to
the central hub.
3. If one device or cable fails, only that specific connection is
affected, and the rest of the network remains operational.
4. It is straightforward to add or remove devices, making it
scalable.

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C. Ring Topology:
1. In a ring topology, devices are connected in a closed
loop, forming a ring.
2. Each device is connected to exactly two other devices,
creating a continuous circular pathway for data
transmission.
3. Data travels in one direction around the ring until it
reaches the intended recipient.
4. Failure of any single device or connection can disrupt
the entire network.

D. Mesh Topology:
1. In a mesh topology, every device is connected to every other
device in the network. It provides multiple redundant paths
for data transmission, ensuring high reliability and fault
tolerance.
2. Mesh topologies are commonly used in critical applications
where network uptime is crucial. However, the extensive
cabling and complex connections can be expensive and
challenging to manage.

E. Hybrid Topology:
1. A hybrid topology is a combination of
two or more basic topologies (e.g., star-
bus or star-ring).
2. It leverages the advantages of different
topologies and can be designed to suit
specific networking needs.
3. Hybrid topologies are commonly used
in large networks or in scenarios with
diverse connectivity requirements.

F. Tree Topology:
Tree topology is a network design where devices are organized in a hierarchical structure,
resembling a tree with a root node at the top and branches of nodes extending
downward.

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 1. The root node acts as the central hub, and devices are connected to it directly or
through intermediary devices like switches or hubs.

2. This creates a multi-level structure, with each level representing a different generation
of devices.
Tree topology is commonly used in wide area networks (WANs) to interconnect different
local area networks (LANs) or subnets in a hierarchical manner. It is also found in some
enterprise networks and telecommunications networks.

Advantages of Tree Topology:

1. Scalability: The network can be easily expanded by adding more devices or branches.
2. Centralized Management: The root node allows for centralized control and easy
network management.
3. Fault Isolation: Issues in one branch do not affect the rest of the network, simplifying
troubleshooting.
4. Point-to-Point Connections: Devices have dedicated connections, reduced data
collisions and improving performance.
Disadvantages of Tree Topology:
1. Dependency on Root Node: The network's functionality relies on the root node, and
its failure can disrupt the entire network.
2. Cost: Implementing tree topology can be expensive, especially for larger networks.
3. Complex Cabling: As the network grows, the cabling can become more complex and
difficult to manage.

Types of Networks:

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The computer networks are divided into the following parts based on the network span and
number of systems connected.
1. PAN - Personal Area Network
2. LAN - Local Area Network
3. MAN - Metropolitan Area Network
4. WAN - Wide Area Network

PAN – Personal Area Network:

A personal area network (PAN) is designed for interconnection between devices typically
located within the range of 10 meters approx. These are used to connect personal use devices
like smartphones, laptops, tablets, wearable devices and other peripherals.
Bluetooth and Wi-Fi are the commonly used technologies for establishment of PANs.
PANs find applications in various scenarios, such as:
a. Wireless Headsets: For establishing connections between computers/smart phones
with headsets/head phones.
b. Personal health Devices: For pairing fitness related trackers/ smart phones for
monitoring health and workout timings.
c. Home automation: For connecting home use and
safety devices to a central controller such as smart
phone.
d. File Transfer: For ensuring smooth and fast transfer of
files between laptops, tablets etc.
e. Security: To enhance and implement security
protocols like encryption to ensure data privacy and
prevent unauthorized access to the connected
devices.
f. Ad-Hoc Networking: These are often used as Ad-Hoc networks for use as and when
required. These networks are established and disbanded as per the requirement. Also,
the devices can quickly connect to the network and disconnect whenever they are in
or out of range.

LAN – Local Area Network

A local area network (LAN) is designed for implementation between devices that are located
within a limited geographical area generally within the range of approximately 1 – 10 KM. this
network can be setup using wired or wireless transmission medias, and can be controlled by
an individual or an organization. It is also known as Intranet as it is a network within an
organization.
a. These can use various topologies such as star, bus, ring, or mesh. The most commonly
used topology for LANs is the Star topology, where all the devices are connected to a
central switch or hub.

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 b. LANs offer high data transfer rates as the network has a limited span enabling fast
communication and resource sharing.
c. The network administrator can easily manage
and monitor devices in a LAN.
d. The LANs are commonly used in offices,
homes, and educational institutions.
e. LANs implement security measure such as
Firewalls, access controls, and encryption to
protect data and unauthorized access to the
network at a much cheaper cost.

MAN – Metropolitan Area Network:

It is a network infrastructure that covers a larger geographical area than a Local Area Network
(LAN) but smaller than the Wide area Network (WAN). These use various connectivity
technologies including fiber-optic cables, microwave links and wireless technologies to
interconnect devices and networks within the area of a city and ranges between 5 – 100 KMs.
a. MANs often use high speed technologies like fiber-
optic cables, microwave links to provide fast and
reliable data transmission between network nodes.
b. These are often used by government agencies and
large educational institutions to interconnect LANs
and share resources like files, databases, and
applications.
c. They often use different Internet Service Providers
(ISPs) for effective data communication thereby strengthening the backbone of the
Internet.
d. These can be either privately owned, cooperative, or government owned to provide
services to the public.
e. These networks have grown rapidly in the past few years as the spans of cities have
increased rapidly.
f. The network security plays a crucial role in the MANs and increases the cost incurred
due to wide area coverage.
They play a significant role in interconnecting local networks within a city, enabling efficient
data exchange and facilitating communication among various entities in the metropolitan
region.

WAN – Wide Area Network:

It is a type of computer network that covers a vast geographical area spanning among cities,
countries, or even continents.
a. These use various technologies like leased lines, fiber optic cables, and satellite links.
b. Since it is the expanded form of MAN, it is considered as the backbone.

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 c. These allow the efficient transfer of data, voice, and videos between different nodes
thereby enabling communication and resource sharing between devices at far away
distances.
d. These are designed with redundancy and backup links to
ensure high fault tolerance thereby minimizing
disruptions and maintaining connectivity even if some
network segment fails.
e. Data Security becomes the key issue as it becomes
essential to protect data from unauthorized access and
cyber threats. Thus encryption, firewalls and virtual
private Networks (VPNs) play an important role in ensuring data security.
f. These may have varying speeds and bandwidth depending upon the technology used
and the distance between network nodes.
Note:
Virtual Private Network: It is used to access the public network as a private network. It
ensures enhances security, and safety of data.

Difference between LAN, MAN, and WAN

Network Protocols:
These are the set of rules that are required to run the internet keeping in mind the security of
data for sake of users.

1. TCP (Transmission Control Protocol):

a. Connection-oriented protocol for reliable data transmission.
b. Provides error checking, retransmission of lost packets, and in-order delivery.
c. Slower than UDP due to the additional overhead for reliability.

2. UDP (User Datagram Protocol):

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 a. Connectionless protocol for fast, unreliable data transmission.
b. No error checking or retransmission, suitable for real-time applications.
c. Lower overhead compared to TCP.

3. IP (Internet Protocol):
a. Responsible for addressing and routing packets across networks.
b. IP version 4 (IPv4) uses 32-bit addresses (e.g., 192.168.1.1).
c. IP version 6 (IPv6) uses 128-bit addresses (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0370:7334).

4. HTTP (Hypertext Transfer Protocol):

a. Used for web page communication between a client (browser) and a web server.
b. Supports request methods like GET, POST, PUT, DELETE, etc.

5. HTTPS (Hypertext Transfer Protocol Secure):

a. Secure version of HTTP that uses encryption (TLS/SSL) to protect data during
transmission.
b. Uses port 443.

6. FTP (File Transfer Protocol):

a. Used for transferring files between a client and a server.
b. Can operate in active or passive mode.

7. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):

a. Used for sending email messages between servers.
b. Port 25 is used for unencrypted communication, and port 587 is used for encrypted
communication (SMTPS).

8. POP3 (Post Office Protocol version 3):

a. Used for retrieving email from a remote server to a local email client.
b. POP3 downloads emails to the client and removes them from the server.

9. IMAP (Internet Message Access Protocol):

a. Used for accessing email messages on a remote server from multiple clients.
b. IMAP keeps emails on the server and synchronizes changes across clients.

10. DNS (Domain Name System):

a. Translates human-readable domain names (e.g., www.example.com) into IP
addresses.
b. Distributed hierarchical system for domain resolution.

11. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol):

1. Automatically assigns IP addresses and network configuration to devices on network.
2. Simplifies network administration by managing IP allocation.

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 12. ICMP (Internet Control Message Protocol):
Used for error reporting and diagnostics in IP networks.
Commonly associated with tools like ping to test network connectivity.

13. SLIP (Serial Line Internet Protocol):

a. This is used for delivering/ relaying packets over the dial-up line.
b. It defines the encapsulation mechanism for the packets.

14. PPP (Point to Point Protocol):

a. It is the internet standard for transmission of IP packets over the serial lines.
b. It is currently the best solution for dial-up connections.

These are just some of the many network protocols that facilitate communication and data
transfer across the internet and local networks. Each one serves specific purposes and plays a
crucial role in modern networking.

Web Services:
1. World Wide Web (WWW):
It is a global system of interconnected documents and resources that are accessible
over the internet. It operates on the basis of hypertext links which allows the users to
navigate between different documents and multimedia content.

2. Hypertext:
The web is built on the concept of hypertext where documents are linked to each other
through hyperlinks. These allow the users to navigate from one place to another.

3. URL:
Each web page and the resource on the web can be accessed using the unique address
called as the URL (Uniform Resource Locator).

4. Web Browser:
To access and view web pages on the internet (WWW), we need to have an application
named as Web Browser. There are many web browsers available on the internet like
Google Chrome, Microsoft Edge, and Mozilla Firefox etc.

5. Web Servers:
These are the computers that host websites and web applications. These respond to
requests from web browsers, and provide the requested web pages and resources
back to the users.

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6. Weblinks:
These are the links available within the web pages that allow the users to access the
pages that contain the topic related content.

7. HTML:
Hyper Text Markup Language (HTML) was developed with a view to structure and
organize the static web pages. These are the symbols and codes that allow the used to
develop web pages that can run over the internet. These define the layout, format,
and linking of text, multimedia, and other elements within a web page. It uses tags for
presentation of content.

8. XML:
Extensible Markup Language (XML) is designed to carry and store data in a structured
and platform-independent format. These use the user-defined custom tags to
represent specific data fields and structures. These are self-descriptive and make it
easier for different applications to understand and interpret data.

9. Websites:
These are the collections of various web pages and data that are accessible for all, and
are available on the internet. Many types of restrictions such as screenshot
protections, copying of data can be implemented on the websites for data protection.

10.Web Hosting:
This refers to the service of providing storage space, server resources, and internet
connectivity to make websites and web applications accessible to users over the
internet. It allows individuals, businesses, and organizations to publish their websites
on the World Wide Web, making them available to visitors and users worldwide.
a. Web hosting companies maintain powerful servers designed to store website files,
databases, and other contents required for website operations.
b. These typically handle the maintenance tasks of the registered websites.
c. These ensure proper backup and recovery of the lost data (if any) while accessing
it, and cope up with potential threats that can destroy data.

11.Domain Name Service (DNS):

It is a vital internet infrastructure that converts domain names into IP addresses,
thereby enabling the users to navigate the web using easily recognizable and
memorable names instead of numerical IP addresses.

12.Internet Protocol (IP) Address:

It is a unique serial number assigned to devices on a network, facilitating
communication and data exchange between them over the internet, and other IP
based networks. These are of two types:

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 a. IPv4:
These are the addresses that consist of 32-bit addressing scheme. Example:
192.168.0.24
b. IPv6:
This uses 128 bit addressing scheme represented by eight groups of hexadecimal digits
separated by colons. Example: 2001:0db8:85a3:0f00:00a0:8a2e:0370:7334.

The potential growth of internet-connected devices led to exhaustion of available IPv4

addresses. To cope up with this problem, the IPv6 addressing scheme was introduces that
provides a significantly large pool of IP addresses to accommodate the expansion of internet.

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