Nature of Human Aggression/emotion

Introduction

In psychology, the term aggression refers to a range of behaviors that can result in both
physical and psychological harm to yourself, others, or objects in the environment. This type of
behavior centers on harming another person either physically or mentally. In general terms it may
be defined as the act of beginning a quarrel, accidentally injuring someone or attempting and
committing suicide.

Definition

According to Baron and Byrne: Aggression is Behavior directed towards the goal of harming
another living being who is motivated to avoid such treatment.

Atkinson and Smith et al: defined Aggression is a Behavior intended to injure someone physically
or verbally or destroy someone.

Ellis (1976) considered positive aggression to be healthy, productive behaviour if it promoted the
basic values of survival, protection, happiness, social acceptance, preservation, and intimate
relations.

Aggression stems from many different factors such as genetic factors, extremely elicited
drives, various input variables relating to the situational or personal factors, individual differences,
affective states, appraisal and decision mechanisms, and cognitive processes. Aggression is a result
of large number of variables operating together.

Aggression; an Emotion

Aggression is not an emotion in itself; rather, it is a behavior or a set of behaviors that can
result from various emotions, such as anger, frustration, fear and suppression from an authority for
a longer time.

Theories Supporting the Link Between Emotion and Aggression

1. Frustration-aggression Hypothesis
2. Cognitive-Neoassociationistic (CNA) Model
Cognitive-Neoassociationistic (CNA) Model

Berkowitz (1989) developed his CNA model as a modification to the Frustration-

Aggression Hypothesis. The main premise of the CNA model is that negative affect is the main
cause of anger and affective aggression. In his CNA model the aversive event represents the
eliciting event. According to Berkowitz, this aversive event must cause negative affect for anger
and aggression to occur. This theory posits that aversive events (such as frustration, pain, or
discomfort) produce negative affect, which can lead to aggressive behavior.

The roots of human aggressive (only for reading)

Humans are more often at peace than at war; we cooperate more than we conflict. In fact,
there is mounting evidence that cooperation may be acentral facet in explaining our success as a
species.On the other hand, this does not mean we are egalitarian, nonviolent pacifists. Human
nature is neither simple nor linear. Our core adaptation is one of cooperation, but we can and do
compete—a lot—and often use aggression to do so. To understand this pattern, we need to ask:
what is aggression and why do we use it?

https://leakeyfoundation.org/the-roots-of-human-aggression/

Can refer to this.

Nature of Human Aggression

“The nature of human aggression” refers to its place in the natural world. It concerns where
aggression originated, and the implications of those origins for the form, development, and
organization of human aggression.

The ethological tradition plays a significant role in shaping our understanding of human
aggression by providing a framework to study behavior in a naturalistic context. Ethology, as
described by Tinbergen, involves observing and analyzing animal behavior to gain insights into
human behavior. This approach emphasizes the importance of studying behavior in its natural
environment rather than in controlled laboratory settings, allowing researchers to observe
aggression in its true context.
 The nature of human aggression is viewed from four explanatory perspectives, derived
from the ethological tradition.

1. Functional Origins
2. Phylogenetic Origin
3. Developmental Origin
4. Motivation of Human Aggression

Functional Origin

The first consists of its adaptive value, which can be seen throughout the animal kingdom,
involving resource competition and protection of the self and offspring, which has been viewed
from a cost-benefit perspective.

It discusses how aggression serves functions such as resource competition, protection of

the self and offspring, and territorial defense, all of which have implications for an individual's
survival and reproductive success. The concept of cost-benefit analysis is highlighted, where
behaviors are evaluated based on the benefits they provide compared to the costs incurred. This
section emphasizes that aggression is not solely driven by impulsivity or maladaptive tendencies
but can be understood as a strategic behavior that has evolved over time to address specific
challenges and opportunities in the environment. The term "adaptive value" refers to the extent to
which a particular trait or behavior contributes to the survival and reproductive success of an
organism in its environment. Traits or behaviors that enhance an organism's ability to survive,
reproduce, and pass on its genes to future generations are considered to have high adaptive value.

Phylogenetic Origin

The second concerns the phylogenetic origin of aggression, which in humans involves
brain mechanisms that are associated with anger and inhibition, the emotional expression of anger,
and how aggressive actions are manifest.

By studying aggression from a phylogenetic perspective, researchers can explore the brain
mechanisms, emotional expressions, and manifestations of aggression in humans and other
animals. The term "phylogenetic" refers to the evolutionary development and history of a species
or group of organisms. In the context of human aggression and behavior, examining the
phylogenetic origins of aggression involves studying how aggressive behaviors have evolved over
time across different species, including humans. This approach looks at the evolutionary history
of aggression, considering how it has been shaped by natural selection and genetic inheritance. By
exploring the phylogenetic origins of aggression, researchers can gain insights into the
commonalities and differences in aggressive behavior among various species, providing a deeper
understanding of the evolutionary roots of this complex behavior.

Developmental Origin

The third concerns the origin of aggression in development and its subsequent modification
through experience. This origin explains how aggression originates during development and how
it is subsequently modified through experiences. It contrasts the evolutionary perspective with the
influential social learning perspective, highlighting that physical aggression occurs early in life
and is followed by learned inhibition. It discusses how the development of aggression is influenced
by a combination of genetic factors, environmental influences, and individual experiences,
emphasizing the importance of understanding the early origins and developmental trajectory of
aggressive behavior.

The emphasis has been on the impact of social learning in explaining social development.
Thus, aggression is viewed as behavior that is learned throughout childhood from a variety of
influences, including parents, peers, and the media. In contrast, an evolutionary perspective on
development is primarily concerned with regularities in the developmental process underlying a
form of behavior that is the result of natural selection.

Motivation of Human Aggression

The fourth explanation concerns the motivational mechanisms controlling aggression:

approached from an evolutionary background, these mechanisms range from the inflexible reflex-
like responses to those incorporating rational decision-making.

This perspective acknowledges that while aggression is a characteristic found in humans

and other animals, variations in aggressive behavior may be influenced by genetic, brain, and
environmental factors, leading to forms of aggression that can be counter-productive or disruptive.
Other headings that can be included in it:

• Causes of aggression
• Characteristics of aggression
• Types of aggression
• Difference between aggression and frustration
• Forms of Aggression
• Theories of Aggression

Theories of Aggression

Lorenz’s Theory of Aggression

Basic principles of Lorenz’s theory –

Firstly, Lorenz believed that aggression is normally useful and functional in the survival of any
species.

Secondly, he believed that there is always an equilibrium between killing power and inhibitions.

Thirdly, according to Lorenz, aggression gets accumulated if it is drained out.

Criticisms of Lorenz’s Theory of Aggression

The behaviorists argued that humans are not driven by instincts, but are learning animals.
According to them, human aggression is a result of learning. Secondly, research has not been
identify any neural mechanisms that support Lorenz’s claim of accumulation of aggression. Neural
mechanisms of aggression are usually activated in response to an external stimulus. Many research
findings have also shown that vicarious catharsis or indulgence in competitive sports may not lead
to decrease in aggression, and may, in fact increase it.
Frustration-Aggression Hypothesis

The first to formulate the frustration-aggression hypothesis were the Yale University
researchers John Dollard, Leonard Doob, Neal Miller, O. H. Mowrer, and Robert Sears (1939).

The frustration-aggression hypothesis states that aggression is a result of frustration.

Frustration is any event or stimulus that prevents an individual from attaining a goal and it’s
accompanying reinforcement quality (Dollard & Miller, 1939). Or, frustration is a feeling of
tension that occurs when our efforts to reach a goal are blocked.

Dollard et al. define frustration as an event instead of an affective state (Breuer and Elson,
2017). John Dollard thought about frustration as an unexpected blockage of a goal that someone
anticipated attaining.

For details, refer to this:

https://www.simplypsychology.org/frustration-aggression-hypothesis.html
General Aggression Model
The General Aggression Model (GAM) is a comprehensive, integrative framework for
understanding aggression. Developed by Craig Anderson and Brad Bushman, the model combines
various factors from biological, personality, social, and environmental domains to explain how and
why people exhibit aggressive behavior. By considering the interplay between personal
characteristics, situational factors, and internal processes (affect, cognition, and arousal), GAM
helps in understanding the complexities of aggressive behavior and guides effective intervention
strategies.

For details, refer to this: Also for forms of aggression.

https://www.craiganderson.org/wp-content/uploads/caa/abstracts/2015-2019/17AA.pdf

Types of Aggression
 Violence

Definition

Violence is defined as aggression that has serious physical harm (e.g., injury requiring
medical attention or causing death) as its ultimate goal (DeWall, Anderson, & Bushman, 2012).
Actual harm does not have to occur for an action to be considered violent. For example, shooting
a gun at someone but missing the target person is still considered a violent behavior. All acts of
violence are considered acts of aggression but not all acts of aggression are considered violent. For
example, a child pushing another child away to guard a favored toy would be considered aggressive
but not violent.

According to World Health Organization (WHO)

“The intentional use of physical force or power, threatened or actual, against ones-self,
another person, or against a group or community, that either results in or has a high likelihood of
resulting in injury, death, psychological harm, maldevelopment or deprivation”.

The world report of violence and health (WRVH) presents a typology of violence that,
while not uniformly accepted, can be a useful way to understand the contexts in which violence
occurs and the interactions between types of violence. This typology distinguishes four modes in
which violence may be inflicted: physical; sexual; and psychological attack; and deprivation. It
further divides the general definition of violence into three sub-types according to the victim-
perpetrator relationship.

Self-directed violence refers to violence in which the perpetrator and the victim are the same
individual and is subdivided into self-abuse and suicide.

Interpersonal violence refers to violence between individuals, and is subdivided into family and
intimate partner violence and community violence. The former category includes child
maltreatment; intimate partner violence; and elder abuse, while the latter is broken down
into acquaintance and stranger violence and includes youth violence; assault by strangers;
violence related to property crimes; and violence in workplaces and other institutions.

Collective violence refers to violence committed by larger groups of individuals and can be
subdivided into social, political and economic violence.
 Cycle of Violence

The term cycle of violence refers to repeated and dangerous acts of violence as a cyclical
pattern, associated with high emotions and doctrines of retribution or revenge. The pattern, or
cycle, repeats and can happen many times during a relationship Each phase may last a different
length of time, and over time the level of violence may increase. The phrase has been increasingly
widespread since first popularized in the 1970s. It often refers to violent behavior learned as a
child, and then repeated as an adult, therefore continuing on in a perceived cycle.

Some people who have experienced any type of physical, sexual, or emotional abuse can
attest to the fact that the abuse happened in very predictable cycles. In some instances, violence
can be repetitive and may have generational roots. People who experience trauma as children are
likely to experience triggers that they don't understand when they become parents. These triggers
may cause the parent to repeat old patterns that they are already familiar with.

According to a research article, Early childhood victimization has demonstrable long-term

consequences for delinquency, adult criminality, and violent criminal behavior. One of the most
pervasive claims that appears in both academic and popular writings refers to the cycle of violence:
abused children become abusers and victims of violence become violent offenders. Over 25 years
ago, in a brief clinical note entitled "Violence breeds violence-perhaps?" Curtis expressed the
concen that abused and neglected children would "become tomorrow's murderers and perpetrators
of other crimes of violence, if they survive.

Broadly conceptualized, the cycle of violence refers to the idea that experiencing violence
early in life by any perpetrator will lead to involvement in crime and delinquency later in life.
Many explanations for this cycle have been offered including psychodynamic theories, social
theories, cognitive/behavioral theories, and family and systems theories. One of the most often
cited explanations, social learning theory, provides a theoretical rationale on how abused children
learn to be aggressive from their parents and other important role models through a process of
behavioral conditioning and imitation and later pass what they have learned on to others.

“Cycle of violence”—a phenomenon whereby victimization and offending appear

inexorably linked to one another. Extant work has greatly contributed to our understanding of this
cycle for different types of abuse and different types of offending. It remains unclear whether type
of abuse experienced has a differential impact on type of offending in adulthood.

One of the theory on such cycle of violence was given by Walker.

The cycle of violence theory was developed in 1979 by Dr Lenore Walker. It describes the
phases an abusive relationship moves through in the lead up to a violent event and its follow-up.

The cycle of violence looks at the repetitive nature of perpetrator’s actions that hinder a
victim’s ability to leave an abusive relationship. The cycle of violence theory provides an insight
into this by illustrating how the behaviour of a perpetrator can change very dramatically, making
it difficult for the woman to leave. Women who have experienced violence may recognise this
cycle.
 When abuse is described as a cycle, it's often separated into four stages:

Phase 1: Tension-building Phase

Build Up: Tension between the people in the relationship starts to increase and verbal, emotional
or financial abuse occurs.

Stand-over: This phase can be very frightening for people experiencing abuse. They feel as though
the situation will explode if they do anything wrong. The behaviour of the abuser intensifies and
reaches a point where a release of tension is inevitable.

Phase 2: Acute Explosion

The peak of the violence is reached in this phase. The perpetrator experiences a release of
tension. This feeling can become addictive, and the perpetrator may become unable to deal with
anger in any other way.

Phase 3: Honeymoon Stage

Remorse: At this point, the perpetrator starts to feel ashamed. They may become withdrawn and
try to justify their actions to themselves and others. For example, they may say: “You know it
makes me angry when you say that.”

Pursuit: During the pursuit phase, the perpetrator promises never to be violent again. They may
try to explain the violence by blaming other factors such as alcohol or stress at work. The
perpetrator may be very attentive to the person experiencing violence, including buying gifts and
helping around the house. It could seem as though the perpetrator has changed. At this point, the
person experiencing the violence will feel confused and hurt but also relieved that the violence is
over.

Denial phase: Both people in the relationship may be in denial about the severity of the abuse and
violence. Intimacy increases and both people feel happy and want the relationship to continue, so
they ignore the possibility that the violence could happen again.
Examples
The examples of societies including Pakistan and International scenarios. All the examples
discussed during lecture in this context can be included in it by applying on cycle
 Learning Theories on Violence and Peace
There are many theoretical explanations about various reasons of development of violence
in individual and societal level. One of such explanations include learning viewpoint about
violence. Learning perspective posits that people learn violence in the same way as they learn other
things in their lives.
According to social learning processes, violence is not only transmitted directly through
vicarious observations or direct experiences, but also through the acquisition of attitudes and
definitions of what is considered appropriate behavior (Akers, 1998; Bandura, 1973). Thus,
according to theory, exposure to violence instills a belief system condoning the use of violence in
intimate relationships, in turn increasing the likelihood that individuals will engage in violence.

There are certain learning theories on it which are as follows:

1. Social Learning Theory
2. Differential association Theory
3. Akers' social learning Theory
4. Social Identity Theory (https://content.e-bookshelf.de/media/reading/L-5027166-
6dffc46322.pdf)

Social Learning Theory

Albert Bandura’s observational theory, also known as social learning theory. watching
someone else perform a behavior, then the observer performs a similar behavior in a similar
situation The observational theory describes the way that people imitate certain behaviors (such as
violence) is through a process known as, modeling. Albert Bandura (1970) developed the
observational theory, in which the brain adopts violent behavior mostly by instinctual processes.
Albert Bandura’s observational theory (1970) explains that violent behavior is learned
through exposure and imitation of an observed act of violence. The study gave heart to the well-
known expression:
* Monkey SEE, Monkey DO!! *
In an experiment, it was investigated that parallel sets of “mirror neurons” were released
in both of the following situations – while a monkey grasped an object and while observing another
primate gripping the same object. Firing of these analogous neurons is prevalent in both primates
and humans. This neural activity takes place in the premotor cortex, which is the brain region
liable for “planning and executing actions (Swanson, 2015).” Additionally, the premotor cortex is
essential for learning things through imitation, including violent behaviors. Neurons stimulate the
premotor cortex If we are exposed to direct observation of someone acting violently. When this
brain region is activated, we feel like we are the ones actually doing the victimizing
behavior. Marco Iacoboni, a psychiatric professor, concluded that “these ‘mirror neurons’ (and
activation of the premotor cortex) may be the biological mechanism by which violence spreads
from one person to another.
According to social learning theory (Bandura, 1976), exposure to violence may increase
aggression directly through modeling and imitation, or indirectly through changes in social
cognitions. Children repeatedly exposed to violence tend to acquire schemas, beliefs, and
information-processing patterns that promote aggressive behavior.

A Social Learning Understanding of Violence

Bandura says that aggressive tendencies are acquired, either by observation or direct
experience. The biological makeup of a person also informs the types of aggressive responses and
the rate at which learning takes place. Three important social systems may influence behaviour,
including aggressive behaviour. These are family role models, subcultures, and symbols. The
family refers to interactions between household members. The primary models here are parents,
brothers, cousins, aunts and uncles, and other close relatives. Subculture entails the shared beliefs,
attitudes, customs or other forms of behaviour dominant in a society that people share in groups.
If these people demonstrate aggressive or violent belief systems, children in the group may be
influenced, which in turn may lead to the acquisition of aggressive tendencies.
Finally, studies suggest that observation and direct experiences are not the only influences
on violent behaviour. Indirect stimulus, such as media and the Internet, play a major role. This
observed content can generate similar behaviours and beliefs about social life in those who come
across it. Consequently, it is important to recognize the modelling effect media has as directors
and shapers of behaviour, particularly of children and youth.
Bushman and Anderson (2001) highlight the dangers of children and adolescents watching
violent movies. They suggest that children may become less sensitive to other people’s pain, might
feel frightened, and can also behave aggressively after watching television programmes containing
many occurrences of aggressive behaviour. These same researchers further note that children’s
programmes often have up to twenty scenes containing aggression, every hour. While research on
social media’s influence on violent behaviour is limited, evidence of its significant role in
promoting violence, including stigmatizing target groups and recruiting agents of violence, is
surfacing.
For detail, refer to this article.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/352354645_A_Social_Learning_Understanding_of_Vi
olence
 Differential Association Theory

Differential Association Theory, proposed by Edwin H. Sutherland in 1939, is a

criminological theory that posits that criminal behavior is learned through interactions with others.
Sutherland's theory, differential association theory, maintains that criminal behavior is
learned, and it is learned the same way any other behavior is learned: through interpersonal
communication and social interaction. This theory posits that criminal behavior is learned through
contact with people who are themselves criminals.
The criminal behavior is learned when more pro-violence attitudes are learned than anti-
violence attitudes. Conversely, learning criminal attitudes, motives, and definitions becomes more
likely the more contact there is with people and groups who violate the law and the less contact
there is with people and groups who live by the rules.
According to this theory, individuals learn the values, techniques, motives, and attitudes
necessary for criminal behavior through their associations with others who commit crimes. The
theory emphasizes the role of social context and relationships in the development of criminal
behavior, suggesting that crime is not inherent to individuals but is learned from the environment.
Core Principles
Sutherland’s theory of differential contacts is based on nine principles which summarize
the theory of differential association:
1. Criminal behaviour has been learned.
2. Criminal behaviour is learned in interaction with other persons in a communication
process.
3. The learning processes take place primarily in small and intimate groups (and thus less
through (mass) media, for example).
4. The learning of criminal behaviour includes the learning of techniques to commit a crime
as well as specific motives, rationalisations and attitudes that favour criminal behaviour.
5. The specific direction of motives and drives is learned by defining laws positively or
negatively.
6. A person becomes delinquent as a result of the predominance of attitudes that favour the
violation over those that take a negative view of the violation.
7. Differential contacts vary according to frequency, duration, priority and intensity.
8. The process of learning criminal behaviour includes all the mechanisms involved in any
other learning process.
9. Although criminal behaviour is an expression of general needs and values, it is not
explained by them. Non-criminal behaviour can also infer from exactly the same values
and needs (e.g. sexual urges).
Explanation of some of these are as follows:

Criminal behavior is learned

• Criminal behavior is not inherited or a result of biological factors; it is acquired through

social interactions.
• Learning occurs within intimate personal groups.

Learning includes techniques and motivations

• Individuals learn both the techniques for committing crimes (e.g., how to break into a
house) and the specific directions of motives, drives, rationalizations, and attitudes.
• This includes learning the mindset that justifies or normalizes criminal behavior.

Differential associations vary

• The likelihood of adopting criminal behavior depends on the frequency, duration, priority,
and intensity of the associations.
• Frequency: How often one interacts with deviant associates.
• Duration: How long the interactions last.
• Priority: How early in life the associations occur.
• Intensity: The importance or prestige of the individuals in the association.

Criminal behavior arises from an excess of definitions favorable to violation of law

• An individual becomes delinquent because of an excess of definitions favorable to law

violation over definitions unfavorable to law violation.
• This balance of definitions tips the individual towards criminal behavior.

Mechanisms of learning criminal behavior

• The learning of criminal behavior involves the same mechanisms involved in any other
type of learning.
• This includes processes such as imitation and reinforcement.

Learning criminal behavior by association

• Learning criminal behavior involves all the mechanisms that are part of any learning
process, including communication and interaction with others.
• Learning occurs through both verbal and non-verbal communication.

Social organization and crime

• The differential association theory can explain variations in crime rates based on the
social organization and structure of communities.
 • Communities with strong social ties and positive influences are less likely to produce
individuals who engage in criminal behavior.

Example
White collar crime and organized crime in form of mafia indicate the crimes learned
specifically through associations or interactions.

Akers' Social Learning Theory

Akers' Social Learning Theory, developed by Ronald Akers in the 1960s, builds upon the
foundational ideas of Edwin Sutherland's Differential Association Theory. Akers expanded this
framework to explain how people learn behaviors, particularly deviant or criminal behaviors,
through social interaction and the influence of their environment. The theory incorporates
principles of behavioral psychology, emphasizing the role of reinforcement and imitation in
learning.
Core Components of Akers' Social Learning Theory
Differential Association

Individuals learn values, attitudes, techniques, and motives for criminal behavior through
their interactions with others. The people with whom one interacts most frequently and intensely
(e.g., family, friends) have the greatest impact on one's behavior. Associations with deviant
individuals increase the likelihood of adopting similar behaviors.

Definitions

Definitions refer to an individual’s own attitudes or meanings that they attach to given
behaviors. These can be favorable or unfavorable towards deviant behavior. Definitions can be
general (broad beliefs about behavior) or specific (attitudes towards particular acts). If an
individual has more favorable definitions towards deviant behavior, they are more likely to engage
in it.

Differential Reinforcement

Behaviors are more likely to be repeated if they are followed by rewards (positive
reinforcement) or if they result in the removal of unpleasant stimuli (negative reinforcement).
Punishments can decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated. The balance of anticipated
or actual rewards and punishments influences whether a person will continue to engage in a
behavior. Social reinforcements, such as approval from peers, can play a significant role in
reinforcing behavior.
Imitation

People can learn new behaviors by observing the actions of others, especially if those
behaviors appear to be rewarding. The likelihood of imitation depends on the observed
consequences of the behavior, the characteristics of the model, and the observer’s relationship with
the model. High-status or admired models are more likely to be imitated.

How Aker’s theory is different from Sutherland? (for reading and understanding)
Referring to Sutherland’s theory of differential associations, Aker’s theory of social
learning poses the question of how criminal behaviour is learned. The answer to this question is,
on the one hand, the consideration of the Bandura principle of social learning, but above all the
assumption that criminal behaviour is learned through the principle of operant conditioning.
Accordingly, the learning of criminal behaviour is dependent on whether it is differentially
amplified – i.e. whether a deviant behaviour is positively stimulated or negatively stimulated – or
whether it is punished or conformal behaviour is amplified more than criminal behaviour. The
decisive factors are therefore above all what reinforcing consequences are available for deviant
behaviour, how effective they are, how intensively and frequently they occur, and how likely it is
that they actually follow the behaviour shown.
Aker’s theory was therefore referred to in its first publication (together with Burgess) as
the theory of differential amplification. The name change, however, makes it clear that Aker later
considered the principle of model learning in addition to the concept of operant conditioning.
Accordingly, the observation of the actions of others and their consequences can also lead to a
strengthening of one’s own behaviour: The reward of an observing person for their behaviour has
a strengthening effect in that the observed behaviour is now carried out by the person.
Thus, a direct social interaction process (in contrast to Sutherland’s theory) is not
absolutely necessary here, since non-social situations (e.g. via the media) can also have an
amplifying effect. However, Akers agrees with Sutherland in so far as criminal behaviour shown
for the first time (whether it is subsequently intensified or not) mostly arises through contact with
a criminal environment.
In summary, it can be said that Aker’s theory of social learning takes Sutherland’s basic
idea as its starting point, expands it to include the idea of social learning, and finally explains the
process of learning criminal behaviour through the principle of operant conditioning.
In this way, despite some similarities, it differs fundamentally from Sutherland’s theory of
differential association: contact with criminal persons is not the cause of crime, but the
reinforcement/reward of deviant behaviour.
 Social Identity Theory
Social Identity Theory (SIT), developed by Henri Tajfel and John Turner in the 1970s, is a
framework that explains how individuals' self-concepts are influenced by their membership in
social groups. This theory posits that people categorize themselves and others into various social
groups (in-groups and out-groups) and derive a sense of identity and self-esteem from these group
memberships. SIT explains how these group dynamics can lead to intergroup conflict and violence.
Core Concepts of Social Identity Theory
Social Categorization
Individuals classify themselves and others into different social groups based on
characteristics such as race, nationality, religion, or other defining features. These categories help
individuals make sense of the social world but also lead to stereotyping and biases.
Social Identification
Individuals adopt the identity of the group they categorize themselves as belonging to. This
identification contributes to their self-concept and self-esteem.
Social Comparison
Individuals compare their in-group with out-groups. This comparison often leads to a
favorable bias towards one's own group and an unfavorable bias towards out-groups.
In-group Favoritism and Out-group Discrimination
Individuals tend to show preference and loyalty to their in-group while discriminating
against or showing hostility towards out-groups. This bias can lead to prejudice, discrimination,
and intergroup conflict.
Patterns of Violence Through Social Identity Theory
In-group and Out-group Dynamics
Violence can arise from the perceived threat posed by out-groups to the status, power, or
identity of the in-group. In-group members may feel justified in using violence to protect their
group's interests or assert dominance over out-groups.
Identity Threat and Defense
When an individual's social identity is threatened, they may respond with defensive
aggression. This aggression can manifest as violence against out-group members perceived as
sources of the threat.
Dehumanization of Out-groups
Social identity processes can lead to dehumanization, where out-group members are seen
as less human or deserving of empathy. Dehumanization lowers inhibitions against violence and
makes it easier to justify harming out-group members.
Group Polarization:
Group discussions and interactions can lead to more extreme positions and behaviors,
including violent actions, as individuals strive to conform to group norms and gain acceptance.
Polarization can intensify in-group cohesion and out-group hostility, increasing the likelihood of
violence.
Historical and Cultural Contexts
Longstanding historical grievances and cultural narratives about in-groups and out-groups
can perpetuate cycles of violence. Collective memories of past conflicts can fuel ongoing
animosity and justification for violence.
Examples of SIT and Violence
Ethnic and Sectarian Conflicts
Ethnic and religious groups may engage in violence to assert their dominance or protect
their identity against perceived threats from rival groups. Examples include ethnic conflicts in
regions like the Balkans, Rwanda, and the Middle East.
Nationalism and War
National identities can lead to conflicts and wars as nations seek to assert their power,
defend their sovereignty, or achieve ideological goals. World Wars and various nationalistic
movements exemplify how social identities can drive large-scale violence.
Gang Violence
Gangs provide a strong sense of identity and belonging to their members, leading to violent
rivalries with other gangs perceived as threats. Gang conflicts often involve territorial disputes and
cycles of retaliation.

By focusing on the processes of social categorization, identification, and comparison, SIT

explains why individuals and groups may resort to violence to defend or enhance their social
identities.
 Emotional Intelligence

Emotional Intelligence (EI) is the ability to manage both your own emotions and
understand the emotions of people around you. Some researchers propose that emotional
intelligence can be learned and strengthened, while others argue it is an inborn characteristic. The
ability to express and manage emotions is essential, but so is the ability to understand, diagnose,
and react to the emotions of others.

There are five key elements to EI:

1. Self-awareness
2. Self-regulation
3. Motivation
4. Empathy
5. Social skills

Emotional Awareness and Understanding

Self-awareness, or the ability to recognize and comprehend one’s own emotions, is a vital
emotional intelligence skill. Beyond acknowledging one’s feelings, however, is being conscious
of the effect of one’s actions, moods, and emotions on other people.

According to research by Tasha Eurich, an organizational psychologist, 95% of individuals

believe they are self-aware. Still, only 10 to 15 percent genuinely are, which can cause problems
for the people one interacts with.

Self-aware individuals also can recognize the connections between the things they feel and
how they act. These individuals also acknowledge their strengths and weaknesses, are open to new
data and experiences, and learn from their exchanges with others. Furthermore, people who
maintain self-awareness have a fine sense of humor, are confident in themselves and their
capabilities, and know how others perceive them.

Emotional Self-Regulation (Managing Emotions)

 In addition to being aware of one’s own emotions and the impact one has on others,
emotional intelligence requires one to regulate and manage one’s emotions.

This does not mean taking emotions out of sight and essentially “locking” them away,
hence hiding one’s true feelings. It just means waiting for the right time and place to express them.
Self-regulation is all about communicating one’s emotions appropriately in context. A reaction
tends to be involuntary.

The more in tune one is with one’s emotional intelligence, the easier one can transition
from an instant reaction to a well-thought-out response. It is crucial to remember to pause, breathe,
compose oneself, and do what it takes to manage one’s emotions. People with healthy self-
regulation skills also tend to have heightened conscientiousness. They reflect on how they
influence others and take accountability for their actions.

Social Empathy (Perceiving Emotions)

Empathy, or the capability to comprehend how other people are feeling, is crucial to
perfecting emotional intelligence. However, it involves more than just being able to identify the
emotional states of others. It also affects one’s responses to people based on this knowledge. How
does one respond when one senses someone is feeling sad or hopeless? One might treat them with
extra care and consideration, or one might make a push to lift their mood. Being empathetic also
allows one to understand the authority dynamics that frequently influence social relationships,
especially in the workplace.

Social Skills (Using Emotions)

The ability to interact well with others is another vital aspect of emotional intelligence.
Solid social skills allow people to build meaningful relationships with others and develop a more
robust understanding of themselves and others. Proper emotional understanding involves more
than just understanding one’s own emotions and those of others. One also needs to put this
information to work in one’s daily interactions and communications. People with high EI can
identify how they are feeling, what those feelings mean, and how those emotions impact their
behavior and in turn, other people. It’s a little harder to “manage” the emotions of other people -
you can’t control how someone else feels or behaves. But if you can identify the emotions behind
their behavior, you’ll have a better understanding of where they are coming from and how to best
interact with them.

Why Is Emotional Intelligence Critical?

Having a higher level of emotional intelligence allows one to empathize with others,
communicate effectively, and be both self and socially aware. How people respond to themselves
and others impacts all types of environments. Living in this world signifies interacting with many
diverse kinds of individuals and constant change with life-changing surprises. Being emotionally
intelligent is key to how one reacts to what life throws. It is furthermore a fundamental element of
compassion and comprehending the deeper reasons behind other people’s actions. It is not the most
intelligent people who are the most prosperous or the most fulfilled in life. Many people are
academically genius and yet are socially incompetent and unsuccessful in their careers or their
intimate relationships.

Intellectual ability or intelligence quotient (IQ) is not enough on its own to achieve success
in life. Undoubtedly, IQ can help one get into university, but your Emotional Intelligence (EI) will
help one manage stress and emotions when facing final exams. IQ and EI exist in tandem and are
most influential when they build off one another.

Emotional intelligence is also valuable for leaders who set the tone of their organization.
If leaders lack emotional intelligence, it could have more far-reaching consequences, resulting in
lower worker engagement and a higher turnover rate. By mastering emotional intelligence, one
can positively impact anywhere and continue to advance one’s position and career in life. EI is
vital when dealing with stressful situations like confrontation, change, and obstacles.

Role of emotional intelligence in peacemaking

EI helps individuals express their thoughts and feelings clearly and constructively.
Facilitates active listening, which is crucial for understanding the perspectives of all parties
involved in a conflict. Empathy allows peacemakers to understand the emotions and viewpoints of
others, fostering mutual respect. Helps in recognizing the underlying emotional needs and
grievances that may be driving conflict. EI equips individuals with skills to manage and resolve
conflicts calmly and effectively. Promotes finding common ground and developing solutions that
satisfy all parties. High emotional intelligence fosters trust through consistent, respectful, and
empathetic interactions. Trust is essential for creating a collaborative environment where parties
are willing to negotiate and compromise.

Peacemaking often involves high-stress situations; EI helps individuals manage their stress
and stay composed. Helps in de-escalating tensions by maintaining emotional balance. Positive
social skills lead to constructive dialogues and interactions and it encourages a cooperative rather
than adversarial approach to problem-solving.

Examples of Emotional Intelligence in Peacemaking

Diplomatic Negotiations
Diplomatic leaders with high EI can navigate complex international conflicts by
understanding and addressing the emotional dynamics at play. Example: Effective negotiation and
peace treaties, such as the Camp David Accords.

Community Mediation
Mediators use EI to understand the concerns of community members and facilitate
dialogues that lead to peaceful resolutions. Example: Community-based conflict resolution
programs that address local disputes.

Workplace Conflict Resolution

Leaders and HR professionals use EI to manage and resolve conflicts within organizations.
Example: Implementing conflict management training and creating a positive organizational
culture.

Role of emotional intelligence in preventing violence

Individuals with high EI can manage their emotions and avoid impulsive reactions that
could lead to violence. Helps in staying calm and composed during stressful situations, reducing
the likelihood of aggressive outbursts. Empathy allows individuals to understand the feelings and
perspectives of others, reducing misunderstandings and conflicts. By acknowledging others'
emotions, people are less likely to resort to violence and more likely to engage in constructive
problem-solving. EI equips individuals with skills to resolve conflicts peacefully. Promotes
finding mutually acceptable solutions rather than resorting to aggression. High EI individuals can
communicate their needs and concerns clearly without resorting to aggressive behavior. Active
listening helps in understanding others' viewpoints and de-escalating potential conflicts.
Understanding the root causes of one's anger and frustration can prevent these emotions from
turning into violence. Self-regulation techniques such as mindfulness and relaxation can help
manage anger and reduce aggression. EI fosters healthy, respectful relationships, reducing the
likelihood of violent interactions. Positive social interactions create supportive environments that
discourage violence.

Lack of emotional intelligence can lead to violence

When individuals lack EI skills, they may struggle to regulate their emotions, understand
different perspectives, and manage conflicts effectively. This can contribute to situations where
emotions escalate, leading to aggressive or violent behavior. Various examples can be included in
it from minor road rage incidents, workplace conflicts, domestic violence and bullying to planned
terrorist attacks. Consider a situation of a young person who is going through a difficult period in
his life. He has recently faced significant challenges, including financial struggles, family issues,
and uncertainty about his future. He feels overwhelmed by fear for his future, anxiety about his
circumstances, and confusion about how to navigate life's challenges. Despite his best efforts, he
finds himself unable to manage his emotions effectively. In this vulnerable state, he encounters an
individual who presents himself as understanding and supportive. This person is actively searching
for individuals who are emotionally vulnerable and easily manipulated. This person could be
associated with terrorist organizations or extremist groups that exploit young people's
vulnerabilities for their own agendas. The young individual can only be manipulated if he lacks
emotional intelligence in this case apart from other factors.