ENCN-454

23/05/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José

Earthquake Engineering

ASSIGNMENT #3

Q1

a) Characteristic features of liquefaction manifestation in the field;

 Sand boils: Sand boils on the ground surface are clear signs of soil liquefaction. They
consist in an eruption of water and sand mixtures at the ground surface due to excess pore
water pressure. The volume of ejected soils indicates the severity of liquefaction.
 Ground fissures and cracks: Formation of open cracks, fissures, and cavities in the
ground surface due, creating weak zones in the ground.
 Lateral spreading: Horizontal movement of soil masses towards riverbanks and slopes
due to loss of shear strength.
 Settlement: Vertical subsidence of the ground surface due to compaction of liquefied soil
and dissipation of pore water pressure, which also leads to tilting and sinking of
structures.
 Buoyancy effects: Upward movement of buried structures, such as manholes and pipes
due to the buoyant force of liquefied soil produced by excess pore water pressure.

b) Consequences of liquefaction that should be considered in the engineering assessment of

land and structures:

Loss of bearing capacity: Reduced capacity of the soil to support foundations, leading to
potential structural failure.
Differential settlement: Uneven settlement in foundations causing structural instability,
cracking, and potential collapse.
Damage to underground utilities: Rupture or displacement of buried pipes, cables, and
manholes due to ground shaking.
Slope instability: Landslides, rock falls and other slope failures due to reduced shear
strength of liquefied soil.
Loss of property: Liquefaction can cause significant economic losses due to the collapse
of buildings, infrastructure damage, and disruption of essential services.
 ENCN-454
23/05/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering

Q2

The key steps in the Simplified Liquefaction Evaluation Procedure are the following:

 Liquefaction susceptibility: This step aims to answer the question “Are the soils at the
site liquefiable or not?”
 Triggering of liquefaction: This step aims to answer the question “If yes, is liquefaction
going to occur when the site is shaken by a given earthquake load (design earthquake)?”
 Effects (consequences) of liquefaction: This step aims to answer the following questions:
a) “What will be the consequent liquefaction-induced ground deformation?” and
b) “What will be the impacts (effects) on structures?”
 Countermeasures against liquefaction (Mitigation): This step aims to answer the question
“If the effects of liquefaction are not tolerable (i.e. greater than the acceptable design
limits), then what mitigation measures (e.g. ground improvement, foundation or structural
strengthening) could be used to achieve an acceptable performance of the land/structure?

Q3

The following tables summarize the calculations done:

Shear stress Number of half-cycles
producing 100% EPWP

𝜏11 = 𝜏max 1.0

0.8 𝜏11 1.5

0.65 𝜏11 2.0

0.5 𝜏11 4.0

0.4 𝜏11 9.0

 ENCN-454
23/05/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering

One half-cycle Shear stress Number of half-cycles

producing 100% EPWP

𝜏11 = 𝜏max 2/1.0 = 2.0

0.8 𝜏11 2/1.5 = 1.3

0.65 𝜏11 2/2.0 = 1.0

0.5 𝜏11 2/4.0 = 0.5

0.4 𝜏11 2/9.0 = 0.2

Total 5.0 half cycles

 ENCN-454
23/05/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering

Q4

CSR is defined as the Cyclic Stress Ratio and represents the earthquake-induced stress on the
soil. The CRR is defined as the Cyclic Resistance Ratio and a represents the soil’s inherent
resistance to liquefaction. In other words, CSR represents the demand and CRR represents the
capacity in soil liquefaction assessments.

Q5

For this exercise, a specific weight (γ) of 19 kN/m^3 will be assumed for the soil. Thus, knowing
that:
 ENCN-454
23/05/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering
σ ' v 0=σ ' v +σ ' w

And

r u =U E /σ ' v o

UE can be computed as

U E=r u∗σ ' vo

U E= 19
(( kN
m
3 )( kN
∗10 m − 9.81 3 ∗10 m ∗0.9
m ))
kN
U E=82.71 3
m

Then

σ ' v =σ v −(U H +U E )

(
σ ' v = 19
kN
m
3 )( kN
∗10 m − 9.81 3 ∗10 m+82.71 kN /m
m
2
)
2
σ ' v =9.19 kN /m

Q6

a) As density increases, CRR tends to increase.

b) As confining pressure increases, CRR tends to increase.
c) As Ko increases, CRR tends to decrease.
d) As OCR increases, CRR tends to increase.
e) As temperature increases, CRR tends to decrease.
f) As CSR increases, CRR tends to remain constant.
g) As the age of a sand deposit increases, CRR tends to increase.
h) As the SPT blow count increases, CRR tends to increase.
i) In a uniform deposit of sand, qc increases with depth.
j) In a uniform deposit of sand, qc1 remain constant with depth.
 ENCN-454
23/05/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering

Q7

The CRR measured in the lab from cyclic simple shear test is expected to be greater than the
CRR of the same soil in the field under the same stress conditions. This is because lab specimens
are often reconstituted and may not fully replicate the in-situ fabric, stress history, and aging
effects in natural deposits, all of which can influence liquefaction resistance.

Q8

γ max is a parameter that represents the maximum shear strain induced during the cyclic loading
of a cyclic undrained test on a sand sample in the laboratory. In this same type of test, εv
represents the post-liquefaction reconsolidation volumetric strain. The relationship between εv
and γmax is used to obtain the relative density of the tested sand, which is then used for other
computations. For example, the volumetric strain expressed in terms of CPT resistance is εv as a
function of γmax, according to I&B (2008):

ε v=1.5 exp ⁡¿

Ymax is used to determine the lateral spreading displacement.

εv is used to calculate the liquefaction-induced settlement using empirical correlations.

Q9

Given:

 Z = 4.5 m
 Qc = 6.3615 Mpa
 Fs = 0.0433 Mpa
 Mw = 8.0
 PGA = 0.35 g
 γ = 19 kN/m^3 for all layers
 a = 0.80
 U2 = 0 kPa for all layers
 ENCN-454
23/05/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering

a) Cyclic stress ratio

At 4.5 m depth, the total and vertical effective stresses are:

kN
σ v=γ∗Z=19 3
∗4.5 m=85.5 kPa
m
'
σ v =σ v −γ w∗( Z−Zw )=85.5 kPa−9.8(4.5 m−1.0 m)
'
σ v =51.2 kPa

The stress reduction coefficient rd is taken from Liao and Whitman (1986). Since Z < 9.15, the
following formula is used:

rd=1.0−0.00765∗Z

rd=1.0−0.00765∗4.5=0.97

So

CSR=0.65
( ) g
(σv
PGA
'
σv ) rd=0.65 (
51.2 )( g )
85.5 0.35 g
( 0.97 )=0.37

b) The cyclic resistance ratio for 100 kPa and Mw=7.5

At 4.5 m depth, the CPT readings are:

 Qc = 6.3615 Mpa
 Fs = 0.0433 Mpa
 U2 = 0 kPa

Since U2=0, Qt=Qc, so no cone correction is needed. Calculating F:

fs 43.3
F= ∗100= =0.69 %
qc−σ v 6361.5−85.5 kPa

An iterative procedure is required o calculate IC. Assuming an initial value of n=1.0 for the
stress exponent:
 ENCN-454
23/05/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering

( )
n
100
Cn= '
≤ 1.7
σv

( )
1
100
Cn= =1.95 , so Cn=1.7
51.2

qc−σ v 6361.5−85.5
Q= ∗Cn= ∗1.7=106.69
100 100

√ 2
Ic= ( 3.47−log 10 Q ) + ( 1.22+log 10 F )
2

√ 2
Ic= ( 3.47−log 10 106.69 ) + ( 1.22+ log10 0.69 )
2

Ic=1.46

n=0.3 ( Ic−1.64 )+ 0.5

n=0.3 ( 1.46−1.64 ) +0.5

n=0.45 ≤1.0

Iteration #1

( )
0.45
100
Cn= =1.35 ≤1.7
51.2

qc−σ v 6361.5−85.5
Q= ∗Cn= ∗1.35=84.73
100 100

√ 2
Ic= ( 3.47−log 10 Q ) + ( 1.22+log 10 F )
2

√ 2
Ic= ( 3.47−log 10 84.73 ) + ( 1.22+ log 10 0.69 )
2

Ic=1. 99

n=0.3 ( Ic−1.64 )+ 0.5

n=0.3 ( 1. 99−1.64 )+ 0.5

n=0. 61

Iteration #2
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23/05/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering

( )
0.61
100
Cn= =1.50 ≤ 1.7
51.2

qc−σ v 6361.5−85.5
Q= ∗Cn= ∗1. 50=94.14
100 100

√ 2
Ic= ( 3.47−log 10 Q ) + ( 1.22+log 10 F )
2

√ 2
Ic= ( 3.47−log 10 94.14 ) + ( 1.22+log 10 0.69 )
2

Ic=1. 51

n=0.3 ( Ic−1.64 )+ 0.5

n=0.3 ( 1.51−1.64 ) +0.5

n=0. 46

Iteration #3

( )
0.46
100
Cn= =1. .36 ≤1.7
51.2

qc−σ v 6361.5−85.5
Q= ∗Cn= ∗1. .36=85.35
100 100

√ 2
Ic= ( 3.47−log 10 Q ) + ( 1.22+log 10 F )
2

√ 2
Ic= ( 3.47−log 10 85.35 ) + ( 1.22+ log 10 0.69 )
2

Ic=1.5 5

n=0.3 ( Ic−1.64 )+ 0.5

n=0.3 ( 1.5 5−1.64 )+ 0.5

n=0.4 7

Iteration #4

( )
0.4 7
100
Cn= =1.3 7 ≤ 1.7
51.2
 ENCN-454
23/05/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering
qc−σ v 6361.5−85.5
Q= ∗Cn= ∗1. .37=85. 98
100 100

√ 2
Ic= ( 3.47−log 10 Q ) + ( 1.22+log 10 F )
2

√ 2
Ic= ( 3.47−log 10 85. 98 ) + ( 1.22+ log 10 0.69 )
2

Ic=1.5 48

n=0.3 ( Ic−1.64 )+ 0.5

n=0.3 ( 1.5 48−1.64 ) +0.5

n=0.47 2

Since the difference between n determined in iteration 4 is less than 0.01 in iteration 3, it is
assumed that n=0.47 and Ic=1.55

Ic=1.55 ≤ 1.64 , so Kc=1.0

Qc 1 N ,cs=KcQtn=( 1.0 ) ( 85.98 )=85.98

50 ≤Qc 1 N , cs< 160 , so

( )
3
Qc 1 N , cs
CRR 7.5=93 + 0.08
1000

( )
3
85.98
CRR 7.5=93 +0.08=0.14
1000

c) The magnitude Scaling Factor (MSF) for the adopted earthquake load.

Using Idriss (1982):

2.24 2.24
10 10
MSF= 2.56
= 2.56 =0.85
Mw 8.0

d) The factor of safety against liquefaction triggering (FL)

CRR 7.5 , 100 kPa∗MSF∗K σ 0.14∗0.85∗1.0

FL= = =0.32
CSR 0.37
 ENCN-454
23/05/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering
K σ =1.0 because confining pressures are smaller than 100 kPa.

e) The volumetric strain estimated using the Zhang et al. (2002) method

Since Qc 1 N ,cs=85.98 and FL = 0.32, EQ A1 Applies:

−0.82 −0.82
ε v , z 02=102 ( Qc 1 N , cs ) =102 ( 85.98 ) =2.64 %

f) The settlement of the layer between 3.5 and 5.5 m depth using the volumetric strain
estimated under item (e)

Δ s=Δ H∗ε v
Δ H =( 5.5−3.5 )∗100=200 cm
cm∗2.64
Δ s=200 =5.28 cm
100

Q10

a)

Using the CPT data results processed with the use of the program CLiq, the stratigraphy of the
site was divided and simplified into seven (7) layers, considering the behaviour exhibited in the
cone resistance, friction ratio and the ISBTn zones given by the program for each layer, as shown
in the figure below.
 ENCN-454
23/05/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering

Layer 1: Clay

Layer 2: Silty Sand

Layer 3: Clay and Silty
Clay

Layer 4: Sand and Silty

Sand

Layer 5: Clay

Layer 6: Loose Sand

Layer 7: Dense Sand

b)

Based on the layer division mentioned in point a) and the FS plot results that yield CLiq, layers
two (2), five (5) and six (6) present liquefaction. A tiny fraction of Layer three (3) also liquefies,
as shown in the figure below.
 ENCN-454
23/05/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering

c)

The figures below shows the profiles of results in terms of CRR, CSR, FS, LPI, and estimated
liquefaction-induced post-consolidation settlements.
 ENCN-454
23/05/2024 Introduction to Geotechnical 95465462 / Caraballo Hernández, José
Earthquake Engineering

d)

Based on the liquefaction analysis done with the CLiq software and the soil profile obtained with
the data, the different layers contribute to the overall ground response in different ways. The soil
profile is stratified with alternating liquefiable sands and clays which exhibit contrasting stiffness
and damping characteristics that cause a complex amplification pattern in the site. In particular,
there is a thin, non-liquefiable crust of clay on top a liquefiable sand closer to the ground surface,
where large vertical settlements are observed. This layer in particular is undergoing a
consolidation settlement due to the increased loading caused by the earthquake shaking and the
potential expulsion of water from liquefied sand layers.