Flour is the fine powder derived from the endosperm portion of cereal seeds or other starchy foods.

The most common

source of flour is wheat, but any cereal grain can provide flour—oats, rye, barley, rice, corn, and others. The English word
“flour” originally a variant of the word “flower” derived from the old French. Fleur or flour, the literal meaning is ‘blossom” and
the figurative meaning is “the fines”. The phrase “fleur de farine” meant “the finest part of the meal”, since flour is resulted
from elimination of coarse and unwanted matter of grain during milling.

A. FLOUR
- a finely ground meal or powdery products which are produced by milling cereal grains, root crops and legumes.
- unqualified refers to all-purpose wheat flour
- kinds:
1. based on milling property
• hard wheat - it has a granular texture and a higher protein content suitable for bread-making.
• soft wheat - it has a mealy endosperm that pulverizes producing soft, talcum-like powder that stays lumpy
when pressed between fingers and it is suitable for cakes, cookies, and pastries.
2. based on season planted
• spring or winter wheat - hard
• winter wheat - either soft or hard
** Wheat flour – commonly used for bakery products because it contains high gluten(protein); the gluten has elasticity and
stretching property which is responsible for the characteristic structure of baked products.

The overall structure of cereal grains is basically simple. The kernel of wheat is usually 1/8-1/4 inch long. In some kinds of
wheat, the tip of each kernel is covered by stiff hairs called the brush. Wheat grains are ovoid in shape, rounded in both ends.
Along one side of the grain, there is a crease, a folding of the aleurone and all covering the layers. The physical structure of
wheat consists of:

Bran or Pericarp
- Bran is made up of six layers and makes up about 14.5 % of the weight of the kernel. The outer layer (epidermis) of
the wheat consists of thin walled, long, rectangular cells. Next to the epidermis is the hypoderm of varying thickness.
The innermost layer of the pericarp tears during the ripening of the seed and in the mature grain they are represented
by a layer of branching hyphae-like cells known as tupe cells. The pericarp of wheat is thin and papery.
- Bran is a component of whole wheat flour and is also available on its own. Small amounts of protein, significant
amounts of the three main B-vitamins, trace minerals, and dietary fiber—mostly insoluble—are all present in the bran
Seed Coat
- The seed coat or testa, thin single or double layer, is often deeply pigmented which gives grain with the cellular
structure almost obliterated. Next to testa is hyaline layer (nuclear layer) which is colorless and devoid of any obvious
cellular structure. The inner of testa of wheat is often deeply pigmented which gives grain its characteristic color. The
fourth layer testa contains the coloring matter which decides the color of the wheat and also could influence the color
of the flour. It is rich in sterols accounting to 1% of the epicarp.
- The outer pericarp constitutes 3.5% of the pericarp. It is rich in insoluble dietary fibers such as Xylans, cellulose and
lignin. Antioxidant such as phenolic acids are abundantly bound to the cell walls in the pericarp.
Kernel of Wheat
- The kernel, also known as the wheat berry, is the seed from which the wheat plant develops. Three independent
components make up tiny seed, and these components are separated during the milling process to create flour.
Aleurone
- The endosperm is surrounded by one or more layers of cells known as aleurone which is the sixth layer which contains
protease enzymes that have a softening effect on the flour proteins and consequently on doughs. In wheat, aleurone
is a single layer of thick coated cubicle cells and constitutes 7% of grain weight. The cells contain about 20% of each
protein, oil, and mineral. Insoluble dietary fibers and very few soluble fibers such as, xylans and B glucans, phenolic
 compounds, lignins, vitamin E, B vitamins and various plant sterols are also present in this aleurone layer and 10%
of sugar, principally sucrose, neo-ketose and raffinose.
- The cells are also rich in nicotinic acid. The aleurone cells also contain tiny grains of phytic acid with some protein
(aleurone grains). The aleurone layers generally surround only the starchy endosperm. The aleurone layer and all
the covering external to it comprise the ‘bran’.
Endosperm
- The endosperm makes up about 83 % of the kernel weight and is the source of white flour. The endosperm contains
the greatest share of protein, carbohydrates, and iron, as well as the major B-vitamins such as riboflavin, niacin and
thiamine. It is also a source of soluble fiber. The size and shape of the starch granules in the endosperm cells vary
from one cereal to another. Starchy endosperm accounts for about 80-85% of the grains. Endosperm is the flour
portion of wheat kernel and flour for the bakery/ biscuit industry is produced from this part of the grain.
** The ease of separating the endosperm from the bran layers is determined by the wheat’s characteristics. Hard wheat’s
(used for bread making) will allow easy separation, while the endosperm of soft wheat (used for biscuit flours) does not
separate as cleanly from the bran layers.
Germ/Embryo
- Makes up about 2.5 to 3% of the kernel weight. Germ contains oil which reduces the keeping quality of flour hence it
is desirable to remove germ during the milling process. It is rich in certain vitamins, protein and oil, therefore often
separated from flour in milling because the fat content (10 %) that limits flour’s shelf-life. Low levels of high-quality
protein are present in the germ, which has a higher concentration of B-complex vitamins and trace elements. Wheat
germ can be purchased individually and is part of whole wheat flour.

WHEAT
- Wheat is a grass widely cultivated for its feed, a cereal grain which is a worldwide staple food. Wheat grains have
either a dark, orange-brown appearance or a light, yellowish color.
- Globally, wheat is the leading source of vegetable protein in human food, having a protein content of about 13%,
which is relatively high compared to other major cereals and staple foods.
- When eaten as the whole grain, wheat is a source of multiple nutrients and dietary fiber. Regular consumption of
wheat fiber is associated with lower risk of several diseases, including coronary heart disease, stroke, cancer and
type 2 diabetes. In a small part of the general population, gluten – the major part of wheat protein can trigger celiac
disease, non–celiac gluten sensitivity, gluten ataxia and dermatitis herpetiformis.
Wheat Flour - Powder made from grinding wheat making is usable for human consumption. There are different type of wheat
flour distinguish by the amount of gluten they contain, their color, part of the grain. An essential ingredient in bread, cakes,
cookies, and most baked goods. Made from grinding up parts of wheat kernels.

Summary
- The wheat grain (caryopsis) is a single seeded fruit in which the embryo and endosperm are surrounded by fused
outer layers: the pericarp, testa, and nucellar epidermis (accounting for about 8% of the grain). The embryo and
endosperm are derived from a double fertilization event and are diploid and triploid tissues, respectively. The embryo
accounts for about 3% of the mature grain and comprises the embryonic axis, which forms the seeding during
germination, and a single cotyledon (modified leaf, called the scutellum), which is a storage tissue. The endosperm
accounts for up to 83% of the grain and is differentiated to form two tissues: the central starchy endosperm, which
accumulates starch and gluten storage proteins, and a single outer layer of aleurone cells, which are rich in fiber, oil,
protein, and minerals. The amounts, structures, and properties of the major groups of components in the mature
grain, notably carbohydrates (including starch) and proteins, and their distributions within the mature grain are
discussed in detail.

B. FLOUR COMPOSITION
CHO 71-79%
- Amount of carbohydrate per 100g flour ranges from 71-79 grams
- 360 calories/ 100 g (40 from protein, the greater amounts of calories from starch)
MOISTURE 12-14%
- Most flours contain 12 to 14% water.
PROTEIN 7-14%
- 80-85% - Glutenin and gliadin the water-insoluble fractions that make up gluten.
- 10% and 7% - Water-soluble fractions, albumin and globulin, respectively
LIPIDS 1-2%
- Lipids of the whole grain, this represents 14% of the total germ. The lipids in flours are in the form of triglycerides,
sterols especially vitamin E and phospholipids.
PIGMENTS
- Carotenoids – account for the creamy color freshly milled flour.
ENZYMES
- Alpha amylase – acts on 1;4 linkage of the amylose producing dextrin
 - B-amylase - splits off the 1:4 linkage that is second from the end of the chain producing maltose;
- Proteoses – convert some of the flour proteins into more soluble forms reducing elasticity of gluten.

C. PROPERTIES OF FLOUR
1. Color - whitest, more acceptable. Determines if flour has undergone bleaching processes. Darker flours can
sometimes also indicate that the bran and germ was included during the milling process.
2. Strength - capacity of the flour to hold gas that is directly related to protein content of the flour
3. Tolerance - ability of the flour to withstand manipulations such as kneading, mixing, fermentation which is directly
related to protein content, hardness of the flour or its gluten quality
4. Absorption capacity - most flours can absorb 50-65% liquid by weight; this is influenced by the amount of gluten
present in the dough
5. Texture - hard flours are granular; soft flours are velvety and smooth. Texture of flour can also affect the baked
product; hard flours produce products that is rougher and grainier while softer and finer texture for the soft flours.
6. Cohesiveness - ability to retain its shape when molded because the flour particles tend to clump together
7. Weight - a heavy flour absorbs more moisture that is why weighing is more accurate than measuring the volume.

D. PRODUCTION OF FLOUR

✓ Cleaning: the wheat is cleaned to remove contaminants such as sticks and stones and other course and fine debris.
The whole pure wheat is then passed for further processing into the conditioning bins.

✓ Selecting / Blending: Selecting wheat grains and blending of two or more kinds are carried out as the first step of the
milling process.
Blending may be defined as combining grain (varieties or grades) to obtain grain of a particular quality or consistency.

✓ Tempering and conditioning: The kernels are cleaned and tempered with steam or tap water, the purpose of this is to
toughen the bran and mellows the endosperm so that these components are easily separated. To guarantee that the
grain's moisture content is consistent throughout, conditioning is done before the wheat flour milling process. When
milling, moisture helps keep the bran's (outer layer) outer layer from breaking.

✓ Gristing: Gristing is the process of combining conditioned and cleansed wheat. At this point, different wheat batches
are combined to produce the desired type and classification of flour.

✓ Separating: The grist goes through a series of rolls rotated at various speed levels. The rolls only split the wheat grain
open to separate the inner white portion form the bran.

✓ Milling: The wheat is broken up into small pieces by a flour mill machine. It is subsequently placed through sifters
from which the food collected starts out course. With repeated grinding and sifting, the meal becomes fine flour, wheat
germ and wheat bran. These can be used to make different types of flour that can be sold separately, or they can be
combined to make whole grain flour.

✓ Blending: Constituents are blended here to create various flours. Whole wheat flour, for example, is made by
combining wheat bran and white flour.

✓ Purification: Some bran or germ that adheres to the endosperm is removed by air currents and the process is called
purification.

✓ Packing - Occasionally, during the refining stage of manufacture, the flour is further bleached or fortified with vitamins
and minerals before being packed. In general, the different types of meal and flour are delivered in bulk. Additionally,
25% are packaged in bulk packs, while 5% are in small packaging

After the selecting/blending, tempering, breaking and purification of the grain it is now ready to pulverize the middling. Middling
is the small pieces of endosperm free from bran and germ. The middling undergoes 5-6 series of grinding, bolting or sieving
and purifying until this process of gradual reduction results in white flour.

E. FUNCTIONS OF FLOUR
Of the many functions of this ingredient, the following are the most critical for baking:
• Structure: gluten and starch components of wheat flour, and to a lesser extent pentosans, are responsible for
structure formation. The gluten network is essential for holding expanded gases and building bread volume during
baking and leavening. It is also useful for thickening of pastry cream and different pie fillings.
• Color: while cake flour is dazzling white in color, bread flour is slightly dark and whole wheat is brownish which carry
over to the bread. High protein flours contribute to Maillard browning reactions and result in desirable brown crust.

• Flavor: typically, wheat flour has a mild nutty flavor. Higher protein and ash flours have stronger flavors than pastry
flour. Cake flour has a different flavor due to the chlorination step.

• Liquid binding/absorption: Proteins and starches are mostly responsible for binding water and oil to provide dough
cohesiveness

F. COMMON MARKET FORMS OF FLOUR

All Purpose Flour
- Sometimes referred to as family or general-purpose flour since it is the most widely used of all flours. It is also called
plain flour. Milled from a mixture of soft and hard wheat, with a moderate protein content in the 10-12% range, all-
purpose flour is staple among staples. It is also used to achieve flaky pie crusts, fluffy biscuits and chewy breads. All-
purpose flour has iron, and four B-vitamins (thiamin, niacin, riboflavin and folic acid) added in amounts equal to or
exceeding what is present in whole wheat flour
** Types of All-purpose Flour
- Bleached All-purpose Flour - Bleaching agents are used to accelerate the aging process of flour. As a result,
the flour is whiter, finer grained, and has a softer texture. Used mostly in the preparation of cookies, pie
crusts, quick breads, muffins, and pancakes.
- Unbleached all-purpose flour - Flour that has naturally aged after being milled. It has an off-white color that
dulls with age and is a denser grain than bleached flour. Having a denser texture, unbleached flour gives
greater structure to baked goods, which makes it a perfect basis for pastries, cakes, shortbreads, sauces,
and many more wonderful sweet and savory delicacies.

Cake Flour
- Very finely milled from soft winter wheat. Referred to as weak flour denoting its lower protein content than all-purpose
and pastry flour and is great for making light and fluffy cakes. Because of the decreased protein level, cake flour
provides less gluten, leading to a lighter, softer, spongy, and more delicate cake. It is chlorinated (a bleaching process
that leaves the flour slightly acidic, sets a cake faster, and distributes fat more evenly through the batter to improve
texture. Cake flour has a higher percentage of starch and less protein than bread flour, which keeps cakes and
pastries tender and delicate. (One cup of cake flour can be made by measuring 1 cup all-purpose flour, removing 2
tablespoons of flour and replacing that with 2 tablespoons of cornstarch.)

Instantized flour
- is a low-protein, precooked and pre-gelatinized wheat flour to which some malted barley flour has been added. It has
been designed to dissolve fast in both hot and cold liquids. Some bakers find the slightly acidic flavor of cake flour
and prefer instant flour.
- Two well-known commercial brands are "Wondra" and "Shake & Blend".
- Used for: Thickening sauces and gravies, battering, crepes, pie crusts.
- Characteristics: Soft flour, pre-cooked, easily dissolved. Creates a smooth, thick final product

Pastry Flour
- This type of flour has properties that fall between all-purpose flour and cake flour since it has a slightly higher protein
content than cake flour and lower protein content than all-purpose flour and has less starch. It is usually made from
soft wheat for pastry making.
- An unbleached flour made from soft wheat. It produces delicate and tender texture and pastries. Pastry flour strikes
the ideal balance between flakiness and tenderness, making it perfect for pies, tarts, and many cookies.

Bread Flour
- Bread Flour is milled primarily for commercial baking use, but can be found at most grocery stores. While similar to
all-purpose flour, it has a higher gluten content, which is optimal in making yeast breads

Semolina
- This is the coarsely ground endosperm of durum wheat. Durum wheat is the hardest variety of the six classes of
wheat and has the highest protein content of all wheat. Because of this, it’s ideal for making high quality pasta and is
used by both American and Italian manufacturers.

Graham Flour
- This also is coarsely ground whole wheat flour. It is named after Dr. Sylvester Graham, the creator of the graham
cracker, who advocated the use of whole wheat flour in the early 1800s.
NON-WHEAT FLOUR and COMPOSITE
o Non-wheat - Flours are made from grinding or milling grain kernels other than wheat, root crops and legumes.
Examples are rye flour, buckwheat flour, corn flour, potato flour, rice flour, Soy flour, waxy rice (also known as sweet
rice flour or mochiko rice 100%amylopectin)
o Composite flours - Some of these flours can be replace wheat flour for cooking purposes and resulting the flour
mixture called composite flour

STORAGE OF FLOUR
• Flour can be stored in its original packaging or in an air tight container on a shelf or in a cupboard in a cool part of
your kitchen.
• Can be stored in a cool, dry place, like a pantry, for 6 to 8 months.
• If you live somewhere particularly warm or humid, you could seal the opened flour bag in a large plastic bag and keep
it in the fridge.
• Keep it away from foods like onions and others that have a strong odor.
• You can also store it in the freezer for an even longer shelf life.

G. MARKET FORMS AND KIND OF WHEAT FLOUR: SELF-RISING & GLUTEN FLOUR
In the Philippines, the wheat flours available to consumers are bread, all-purpose cake, self-rising, and whole wheat flours.
Also available now is organic flour. (Serraon-Claudio et al., 2014)
1. Self-rising Flour
o A type of flour incorporated with a leavening agent and salt to provide rising property (Roussou, 2022).
o Perfect for ensuring that you have the perfect ratio between your flour mixture and your leavening agents.
o First developed by British sailors to cope with quality foods as they sail through the sea (Roussou, 2022). A
mixture of all-purpose flour, baking powder, acid salt, and calcium phosphate (Sands, n.d.).
o Baking powder is the leavening agent that is most commonly added in self-rising flour. Baking powder
consists of baking soda, acid, and filler such as cornstarch (Brown, 2015)
o Invented by Henry Jones, baker in 1845.
o Contains about 8.5% protein (Serraon-Claudio et al., 2014).
o Not recommended for bread products due to its ability of faster rate of rising (Razon, 2023).
2. Gluten Flour
o A wheat derived product made from Australia (Serraon-Claudio et al.,2014). Gluten flour also refers to the
vital wheat gluten, which is actually not real flour. Vital wheat gluten as an addition to flour, serves its purpose
of adding nutritive value to the dough as it has 96 grams of protein per cup. In adding vital wheat gluten to
flour mixtures, 1 to 2 teaspoons of vital wheat gluten are added for every cup of white flour.
o Includes a protein content ranging from 12 to 14 % (Serraon-Claudio et al., 2014).
o Primary utilized in bread recipes that require more gluten content, thatit could replace some meat (Gluten
Flour, n.d.).
o Improves moisture content, flavor, and texture, and structure of pastries and noodles according to its gluten
content (Alexis, 2022).
o Since protein binds with water, the addition of water is to make sure that the flour mixture gets evenly hydrated
as a whole (Brown, 2015).
o Main Ingredient of a dish called “seitan”. Seitan is a food made from gluten, the main protein of wheat. It is
also known as wheat meat, gluten meat, vital wheat gluten or simply gluten.

H. FLOUR MIXTURES: TYPES & INGREDIENTS

Flour Mixtures
- Flour mixtures refer to mixtures that uses flour as the base ingredient, with the addition of ingredients such
as but not limited to: leavening agents, sugar, salt, liquid, fat, eggs, and additives. (Nnanna, n.d.) in certain
amounts intended for specific products. (Serraon-Claudio et al., 2014)

Types of Flour Mixtures (Serraon-Claudio et al., 2014)

- Flour mixtures depend on the ratio between liquid and flour. This can either be classified as batters or as
doughs.

1. Batters- They can be readily poured in heavy drops, known as drop batters, or in a constant stream, termed pour
batters. Drop batters consist of ½ to ¾ cup of liquid per cup of flour, which makes the batter thick. Too thick to be
poured in fact, which is why they are either dropped or pushed. We can observe the use of drop batters in making
goods like muffins and cream puffs. On the other hand, pour batters are batters consisting of 2/3 to 1 cup of liquid
per cup of flour.
 2. Dough- These are thick flour mixes that may be handled since they contain 50 to 100% more flour per cup of liquid
than batters do. While stiff doughs are smooth and easily rollable and cut, soft doughs are still sticky to the touch.
Doughs differ according to their liquid content, and can either be stiff/firm dough or soft dough”. A stiff dough
consists of 1/8 cup of liquid per cup of flour, while a soft dough contains 1/3 cup of liquid per cup of flour.

Ingredients in Flour Mixtures

1. Flour- The following properties or characteristics of flour affect the quality of the finished products.
▪ Color - For the majority of baked goods, the whitest flour is typically acceptable as it is associated with
purity, especially when brilliance is sought.
▪ Strength - The amount of protein in flour is closely correlated with its ability to retain gas. For baked foods
to have a porous texture, a foamy structure, and a high amount of volume, gas must be retained
throughout mixing and baking. Bread flour is considered one of the strongest with 12 to 14 percent protein
content.
▪ Tolerance - the flour's resistance to handling during mixing, fermentation, and other processing stages.
The gluten content of wheat flour is closely associated with intolerance. Greater tolerance is seen in harder
wheat flours than in soft wheat flour.
▪ Absorption quality - This refers to the flour's ability to absorb liquid. A flour is considered to have a high
absorption capacity if it can absorb the most liquid possible while still producing good-quality bread. The
amount of gluten in the dough has an impact on this. Most flours have a 50–60% weight absorption rate
for fluids.
▪ Texture - The flours are this delicate and silky. When pushed between the fingertips, soft wheat flour feels
silky and smooth whereas hard wheat flour is gritty.
▪ Weight - This is how heavy the flour is. Weighing is more precise than measuring by volume since heavier
flours absorb more moisture than lighter ones.

TOO MUCH/ TOO LITTLE FLOUR:

Too much flour results in a lower volume, an increased number of “tunnels,” and a drier, tougher crumb. A baked
product made with insufficient flour often has a course texture and a weak, possibly collapsible, structure.

2. Liquid- is an essential flour mixture ingredient for hydrating the flour mixture and gelatinizing starch. It basically
activates everything in the flour mixture. The water in liquid allows for gluten to form, and it also acts as the solvent
in the mixture. (Phillips, 2017)
Water- Water as a liquid transforms the proteins present in the flour to gluten. It also gelatinizes starch to make it
digestible. The consistency and the temperature of the flour mixture is highly dependent on the water that will be
used.
Milk- considered a better liquid in comparison with water, also improves the overall quality of the baked product.
It improves the nutritive content of the baked product and it also produces a velvety texture, creamy white crumb,
and browner crust. Doughs made with milk are also way easier to handle than doughs made with water as they
are easier to shape, and are less sticky and less heavy. In the actual cooking process, doughs made with milk
 retain gas better and they have a better expansion consistency and this is due to the presence of milk fat and the
emulsifier lecithin in milk.

TOO MUCH/ TOO LITTLE LIQUID:

Excess liquid may result in a very moist baked item with low volume. Too little liquid may produce a dry baked
product that is low in volume and stales quickly

3. Leavening Agent- Added to batter or dough to produce gas upon preparation and heating process, resulting to an
aerated product with increased volume (Serraon-Claudio et al., 2014)
3 Principles of Leavening Agents:
1. Air - imparts desirable texture
2. Steam or Water Vapor - expands and adds up volume
3. Carbon Dioxide - creates bubbles on dough structure

3 Forms of Leavening Agents

A. Physical Leavening Agent
Air and Steam: Air and steam are physical agents that help the dough to rise. When mixing the ingredients, air is
incorporated during the act of mixing. Air might be incorporated in the flour mixture itself, in sifting ingredients, in the
mixing of sugar and fat, or during the whipping of egg whites. Water in the mixture on the other hand, turns into steam
during the cooking process. Steam expands up to 1600 times its original volume, making it an effective leavening
agent that is primarily observed in puff pastry like pie crusts and cream puffs (Brown, 2015)

B. Biological Leavening Agent- The ability of yeast to produce carbon dioxide from sugar is what makes it work as a
leavening agent. Yeast in its market form is dormant, and only activates and come to life once water hydrates the
yeast at optimal temperature.

Yeast
B.A.1 Active Yeast: further classified into baker’s yeast, brewer’s yeast, and yeasts for alcoholic beverages
Active Dry Yeast: activated when dissolved in warm water, most widely available type of yeast and is usually sold
and packaged in small packets. This type of yeast is porous and free flowing. This also contains less moisture (8%)
than compressed yeast, which makes it less likely to deteriorate from exposure to air and moisture. It also becomes
inactive if not used before its expiration date. Exposing hydrated yeast below 38°C lowers yeast activity, resulting to
a sticky dough. On the other hand, exposing hydrated yeast above 60°C will kill the yeasts and cease all of its activity.
Instant dry yeast: proofing or activating is not need, thus, it can be directly added in flour. quick-rising, or fast-acting
yeast contain yeast strains that multiplies more quickly than yeast strains in other yeasts. This type of yeast is mostly
seen in use for commercial baking as the faster reproduction rate of yeast cells makes the bread rise twice as fast as
bread using traditional yeast. It only activates between the temperatures of 52°C to 54°C (Brown, 2015).
Fresh yeast (a.k.a yeast) - could either be proofed or not, but proofing first is unnecessary, otherwise known as
compressed yeast, is available as a semi-solid cake with a moisture level of around 70%. Because of its high
concentration of moisture, it has a short shelf life due to its high susceptibility to molding. Its moisture content makes
it impossible to store in room temperature, so it should be refrigerated at all times. Professionals prefer to use this
type of yeast as it dissolves more easily in warm water than other yeasts.
B.A.2. Inactive Yeast: Inactive yeasts, such as dried brewer’s yeast and primarygrown yeasts, are used primarily for
their nutritional value and contribution to flavor
B.A.3. Fermented Dough starter: mixture of yeast or bacterial culture involving flour and water

Bacteria- Another microorganism that is used as a leavening agent are bacteria. Carbon dioxide producing bacteria
are typically used in baked products depending on a starter. These starters are a live fermented culture of fresh flour
and water that contain yeast and/or bacteria. These will be responsible in making the bread rise through carbon
dioxide production. Examples of breads that make use of bacteria are sourdough and salt-rising breads. Bread that
makes use of bacteria has a desirable slightly sour flavor, due to the work of Lactic Acid Bacteria, which is the most
commonly used bacteria as leavening agent (Raffa, 2019)

**Beer: a wet leavening agent with carbon dioxide present to rise bread

C. Chemical Leavening Agent

C.1. Baking Soda (a.k.a sodium bicarbonate) - blended with acid to form carbon dioxide, creating bubbles for the
structure and rise of batter or dough. As it needs acid to work as a leavening agent, it is only used when the flour
mixture includes acidic ingredients like lemon, brown sugar, and yogurt. These acids create a compound called
carbonic acid when it comes in contact with baking soda. The formation of carbonic acid is what immediately yields
carbon dioxide, and so it also contains an immediate leavening effect. In incorporating baking soda to flour, ¼
teaspoon of baking soda will be needed for every cup of flour (Brown, 2015)
 C.2. Potassium bicarbonate: essentially has the same function as sodium bicarbonate. The main difference between
the two is that potassium bicarbonate is used for people who are on low-sodium diets. In addition to that, it costs more
than baking soda (Brown, 2015.)
C.3.Baking Powder: Baking powder is baking soda with acid already added to it, with a filler like cornstarch being
added to prevent the reaction of the alkaline (sodium bicarbonate) with the acid (cream of tartar). ¼ teaspoon of
baking soda, combined with ½ teaspoon of cream of tartar is the standard ratio between alkaline and acid observed
in baking powders. For every cup of flour, 1 ½ to 2 teaspoons of single action baking powder is to be used. Double
action baking powder is present in the form of sodium aluminum sulfate, and 1 teaspoon to 1 ½ teaspoon of double
action baking powder is to be used for every cup of flour (Sandra, 2019)
C.4. Baking ammonia (a.k.a ammonium carbonate): the substance behind crisp baked products —cookies, crackers,
and alike.
TOO MUCH/ TOO LITTLE LEAVENING:
Adding too little of leavening leads to a heavy and compact baked product. This can also happen when the
leavening agent has lost its ability to make the bread rise due to expiry or deterioration (over 6 months). Adding too much
of leavening leads to bread that has a low volume due to rising exponentially. In the case of adding too much baking soda,
residues of sodium carbonate will be formed, imparting a soapy flavor to the bread and discolored brown or yellow spots.
This excess alkalinity can also affect the flavor of chocolate and turn its color slightly reddish, although the color change is
desirable when preparing devil’s food cake.

WHY DO WE NEED TO DISSOLVE YEAST IN WARM WATER AND NOT IN COLD WATER?
Hydrating yeast with water that is too cool results in a sticky dough. Cold water slows cell membrane recovery in yeast and
allows cell constituents to leach out. Sticky yeast dough can be caused by glutathione, which is naturally released from the
yeast through their cell walls and into the dough when they are hydrated below 100°F/38°C. Glutathione is a natural
reducing agent that disrupts the disulfide bonds between and within the protein molecules. The proteins quickly unfold,
resulting in a softer, stickier dough. This problem does not happen with fresh yeast, which disperses in cold water easily.
Rather, it tends to happen with dry yeast, where optimal water temperature for cell restoration is 104°F/40°C.

4. Fat- Fat lubricates the dough, preventing gluten formation through the creation of a continuous network of starch and
protein. Fat particles are crystals, and these crystals melt during baking. The melting of these crystals makes the
batter more fluid and even, maximizing its ability to expand. Fat can also increase a baked product’s volume by
interacting with the air bubbles that formed during the mixing of flour mixture. Fat adheres to the surfaces of these air
bubbles, allowing the air bubbles to expand safely. Along with providing volume, fats also provide structure to the
baked product. A mixture with lower fat makes fine velvety crumbs, while those with higher fat make flaky crumbs.
Those with higher fat content also have a moister and smoother mouthfeel.
The fats commonly used in flour mixtures are the following:
• Lard - Unique kind of unsaturated fat, liquid at room temperature but definitely solid at room temperature because of
hydrogenation process.
• Butter - Shortening values is inferior to that of the lard, does not cream well and lacks uniformity. It is mostly used for
cakes and cookies.
• Vegetable Shortening - Comes from purified deodorized oils, also called hydrogenated vegetable oil. It does not
contain moisture.
• Butter Oil - Promotes better taste and flavor, however it is more expensive

TOO MUCH/ TOO LITTLE FAT:

Excess fat makes a batter too fluid, weakens its structure, and decreases the volume of the finished product. Too
little fat makes a batter resistant to expansion during leavening and results in a tougher crumb

5. Sugar- To batters and dough, sugar adds tenderness and increases volume and texture.
Volume: It can contribute to volume increase in baked products with the incorporation of air. Increase in volume is
also achieved by sugar by being the food for yeast, making yeast multiply and give off carbon dioxide, making the
baked product rise. The addition of sugar also raises the coagulation and gelatinization temperature in baked
products, making more time for the gluten to stretch. Giving gluten more time to stretch increases the volume of the
baked product
Moistness: Sugar has a hygroscopic property meaning, sugar tends to absorb moisture. This hygroscopic property
helps in retaining moistness, which in turn also delays staling of the baked products.
Tenderness: Sugar competes with starch for the available water necessary for the hydration of flour proteins and
eventual gluten development. The crust is initially very crisp, but becomes softer as sugar attracts moisture from the
air or the crumb
Browning of crust: Sugar is the cause of the crust's browning through the processes of caramelization and Maillard
browning
 TOO MUCH/ TOO LITTLE SUGAR:
Baked products made with too much sugar may fall, and may have a lower volume, a coarse grain, a gummy
texture, and an excessively browned crust. Dough is considered sweet if it contains more than ½ cup of sugar per 3½ cups
of flour (1¼ ounces sugar per cup of flour). Too little sugar results in dryness, reduced browning, lower volume, and less
tenderness.

6. Salt/Flavoring- The use of salt improves the taste of flour mixes and controls yeast growth. Flavor isn’t the only thing
that salt contributes, as it is also responsible for making a firmer dough through adjusting the gluten’s solubility and
swelling capacity. Salt essentially makes dough more elastic. In addition to its contribution to the baked product’s
structure, it is also an important factor for controlling the growth of yeast. Salt slows down fermentation of the yeast

TOO MUCH/ TOO LITTLE SALT:

Excess salt produces a firm dough with a low volume (because of partially inhibited fermentation), dense cells,
and a too salty taste. Too little salt produces a flowing, sticky dough with a low volume, uneven cell structure, lack of color,
and a bland taste.

7. Eggs- Proteins from eggs increase nutritional value and gel strength. A recipe's final result becomes tougher when
the egg content is increased.
Structure: Eggs strengthen the crumbs and the structure of the dough when the egg proteins coagulate.
Volume: as air is incorporated whether you add beaten whole or egg whites to the mixture
Leavening: eggs also work as leavening as the moisture contained in eggs turn to steam
Appearance: Lastly, eggs can also enhance the palatability of the baked good by using egg wash as finish or gloss
Lecithin, a phospholipid that makes up the majority of the egg yolks lipid, is an emulsifier. It aids in evenly spreading
water-insoluble flour mixture particles throughout the predominantly hydrophilic media. As a result, it stabilizes the
foam structure, which is directly related to its volume and texture.

TOO MUCH/ TOO LITTLE EGG:

Excess egg causes a tough, rubbery texture in the baked product. Too little egg causes insufficient volume, and
inferior structural strength, color, flavor, and nutrient content.

8. Commercial Additives: Flour mixtures can already work with flour, leavening, liquid, sugar, salt, fat, and egg. To make
baked goods of better quality, the baking industries add commercial additives that will improve baked products. These
commercial additives are the following:
• Aging or Maturing Agents – These are agents added to the flour that would speed up the aging process of flour.
These are used because doughs using fresher flour does not rise as well as those of doughs using older flour.
Freshly milled flour/ green flour will take about 1 to 2 months to mature using the natural process of oxidization,
where it is left to age in the presence of oxygen.
• Dough Conditioners – Dough conditioners, such as reducing agents and oxidizing agents are added to the dough
to improve dough elasticity, machinability, and the volume of the baked good.
• Reducing Agents – These are added to shorten the mixing time in doughs by assisting in the growth and
development of gluten.
• Oxidizing Agents – These act to whiten the flour and to improve the functionality of the dough. These primarily
improve the mixing and dividing properties of dough. Their contribution to strengthen dough comes from their ability
to rebuild bonds between proteins in gluten. They essentially encourage gluten reformation, which makes them a
great dough conditioner.
• Emulsifiers – These work to distribute fat evenly among the flour mixture. Examples of emulsifiers include lecithin,
monoglycerides, and diglycerides.
• Mixing Time Reducers –they reduce the time needed to mix dough. By hydrolyzing gluten proteins to smaller
particles, the proteins get smaller molecular weight, reducing the time needed to mix the proteins and the dough
around. Mixing time reducers are usually in the form of proteases. Make sure to add only enough as adding too
much results in a weak dough. Other factors that may affect mixing time are the following:
✓ Salt – Adding salt before the dough is mixed will increase mixing time, but adding salt after the dough is well
mixed will decrease the mixing time by 10 to 20%.
✓ pH level – Having a lower pH level decreases mixing time.
✓ Acids – Adding acids decrease mixing time by 50%.
• Enzymes – Three enzymes that are used as additives are the following:
✓ Amylase – Converts starch to sugar; also, indirectly increases gas production and directly delays starch
gelatinization
✓ Lipoxygenase – Bleaches flour by releasing oxidizers and strengthens dough by increasing gluten strength.
 I. GLUTEN: ELASTICITY AND BREAD-MAKING QUALITY

Wheat- A kind of flour that enables gas retention during fermentation, allowing an aerated baked product (Serraon-Claudio et
al., 2014)

4 GENERAL CLASSES OF WHEAT PROTEINS (Serraon-Claudio et al.,2014)

✓ Albumins
✓ Globulins
✓ Gliadins
✓ Glutenins

Gluten (Serraon-Claudio et al., 2014)

• Protein found in wheat, responsible for its ability to hold gas
• These proteins are responsible for the firming of the flour mixture. As a matter of fact, the amount of protein in a flour
mixture is directly related to the ability of a flour mixture to rise. The higher the protein content of a flour mixture is,
the stronger its ability to rise will be (Brown, 2015)

Gluten Formation-
- The interaction of glutenin with gliadin, during dough mixing, using the right amount of water
▪ Gliadins - imparts extensibility
▪ Glutenin - imparts toughness and strength
- The length of time for kneading the dough will determine the amount of gluten developed
- A process involving the interaction between glutenin and gliadin that occurs upon dough mixing with sufficient water
▪ Gliadin - provides stretchable ability
▪ Glutenin - provides strength and toughness

2 main steps in Gluten Development:

(1) Hydration and (2) Kneading
- Hydrated dough starts out as a sticky mass, and kneading will be a huge part in changing the dough’s structure.
Kneading is the physical manipulation of the flour mixture, and it is where it is compressed and stretched. This act of
compression and stretching alternately encourages gluten development. During the act of kneading, yeast and air
bubbles are redistributed, which helps in maximizing fermentation and carbon dioxide production. After kneading for
a while, the sticky mass of dough should start to feel like a smooth and stretchable dough. The dough should be
easily molded, but also spring back easily from light pressure. While it is true that kneading increases gluten formation,
be careful not to over knead. Over kneading will break the gluten strands, resulting to sticky lumps of dough.

Factors Affecting Gluten Quality

❖ Type of flour
- High protein content of flour induces more formation of gluten
• Semolina - lacks properties of gluten formation
• Whole-grain wheat flours - protein loaded
• Rice and Corn - incapable of gluten formation
• Barley and Rye - contains some gluten and more of pentosan

❖ Amount of protein in the flour (Serraon-Claudio et al., 2014)

- Depends on the kind of flour to be utilized
• Bread flour - produces stronger gluten than all-purpose flour
- Suited for yeast breads

❖ The presence of grain’s bran (Team, 2021)

- Bran from whole wheat flours slice off gluten strands, producing a compact and dense bread

❖ Proportion of liquid (Serraon-Claudio et al., 2014)

- The higher the protein content, the greater volume of water is needed
- Excessive liquid retards gluten formation, yielding a moisture-laden product with low volume
- Insufficient liquid yields crisp or shriveled baked products with low volume

❖ Quality and extent of kneading

- Working a dough mixture aligns the glutenin in the same direction to where it is stretched and folded (Serraon-
Claudio et al., 2014)
 - Repeated motions of stretching and folding connects the protein’s sulfhydryl radicals (—SH) close enough to
form disulfide bridges (—S—S), the bond behind the elongation of gluten strands into a gluten network
(Serraon-Claudio et al., 2014)

- Kneading allows the dough to withhold gas expansion during fermentation (Gluten: How Does It Work? -
Modernist Cuisine, 2020)
- Too much kneading would cut off gluten strands, causing a chewy-tough dough (Protein: Gluten Formation,
2017)
- Relaxing the dough decreases dough elasticity, enabling easier roll out (Protein: Gluten Formation, 2017)

❖ Effect of other ingredients (Serraon-Claudio et al., 2014)

- Sugar and salt are hygroscopic, thus it deprives flour of water
- Fat covers flour particles that inhibits water absorption
- Both acid and chemical leavening agent make gluten strands shorter

❖ Temperature (Team, 2021)

- The lower the temperature, the longer the fermentation process would take place

❖ Conditions of baking
- During baking, the steam stretches out gluten until it hardens once coagulated (Serraon-Claudio et al., 2014)
- Too much pressure weakens gluten structure, producing a deflated dough (Team, 2021)
- Under baking, the stretched gluten that did not coagulate will break down as the steam cools down (Serraon-
Claudio et al.,2014)

❖ Lipids in flour
- Fats coats protein strands and delays gluten formation, requiring longer time of mixing (Modernist Cuisine,
2020)
- Small amount of lipids enhances gluten quality in flour mixture (Serraon-Claudio et al., 2014)
- Lipids in wheat flours are in the form of: (Serraon-Claudio et al., 2014)
• Triglycerides
• Sterols
• Vitamin E
• Phospholipids

❖ Flour pigments (Serraon-Claudio et al., 2014)

- Wheat contains carotenoids that imparts a creamy color ofoxidized milled flour
- Oxidizing agents (a.k.a flour improvers) - additives responsible for upgrading bread flour’s baking quality
• Chlorine peroxide
• Benzoyl dioxide

Compiled by: Shane May Lozano, RND (Course Facilitator)