Chapter 1: Communication, Processes, Principles, and Ethics

Lesson 1:

The Nature of Language and Communication

Communication is inevitable. Our need for self-expression leads us to communicate not only our
thoughts but also our feelings. Communication maybe done verbally or nonverbally. A simple yawn from
a member of the audience in a public speaking engagement is non-verbal message sent to the speaker.
On the other hand, phone call inquiring about a certain product is an example of a verbal message.
(Wakat, et al, 2018).
Communication is indeed part of our everyday living. The very fact that we need to communicate when
we are hungry for us to be able to have something to eat is a proof that communication skill is a skill, we
need to develop in order to survive.
• The system of word or signs that people use to express thoughts and feelings to each other; any one of
the systemsof human language that are used and understood by particular group of people (Merriam-
Webster Dictionary)
• Linguists agree that a language can be called a language if it has a system of rules (also known as
grammar), a system of sound (phonology), and a vocabulary (lexicon). These are the requirements for
identifying a means of communication as a language. (Madrunio & Martin, 2018).
While growing up, people acquire the languages used by those in the community. This is the process of
language acquisition. The languages acquired while growing up are known as mother tongue, which
may also be referred to as first language.

People discover later that other languages are needed for various reasons. These other languages may
be referred to as second languages. People learn these languages by studying formally in school or
informally on their own. This is the process of language learning.
Sometimes, we talk to people with a different speech community. They spell words differently,
pronounce words differently and they have different ways of expressing the same concepts. Will we be
able to communicate with them? The answer is yes. Though it will be a challenge for us, we try to
understand each other and eventually communicate as we slowly learn each other’s languages. What is
happening here is called language contact. The result of such contact may be a new form of language. It
is possible that when we communicate with others whose language is different from ours, we produce a
new language form that is understandable to both of us. Our own language may also change as we
constantly interact and communicate with those with a different language. Thus, language change is the
result of language contact.

• Communication is understood as the process of meaning-making through a channel or a medium. It

comes from the Latin “communicare”, meaning to share or to make ideas common, (Wakat, et al, 2018).

• Depending on what is being considered, communication as a term takes on different contexts resulting
in people having different views on communication types. Since communication is generally defined as
the exchange of thoughts, ideas, concepts, and views between or among two or more people, various
contexts come into play.
Context is the circumstance or environment in which communication takes place. Such circumstance
may include the physical or actual setting, the value positions of a speaker/listener, focuses on certain
communication processes and even groupings of people that constitute a communication situation
(Madrunio & Martin, 2018).

ELEMENTS OF COMMUNICATION (Wakat, et al, 2018).

1. Source- The sender carefully crafts the message. The sender may be anyone: an author of a book, a
public speaker in a special occasion or eve a traffic enforcer.
2. Message- the message is the reason behind any interaction. It is the meaning shared between the
sender and the receiver. Messages take many forms. They could mean poems, songs, essays, news
articles, road signs, and even symbols.
3. Channel- the channel is the means by which a message is conveyed. When we answer a phone call,
the phone is the channel. On the other hand, when your parents receive a notification of your absences
in school, the channel is a letter.
4. Receiver- The receiver is the person who receives the transmitted message. The receiver may be a
part of an audience in a public speaking event, a reader of a letter or a driver who reads road signs. The
receiver is expected to listen or read carefully, to be aware of different kinds of sender to jot down
information when needed, to provide response and to ask questions for clarification.
5. Feedback- A feedback is essential to confirm recipient understanding. Feedback, like messages, are
expected in varied forms. A simple nod for a question of verification I considered a feedback. Thus,
feedback may be written, spoken or acted out.
6. Environment- The place, the feeling, the mood, the mindset and the condition of both the sender and
receiver are called environment. The environment may involve the physical set-up of location where
communication takes place, the space occupied by both sender and the receiver, including the objects
surrounding he sender and the receiver.

7. Context- This involves the expectations of the sender to the receiver and the common or shared
understanding through the environmental signals.
8. Interference- This is also known as barrier or block that prevents effective communication to take
place.
Kinds of Interference
a. Physical barriers include competing stimulus, weather and climate, health and ignorance of the
medium.
b. Psychological barriers are thoughts that hamper the message to be interpreted collectively by the
receiver.
c. Cultural and linguistic barriers pertain to the language and its cultural environment. Words may mean
another in different cultures.
d. Mechanical barriers are those raised by the channels employed for interpersonal, group or mass
communication. These include cellphones, laptops and other gadgets used in communication.
● Physical

•Cognitive impairment •Physical challenges

•Sensory impairment •Speech impairment

● Psychological/Personal

•Attitudes •Labelling

•Preconceptions •Prejudices

•Resistance to change

● Cultural/ Linguistic

•Language difference •Practices and Beliefs

•Religion

● Environmental/ Social

•Activity level •Comfort level

•Noise •Physical arrangement

•Time

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION ACCORDING TO MODE

A message may be conveyed via these types: verbal—non-verbal and visual. Though communication is
often thought of as verbal, the non-verbal mode is equally essential as it enhances one’s message.

1. Verbal or oral communication uses spoken words to communicate a message. When most people
think of verbal communication, they think of speaking, but listening is an equally important skill for this
type of communication to be successful. Verbal communication is applicable to a wide range of
situations, ranging from informal office discussions to public speeches made to thousands of people.
2. Non-verbal communication is the counterpart of verbal communication. It includes other forms of
transmission not represented by word symbols like paralanguage (tone of voice, halting speech and
others), body language, object language, tactile or touch communication, time and space. Effective
communication calls for the blending of these two types. One cannot be separated from the other.
3. Visual communication, on the other hand, is the type of communication that uses visuals to convey
information and/or messages. Some examples are signs, symbols, imagery, maps, graphs, charts,
diagrams, pictographs, photos, drawings or illustrations, and even various forms of electronic
communication. Some examples of electronic communication symbols or images are the emojis,
emoticons, and animations among others to convey the writer’s emotions or clarify the intent of the
message sender. These are achieved through digital mode or text.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION ACCORDING TO CONTEXT

Context in communication is referred to as a composite of people interacting with each other.
Communication may also be classified according to context:
1. INTRAPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

The Latin prefix intra-means within or inside. Intrapersonal communication then is a communicator's
internal use of language or thought. It can be useful to envision intrapersonal communication occurring
in the mind of the individual in a model which contains a sender, receiver, and feedback loop. Some
label it as self or inner talk, inner monologue, or inner dialogue. Psychologists call it with other names
such as selfverbalization or self-statement.
○ Steps to attain interpersonal communication.

1) Self-awareness - knowing your strength and weaknesses.

2) Self-discovery - knowing that you were born special and all individuals are unique.
3) Self-knowledge - knowing that you have talents/ traits different from anybody.
4) Self-acceptance - knowing and accepting your limitations.

5) Self-involvement - knowing that you are now ready to face and embrace the world because you
already know who you are.

2. INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

As opposed to intra, the Latin prefix inter means between, among, and together. Interpersonal
communication is the process by which people exchange information, feelings, and meaning through
verbal and non-verbal messages: it is face-to-face communication. An interactive exchange takes eplace
as interpersonal communication takes place.As it occurs, a transaction does not necessarily take place
since it can be a simple interaction such as greetings, getting to know a person, or ordinary
conversations that happen between or among the interactants. This may occur in dyads or small groups,
also known as group communication.However, if the objective is to achieve something at the end of the
conversation, it becomes transactional.

○ Classification of Interpersonal Communication

a. Dyadic/Diadic - The term 'Dyadic communication', in general refers to an interaction between two
persons. Even if two groups are present in a situation, it is only two communicators that play a
fundamental role. It is a person-to-person transaction and one of the commonest forms of speech
communications.
Reasons why people engage in dyadic communication.
1) To gain information
2) To gain employment
3) To highlight a person’s achievement
b. Small group discussion- the sole purpose of small group discussion is for the group to have
cooperation or unity.
○ Common characteristics in small group discussion
1. Rabble- rouser- is a clever speaker who can persuade a group of people to behave violently or
aggressively, often for the speaker's own political advantage. Feeds and stirs people’s emotions.
2. Poppycock or garbage talker – a person who would talk nonsense and would frequently ask off
tangent questions.
3. Surly jester- a person that out of boredom would crack jokes in the middle of discussion.
4. Eternal minstrel – a person that has a good command of the language and would monopolize the
discussion not giving others the chance to talk or participate.
5. Silent angel – a person that knows the topic being discussed but would just keep quiet.

6. Acerbic biter- a person that would make faces in front of the speaker or to anybody that would
participate in the discussion.
○ Styles in interpersonal communication
a. Controlling style - is a form of one-way communication that is used to direct others and gain their
compliance.
b. Egalitarian style- the egalitarian style is a form two-way communication that involves sharing
information rather than directing behavior. It is used to stimulate others to express their ideas and
opinions in order to reach a mutual understanding.
c. Structuring style- is used to establish schedules or impose organization.
d. Dynamic style- is a high-energy approach that uses inspirational pleas to motivate another person to
take action. This style can be effective in crisis situations, but it is generally ineffective when the
receivers do not have enough knowledge or experience to take the required action.
e. Relinquishing style- is deferential rather than directive. It is highly receptive to the ideas of others, to
the point of shifting responsibility for communication to the receiver.

3. EXTENDED COMMUNICATION

Extended communication involves the use of electronic media. Before, it only called for the use of
television and radio but nowadays, the description of extended communication may be expanded as to
include tele, audio, or phone conferencing; video conferencing; Skype calls, and other technological
means.With the use of electronic media, messages are transmitted quickly. For instance, with the use of
the Internet, recorded videos may be transmitted in seconds/ minutes and may be viewed by a greater
number of people. With extended communication, your own thinking, behavior, and attitude may be
influenced by other people and you may be persuaded to take the views you hear. It is important then
that you weigh what you hear and assess them against those beliefs that you hold on to, so you do not
get easily swayed by other people’s convictions.

4. ORGANIZATIONAL COMMUNICATION

The focus is on the role that communication plays in organizational contexts. A set of rules or standards
for communication protocol should be made clear so that interaction patterns are established. On the
part of the individual, you should be equipped with the needed oral and written communication skills
that the organization expects you to possess.
Two Types of Organizational Structure:
1. Formal structure - allows communication to take place via designated channels of message flow
between positions in the organization.
Approaches on Formal Organizational Communication.
a) Downward communication
i) is the type that flows from upper to lower positions, i.e., from the president to a manager or
supervisor, or from a manager to an ordinary staff. The flow of communication is top-down or from a
supervisor to a subordinate, usually asking certain individuals to do a certain task.
ii) It can take any form: memos, notices, face to face interactions, or telephone conversations.
iii) Such communication increases awareness about the organization among employees.
iv) It flows down the chain of command. When managers inform, instruct, advise, or request their
subordinates, the communication flows in a downward pattern.
b) Upward communication
i.) on the other hand, is bottom-up in which subordinates send communication to their superiors/
bosses bearing their view/feedback on organizational policies, issues related to their jobs, and the like.

ii.) It keeps managers aware of how employee feel about their jobs and the organization in general. It
also helps them to make certain decisions or solving some problems which concern the organization.
iii.) Suggestion boxes, Employee Attitude Surveys, Review Reports etc.

c) Horizontal/ Lateral communication

i.) is lateral in approach as it takes placeamong people belonging to the same level but coming from
different departments or units to facilitate performance of tasks through proper coordination.

ii.) Such communication is often necessary to facilitate coordination, save time and bridge the
communication gap among various departments.

iii.) It is very vital for the growth of an organization as it builds cooperation among the employees as well
as various branches.
d) Crosswise approach
i.) is diagonal in nature as employees from different units or departments flows in all directions and cuts
across functions & levels in an organization.

ii.) When a sales manager communicates directly with the VP (Production) who is not only in a different
division but also at a higher level.
iii.) Though It deviates from the normal chain of command, there is no doubt that its quick & efficient.
2. Informal communication, on the other hand, comes from unofficial channels of message flow. Also
known as “grapevine”, messages coming from the different levels of organizations are transmitted.

INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

It is communication between or among people having different linguistic, religious, ethnic, social, and
professional backgrounds. Even gender difference affects communication. Individuals having different
orientations communicate and interpret messages differently. This particularly happens with non-verbal
communication.

Each organization has its own culture. This is referred to as organizational culture. Organizational
culture is of utmost significance since it will dictate the kind of behavior that employees should possess
as well as the extent of commitment expected from them by the organization. They all share in the
values, practices, vision, and mission of the organization.

TYPES OF COMMUNICATION ACCORDING TO PURPOSE AND STYLE

The types of communication in relation to purpose and style are formal and informal. However, rather
than focusing on the transmission of message and message flow, the focus here is on the
communication setting and the mode of delivery.
• Formal communication employs formal language delivery orally or in written form. Lectures, public
talks/speeches. research and project proposals, reports, and business letters among others are all
considered formal situations and writings. Note that while lectures and speeches are delivered orally,
the texts have been thought out carefully and written well before they are delivered. To inform, to
entertain, and to persuade are the main objectives of the type of communication.
• Informal communication certainly does not employ formal language. It involves personal and ordinary
conversations with friends, family members, or acquaintances about anything under sun. The mode may
be oral as in face-to-face, ordinary or everyday talks and phone calls, or written as in the case of e-mail
messages, personal notes, letters, or text messages. The purpose is simply to socialize and enhance
relationships.

Lesson 2:

Communication Principles and Ethics

COMMUNICATION MODELS
What is a model?

❑ It is often abstract and graphically represented.

❑ It is a representation of a real world phenomenon applied to different forms.

❑ They help us understand how communication process works.

1. Aristotle’s Communication Model

Aristotle emphasized that there are three variables in the communication process: speaker, speech, and
audience as illustrated in the communication flow below:
The speaker variable is very important. Without the speaker, there will be no speech to be produced.
Depending on the profile of the audience, the speaker adjusts his/her speech. The considerations for the
audience demographics are age, sex, background, culture, race, religion, gender, social and economic
status, and political orientation or inclination, among others. Even beliefs, views, and attitudes also play
an important role when talking about audience consideration since oftentimes, the audience bring these
with them when they decode a message in any given situation.
2. Laswell’s Communication Model

Harold Dwight Laswell described communication being focused on the following W’s: Who says What in
Which channel and to Whom and with Whom and with What effect as seen in the model below:
While this model is like Aristotle’s in the sense that both are linear and have the same components,
Laswell’s also differs in that there are five variables involved, with the addition of two: medium and
effect.

3. Shannon and Weaver

Social scientists Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver structured this model based on the following
elements:

▪ An information source, which produces a message.

▪ A transmitter, which encodes the message into signals.

▪ A channel, to which signals are adapted for transmission.

▪ A receiver, which 'decodes' (reconstructs) the message from the signal.

▪ A destination, where the message arrives.

4. Berlo’s Communication Model

In 1960, David Berlo expanded on Shannon and Weaver’s (1949) linear model of communication and
created the SMCR Model of Communication. The Sender-Message-Channel-Receiver Model of
communication separated the model into clear parts and has been expanded upon by other scholars to
include noise, hence the acronym SMCRN.
The major variables involved in the communication process are 1) source, 2) message, 3)
channel, 4) receiver.
1) The source being the originator of the message acts as the encoder. As such, the encoder should
practice communication skills such as listening, speaking, reading, and writing: His/ Her attitude towards
the audience or the subject as well as his/her knowledge about the topic on hand likewise counts along
with the social system that he/she is in which includes values, beliefs and practices, and culture.
2) The second variable which is message includes 1) content; 2) elements such as the language used and
gestures employed; 3) treatment or the manner by which the message is transmitted; and 4) structure
which refers to the arrangement of parts or flow of the message. The code shows how the message is
sent; that is, the language (verbal code) used and the accompanying gestures (non-verbal code)
employed. Note that there should be no mismatch between the verbal and non-verbal codes.
3) The third variable which is channel refers to the different senses: seeing, hearing, smelling, tasting,
and touching.
4) Finally, the fourth variable is receiver, the one who decodes the message. Note that the components
of this last variable are like those of the first since for communication to be effective, both the source
and the receiver should have good communication skills.

GENERAL PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION

(Madrunio & Martin, 2018) For both oral and written communication, you should be able to apply the
following principles:
1. Know your purpose in communicating. Are you communicating basically to inform, to entertain, or to
persuade?
2. Know your audience. In both speaking and writing, you should know your audience as it will dictate
the speaking or writing style you are going to employ. Consider the age, educational background,
profession, culture, and other salient features of listeners or readers.

3. Know your topic. You communicate easily because you want to share something. In speaking
situations, speakers are invited because they have something to share. This also applies to writing. You
write because you wish that other people learn something from you. You may then utilize several or
multiple communication techniques to easily catch the attention of the audience.
4. Adjust your speech or writing to the context of the situation. The environment in which your speech
or writing is to be delivered determines the kind of language you will use.
5. Work on the feedback given to you. Once you receive comments from the listeners/ readers, work on
them. Take kindly to criticism. In the longrun, constructive criticisms will prove beneficial to you as you
learn to address them.

PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE
 Be clear with your purpose. You should know by heart your objective in communicating.

 Be complete with the message you deliver. Make sure that your claims are supported by facts and
essential information.

 Be concise. You do not need to be verbose or wordy with your statements. Brevity in speech is a must.

 Be natural with your delivery. Punctuate important words with the appropriate gestures and
movements. Exude a certain degree of confidence even if you do not feel confident enough.

 Be specific and timely with your feedback. Inputs are more helpful when provided on time.

PRINCIPLES OF EFFECTIVE WRITTEN COMMUNICATION: THE 7Cs

1. Be CLEAR about your message. Always be guided by your purpose in communicating.
2. Be CONCISE. Always stick to the point and do not beat or run around the bush. Be brief by focusing on
your main point.
3. Be CONCRETE. Support your claims with enough facts. Your readers will easily know if you are bluffing
or deceiving them because there is nothing to substantiate your claims.
4. Be CORRECT. It is important that you observe grammatical correctness in your writing. Always have
time to revise and edit your work. Even simple spelling errors may easily distract your readers.

5. Be COHERENT. Your writing becomes coherent only when you convey a logical message. The ideas
should be connected to each other and related to the topic. Make sure that you observe a sound
structure that will present a smooth flow of your ideas. Use transitional or cohesive devices so that the
ideas cohere with one another.
6. Be COMPLETE. Include all necessary and relevant information so that the audience will not be left
wanting of any information. Always place yourself in the shoes of the audience, who is always interested
to receive new information.
7. Be COURTEOUS. The tone of your writing should be friendly. Avoid any overtone/undertone or
insinuation to eliminate confusion and misinterpretation.

ETHICS IN COMMUNICATION

Communication ethics emphasizes that morals influence the behavior of an individual, group or
organization thereby affecting their communication.
A code of ethics sets the standards to be observed by a person or a company that will create a good
reputation or a positive image not only for an individual but also for the organization. It will, therefore,
pave the way for the attainment of the desired results leading to the success of an individual or the
entire company. Success in decision-making will likewise impact the company’s reputation.
Be guided by the following to achieve ethical communication:
1) Establish an effective value system that will pave the way for the development of your integrity as a
person. One’s behavior and decision-making style affect, in turn, the operations of an organization.
2) Provide complete and accurate information. Whether it is needed or not, the data you provide should
always be contextualized and correct.

3) Disclose vital information adequately and appropriately. Never conceal or hide information that are
necessary for purposes of transparency

Chapter 2: Communication and Globalization

Lesson 1: Communication and Globalization

Globalization − the process by which people and goods move easily across borders. It is an economic
concept

– the integration of markets, trade and investment with few barriers to slow the flow of products and
services between nations. There is also a cultural element, as ideas and traditions are traded and
assimilated. (Gray, 2017)
− the communication and assimilation among individuals, ethnicities, races, institutions, governments of
various nations supported by technology and compelled by international trade. Globalization is not a
new process or concept. Years before the advent of technology, people had been purchasing and selling
each other properties, goods, and other objects of certain value.

The Effects of Globalization on Global Communication

➢ Increased Business Opportunities
Many companies today hire employees that are inother countries. Using communication vehicles such
as video calling make it simple to converse with colleagues across the globe, almost making it feel as if
they are in the same room. Technology also makes it easier to connect with suppliers and customers all
over the world, and to streamline relationship through improved ordering, shipment tracking and so on.
With this kind of communication technology, many businesses are able to take advantage of
opportunities in different countries or cities, improving the economic outlook on a global level.
➢ Fewer Cultural Barriers

Many people perceive culture to be the root of communication challenges. When people from two
different cultures try to exchange information, the way they speak, their body language or their
mannerisms can be interpreted differently by the other person. The way people approach problems and
how they participate in communities is all influenced by culture. Globalization has made it possible, for
example, for someone in Japan to understand how someone in the U.S. goes about their day. With
television and movies, cultural barriers are becoming less prevalent. Being able to communicate
effectively and frequently with colleagues or friends across the planet helps people understand each
other‘s cultures a little better.

➢ Creation of a Global Village

You ‘ve likely heard of the phrase "global village," coined by theorist Marshall McLuhan. Affected both
by globalization and global communication, the global village is created when distance and isolation no
longer matter because people are connected by technology. Wide-spread telephone and internet access
have been lifechanging for many people across the world, especially those in developing countries.
Many are now enrolling in universities across the world without having to leave their desk chair. Virtual
assistant jobs are becoming commonplace, where employees from developing countries work with
companies in North America or Europe, providing administrative support and other business services
that can easily be conducted over the phone or via the internet.
DO YOU KNOW?

Eye Contact - North America views direct eye contact as a sign of honesty

-Asians views direct eye contact as a form of disrespect

Why do we need to study this?

The transmission of the message from sender to recipient can be affected by a lot of factors. These
include cultural situation, the medium used to communicate, and even our location. However, because
of globalization, communication goes well and easy. These topics made the students aware of the
following:
➢ Globalization and global communication have made it easier to see people on the other side of the
world as a neighbor, instead of a stranger from a faraway land. There is so much knowledge about other
countries and cultures available online that it‘s no longer a complete mystery.

➢Some effects of globalization to global communication are having or increased business opportunities,
fewer cultural barriers as well as creating a global village or making the world or the community
connected with the use of technology.

LESSON 2: Local and Global Communication in Multicultural Setting

Intercultural communication − a discipline that studies communication across different cultures and
social groups, or how culture affects communication. It describes the wide range of communication
processes and problems that naturally appear within an organization or social context made up of
individuals from different religious, social, ethnic, and educational backgrounds. In this sense it seeks to
understand how people from different countries and cultures act, communicate andperceive the world
around them.
According to Science, each person is genetically unique (except for identical twins) . Each has a unique
genetic composition. This uniqueness is heightened by individual experiences. Humans are formed by
forces other than genetics:Family background, religious affiliation, educational achievements, etc.
(Madrunio and Martin. 2018).
This situation - the diversity of people and cultures - impacts communication. People interacting with
those coming from unfamiliar cultures may have difficulties in communication. Some thought, it’s
because of speaker’s lack of proficiency in a language.

But even those with excellent language skills may still experiencemiscommunication. Global
communication becomes more complicated when there are multiple recipients from different cultures
with different languages all receiving the same message, as well as when there are more layers added to
the channel.

For example, if a world leader makes a speech broadcast across the globe, people from one region may
rejoice at the news, while others may find it offensive. In this case, the channel itself can involve many
different layers, as translators, news, editors, and commentators each interpret the message differently
before passing it on to the intended audiences.

COMMUNICATING ACROSS CULTURES

Communicating across cultures is challenging. Each culture has set rules that it’s members take for
granted. Few of us are aware of our own cultural biases because cultural imprinting is begun at a very
early age. And while some of culture ‘s knowledge, rules, beliefs, values, phobias, and anxieties are
taught explicitly, most of the information is absorbed subconsciously.
HIGH CONTEXT VS. LOW CONTEXT
High Context Cultures leave much of the message unspecified, to be understood through context,
nonverbal cues, and between-the-lines interpretation of what is said (Latin American, African,
European). Low context cultures expect message to be explicit and specific.(most Germanic and English-
speaking countries).

SEQUENTIAL VS. SYNCHRONIZING

In Sequential Culture, businesspeople give full attention to one agenda item after another. (North
American, English, German, Swedish, Dutch)
In Synchronic culture, the flow of time is viewed as a circle, with the past, present and future all
interrelated. (South American, Southern Europe, Asia)
AFFECTIVE VS. NEUTRAL

Members of Neutral cultures do nottelegraph their feelings but keep them carefully controlled and
subdued.In cultures with high affect, people show their feelings plainly by laughing, smiling, grimacing,
scowling and sometimes crying.This does not mean that people in neutral cultures are cold or unfeeling,
but duringnormal business activities, neutral cultures are more careful to monitor the amount of
emotion they display.

Emotional Reactions were found to be least acceptable in Japan, Indonesia, the UK, Norway, and the
Netherlands and most acceptable in Italy, France, the US, and Singapore.
BARRIERS TO LOCAL AND GLOBAL COMMUNICATION IN MULTICULTURAL SETTINGS

Some of the barriers to effective communication are language, medium of communication, personality,
and culture. Culture became barrier to an effective communication when a person has different
language bearing, and they have different interpretation to such words.

LESSON 3: Varieties and Registers of Spoken and Written Language

VARIETIES OF ENGLISH (WORLD ENGLISHES)

Three Concentric Circles of English by Braj Kachru:

The Inner Circle with ENL (English as a Native Language)

− English is used as a mother tongue.

The Outer Circle with ESL (English as a Second Language)

− English is used as an official language or language of Education and Government.

The Expanding Circle with EFL (English as a Foreign Language)

− English is used by speakers whose native languages are different.

WORLD ENGLISHES
LANGUAGE REGISTERS (Madrunio and Martin, 2018)

• Language Register refers to the formality of language which one speaks. Different registers are used in
different situations.
• It is in register that you are able to determine the kind of lexicon or vocabulary to use as well as the
kind of structure to be used.
Formal Register
Formal register is used in formal speaking ad writing situations. In a state of the nation address classified
as a formal communication situation, the speech is usually delivered using highly polishedlanguage, read
from a manuscript. On the other hand, a priest delivering his homily, often, speaks extemporaneously
and uses ordinary language. This is so since the audience is composed of various audiences coming from
different walks of life. Moreover, formal register is likewise appropriate for use in professional writing
like project proposals, position papers, and business letters as in the case of writing to a superior or to a
head of a certain organization. It is more impersonal, objective and actual.
Informal Register
Informal register, which is more casual in tone, is appropriate for people with whom you have
established a more personal relationship as in the case of friends and relatives. This type of writing may
sometimes be emotional as an intimate relationship exists between the speaker and listener or writer
and reader.

CHARACTERISTICS OF WRITTEN LANGUAGE

Permanence - means when students write something, they already set in their mind to be done in one
session. They don‘t think that they can edit or revised their written to be better because students think
their written is subject to permanence. In this case teacher perhaps notice all of students that they just
write everything that comes in their written.
Production time - this part plays a crucial issue for the agents. In this part, students will think about the
deadline. The possible case in here is the students will just only focus on the deadline and would resort
to not give importance on the content itself. As the result, their written work will not be maximized and
or to be improved. Moreover, this is a job for the teachers to push students to think about the process
of learning rather than the result itself.
Distance - having a relationship with the audience anticipation. Before students start to write, they must
know who the audience will be to read their output.
Orthography - this part is talk about the technical of appearance. After writer consider about the word,
phrase, and sentence that they will use students also consider about the front, size and also the picture.
All appearance must connect with the topic and target of the reader.
Complexity - this is talk about the sentence whether students use simple sentence combine or complex
sentence. We as a teacher will know the students‘ progress of learning. And for the academic writing,
students should provide reference.
Vocabulary - talk about word richness we (teacher) can see what a new vocabulary that they already
acquired.
Formality - this is complex convention for academic writing (describe, explain, compare, criticize, argue,
etc). If the writer creates academic writing it means the product have to be formal. Because of that, the
language that they use has to be formal and polite. The font or size has to consistent with the guideline
that they use (APA style, MLA etc).
CHARACTERISTICS OF SPOKEN LANGUAGE

1. Variation in Speed 8. Pausing and Phrasing

2. Loudness or Quietness
3. Gestures
4. Intonation
5. Stress
6. Rhythm
7. Pitch Range

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SPOKEN AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE

WRITTEN:
➢ Tends to be more complex and intricate than speech with longer sentences and many subordinate
clauses. The punctuation and layout of written text also have no spoken equivalent.
➢ Usually permanent and written texts cannot usually be changed once they have been printed/written
out.

➢ Written text can communicate across time and space for as long as the language and writing system is
still understood.
➢ Writers can make use of punctuation, headings, layouts, colors and other graphical effects in their
written texts.
➢ Some grammatical constructions are only used in writing as are some kinds of vocabulary such as
some complex chemical and legal terms.

SPOKEN:
➢ Tends to be full or repetitions, incomplete sentences, corrections, and interruptions except for formal
speeches and other scripted forms of speech such as news reports and scripts for plays and films.
➢ Usually transient unless recorded and speakers can correct themselves and change their utterances as
they go along.
➢ Speech is usually used for immediate interactions.
➢ Speech can us timing, tone, volume and tremble to add emotional context.
➢ Some types of vocabulary are used only or mainly speech. These include slang expressions, and tags
like y’know, like, etc.