Database Systems

 Data vs. Info

o Data
 Data-raw facts, or facts that have not yet been processed to reveal their meaning to the end user
 Data consists of raw facts
 Raw indicates that facts haven’t yet been processed to reveal their meaning
 Data processing can be as simple as organizing data to reveal patterns or as complex as making forecasts or drawing
inferences using statistical modeling
 Raw data must be properly formatted for storage, processing, & presentation
 Must be properly generated & stored in a format that is easy to access & process
 Data Management-is a discipline that focuses on proper generation, storage, & retrieval of data
o Information
 Information-the result of processing raw data to reveal its meaning; consists of transformed data & facilitates decision
making
 Information is result of processing raw data to reveal its meaning
 Production of accurate, relevant, & timely information is key to good decision making
 Data r foundation of info
 Knowledge-is body of information & facts about a specific subject
 Implies familiarity, awareness, & understanding of info as it applies to an environment
 Key characteristics of it is that “new” knowledge can be derived from “old” knowledge
o Knowledge-the body of information & facts about a specific subject; implies familiarity, awareness, & understanding of
information as it applies to an eviron.; a key characteristic is that new knowledge can be derived fr old knowledge
o Data Management-a process that focuses on data collection, storage, & retrieval; common data management functions
includes addition, deletion, modification, & listing
 Into to Database
o Database is a shared, integrated computer structure that stores a collection of end-user data & metadata
o Database-a shared, integrated computer structure that houses a collection of related data
 End-user data is raw facts of interest to end user
 Metadata
 Metadata-, or data about data, thru which end-user data r integrated & managed
 Metadata-data about data; that is, data about data characteristics & relationships
 describe data characteristics & set of relationships that links the data found within database
 provide info that complements & expands value & use of data
 present a more complete picture of the data in database
o Database Management Systems (DBMS) is a collection of programs that manages database structure & controls
access to data stored in database
o Role & Advantages of DBMS
 Roles
 DBMS serves as intermediary between user & database
 Database structure itself is stored as a collection of files, & only way to access data in those files is thru DBMS
 Present end user (or app program) w/ a single, integrated view of data
 receives all app requests & translates them into complex operations required to fulfill those requests
 hides much of database’s internal complexity fr app programs & users
 Advantages
 enables data in database to be shared among multiple apps or users
 integrates many different users’ views of data into a single-encompassing data repository
 Other Advantages:
1. Improved data sharing
 Helps create an environ. in which end users have better access to more & better managed data
 Such access make it possible for end users to respond quickly to changes in their environ.
2. Improved data security
 More users access data, greater the risks of data security breaches
 DBMS provides a framework for better enforcement of data privacy & security policies
3. Better data integration
 Wider access to well-managed data promotes an integrated view of organization’s operations & a clearer view of
big picture
 It becomes much easier to see how in one segment of the company affect other segments
4. Minimized data inconsistency
 Data Inconsistency exists when different versions of same data appear in different places
 Data Inconsistency-a condition in which different versions of the same data appear in different (inconsistent)
results
 Probability of data inconsistency is greatly reduced in a properly design database
5. Improved data access
 DBMS makes it possible to produce quick answers to ad hoc queries
 Query is a specific request issues to DBMS for data manipulation
 Query-a question or task asked by an end user of a database in the form of SQL code; a specific request for data
manipulation issued by the end user or the application to the DBMS
 Ad Hoc Query-is a spur-of-the-moment question
 Query Result Set is an answer that is sent back by DBMS
 Query Result Set-is the collection of data rows returned by a query
6. Improved decision making
 Better-managed data & improved data access make it possible to generate better-quality information, on which
better decisions r based
 Quality of info generated depends on quality of underlying data
 Data Quality is a comprehensive approach to promoting the accuracy, validity, & timelines of data
 Data Quality-a comprehensive approach to ensuring the accuracy, validity, & timeliness of data
 it provides a framework to facilitate data quality initiatives while DBMS doesn’t guarantee data quality
 7. Increased end-user productivity
 Availability of data, combined w/ tools that transform data into usable info, empowers end users to make quick,
informed decisions that can make difference between success & failure in global economy
o Types of Databases
 DBMS can be used to build many different types of databases
 Each one stores a particular collection of data & is used for a specific purpose
 # of users determines whether database is classified as single user or multiuser
 Single-User Database
 Single-User Database supports only one user at a time
 Single-User Database-a database that supports only one user at a time
 If user A is using the database, user B & C must wait until user A is done
 A single-user database that runs on a personal computer is called a desktop database
 Multiuser Database
 Multiuser Database supports multiple users at the same time
 Multiuser Database-a database that supports multiple concurrent users
 Workgroup Database-a type of multiuser database that usually supports fewer than 50 or used for a specific
department within an organization
 Enterprise Database-the overall company data representation, which provides support for present & expected future
needs
 Location might also be used to classify database
 Centralized Database is a database that supports data located at a single site
 Centralized Database-a database located at a single site
 A database that supports data distributed across several different sites is called a distributed database
 Distributed Database-a logically related database that is stored in two or more physically independent sites
 Both centralized & decentralized (distributed) databases require well-defined infrastructure (hardware, os (operating
systems, network technologies, etc) to implement & operate database
 Infrastructure is owned & maintained by organization that creates & operates database
 Cloud Database
 Cloud Database-a database that is created & maintained using cloud data services, such as Microsoft Azure or
Amazon’s AWS)
 Provide defined performance measures (data storage capacity, required thruput, & availability) for database, but
don’t necessarily specify underlying infrastructure to implement it
 Data owner doesn’t have to know, or be concerned about, what hardware & software is being used to support their
database
 Performance capabilities can be renegotiated w/ cloud provider as business demands on database changes
 A popular way of classifying databases is according to type of data stored in them
 Using this criterion, database r grouped into two categories
 General-Purpose Databases
 General-Purpose Databases contain a wide variety of data used in multiple disciplines
 General-Purpose Database-a database that contains a wide variety of data used in multiple disciplines
 Discipline-Specific Databases
 Discipline-Specific Databases contain data focused on specific subject areas
 Discipline-Specific Database-a database that contains data focused on specific subject areas
 Data in this r used mainly for academic or research purposes within a small set of disciplines
 Most popular way of classifying databases today is based on how they will be used & on sensitivity of info gathered fr
them
 A database that is designed primarily to support a company’s day-to-day operations is classified as an operational
database, also known as an online transaction processing (OLTP) database, transactional database or
production database
 Operational Database-a database designed primarily to support a company’s day-to-day operations; also known as
transactional database, OLTP database, or production database
 Analytical Database
 Analytical Database focuses primarily on storing historical data & business metrics used exclusively for tactical or
strategic decision making
 Analytical Database-a database focused primarily on sorting historical data & business metrics used for tactical or
strategic decision making
 Such analysis requires extensive “data massaging”) data manipulation to produce info for businesses
 Allow end user to perform advanced data analysis of business data using sophisticated tools
 Comprise of two main components:
 Data Warehouse
 Data Warehouse-a specialized database that stores historical & aggregated data in format optimized for decision
support
 is a specialized database that stores data in a format optimized for decision support
 Contains historical data obtained from operational databases as well as data fr other external sources
 Online Analytical Processing (OLAP)-a set of tools that work together to provide an advanced data analysis environ.
for retrieving, processing, & modeling data fr data warehouse
 Business Intelligence describes a comprehensive approach to capture & process business data w/ purpose of
generating info to support business decision making
 Business Intelligence-a set of tools & processes used to capture, collect, integrate, store, & analyze data to support
business decision making
 can also be classified to reflect degree to which data r structured
 Unstructured Data r data that exist in their original (raw) state-that is, in format in which they were collected
 Unstructured Data-data that exists in its original, raw state; that is, in the format in which it was collected
 Exist in a format that doesn’t lend itself to processing that yields info
 Structured Data r result of formatting unstructured data to facilitate storage, & generation of info
 Structured Data-data that has been formatted to facilitate storage, use, & information generation
 Apply structure (format) based on type of processing that u intend to perform on data
 Most data u encounter r best classified as semistructured
  Semistructured Data have already been processed to some extent
 Semistructured Data-data that has already been processed to some extent
 Ones mentioned so far focus on storage & management of highly structured data
 Corporations r not limited to use of structured data, but they also use semistructured & unstructured data
 unstructured & semistructured data storage & management needs r being addressed thru a new generation of
databases known as XML databases
 Extensible Markup Language (XML) is a special language used to represent & manipulate data elements in a textual
format
 Extensible Markup Language (XML)-a metalanguage used to represent & manipulate data elements; unlike other
markup langs, XML permits the manipulation of a document’s data elements
 XML Database supports storage & management of semistructured XML data
 XML Database-a database system that stores & manages semistructured XML data
 Types of Databases
Number of Users Data Location Data Usage
Multiuser
Product Single Centraliz Distribut Operatio Analytic XML
Workgrou Enterpri
User ed ed nal al
p se
MS Access X X X X
MS SQL
X3 X X X X X X X
Server
IBM DB2 X3 X X X X X X X
MySQL X X X X X X X X
Oracle RDBMS X3
X X X X X X X
 Social Media-refers to web & mobile technologies that enable “anywhere, anytime, always on” human interactions
(greats amount of data being stored & analyzed)
 These data grow exponentially & require use of specialized database systems
 Social media user a new type of database is known as a NoSQL database
 NoSQL (Not only SQL) is generally used to describe a new generation of database management systems that is not
based on traditional relational database model
 NoSQL-a new generation of database management systems that isn’t based on the traditional relational database
model
 This database r designed to handle unprecedented volume of data, variety of data types & structures, & velocity of
data operations that r characteristic of these new business requirements
o Why Database Design is Important?
 Database Design refers to activities that focus on design of database structure that will be used to stored & manage
end-user data
 Database Design-the process that yields the description of the database structure & determines the database
components; the second phase of the Database Life Cycle
 Database design is crucial aspect of working w/ databases
 Data r one of an organization’s most valuable assets
 Data r all vital to existence of a company
 Thorough planning to ensure that data r properly used & leveraged to give company most benefit is just as important
as proper financial planning to ensure that company gets best use fr its financial resources
 Proper design requires designer to identify precisely database’s expected to use
 Designing a transactional database emphasizes accurate & consistent data & operational speed
 Designing a data warehouse database emphasizes use of historical & aggregated data
 Designing a database to be used in a centralized, single-user environ. requires a different approach fr that used in
design of a distributed, multiuser database
 Designing appropriate data repositories of integrated info using 2D table structures found in most databases is a
process of decomposition
 Integrated data must be decomposed properly into its constituent parts, & implemented so integrated view of data
can be re-created later as info for end user
 Well-designed database facilitates data management & generates accurate & valuable info
 Poorly designed database is likely to become a breeding ground for difficult-to-trace errors that may lead to bad
decision making-& bad decision making can lead to failure of an organization
 Evolution of File System Data Processing
o Can be helpful in understanding data access limitations that databases attempt to overcome
o Understanding these limitations is relevant to database designers & developers b/c database technologies don’t make
these probs magically disappear-database technologies simply make it easier to create solutions that avoid these
probs
o Creating database designs that avoid pitfalls of earlier systems requires that designer understand these probs & how
to avoid them
o Manual File Systems
 Organization must develop systems for handling core business tasks to be successful
 Such system were often manual, paper and pencil system
 Paper within these systems were organized to facilitate expected use of data
 This was accomplished thru a system of file folders & filing cabinets
 Served its role well as a data repository as long as collection of data was relatively small & an organization’s business
users had few reporting requirements
 Keeping track of data in a manual file system become more difficult as organizations grew & as reporting
requirements became more complex
 Therefore, companies looks to computer technology for help
o Computerized File Systems
 Data Processing (DP) Specialist-create a computer-based system that would track data & produce required reports
 Initially, computer files within file system were similar to manual files
 Description of computer files requires a specialized vocabulary
 Every discipline develops its own terminology to enable its practitioners to comm. clearly
o Basic File Terminology
Term Definition
Data Raw facts, such as telephone number, a birth date, a customer name, and a year-to-date (YTD) sales
value. Data have little meaning unless they have been organized in some logical manner.
Field A character or group of characters (alphabetic or numeric) that has a specific meaning. A field is used
to define & store data.
Record A logically connected set of one or more fields that describes a person, place, or thing. For example,
the fields that constitute a record for a customer might consist of the customer’s name, address,
phone number, date of birth, credit limit, & unpaid balance.
File A collection of related records. For example, a file might contain data about the students currently
enrolled at Gigantic University.
 Business users sent requests for data to DP specialist when they want data fr computerized file
 DP specialist had to create programs for each request to retrieve data from the file, manipulate it in whatever manner
user had requested, & present it as a printed report
 DP specialist could rerun existing program & provide printed results to user if a request was for a report that had
been run previously
 Probs w/ this type of file system became apparent as more & more computerized files were developed
 Advent of computer files represent a huge step forward in a business’s ability to process data & to store company
data
 Creation of it gave users improved tools for manipulating company data that allowed them to create new info
 It had additional effect of introducing a schism between end users and their data
 Desire to close gap between end users & data influenced development of many types of computer technologies,
system designs, & used (& misuses) of many technologies & techniques
 Such developments also created a split between ways DP specialists & end users viewed the data
 Fr DP specialist’s perspective, computer files within file system were created to be similar to manual files. Data
management programs were created to add to, update, & delete data fr the file.
 Fr end user’s perspective, systems separated users fr data. As user’s competitive environ. pushed them to make
more & more decisions in less time, users became frustrated by delay between conceiving of a new way to create
info fr data & point when the DP specialist actually created programs to generate that information.
o File System Redux
 Users’ desire for direct, hands-on access to data helped to fuel adoption of personal computers for business use
 Personal computer spreadsheet programs such as Microsoft Excel r widely used by business users, & they allow user
to enter data in a series of rows & columns so data can be manipulated using a wide range of functions
 Spreadsheet apps has enabled users to conduct sophisticated data analysis that has greatly enhanced their ability to
understand data & make better decisions
 Common misuse of spreadsheets is as substitute for a database
 End users often take limited to which they have direct access & place it in a spreadsheet format similar to that of
traditional, manual data storage systems0which is precisely what early DP specialists did when creating
computerized data files
o Probs w/ File System Data Processing
 File system method of organizing & managing data was a definite improvement over manual system, & file system
served a useful purpose in data management
 Critique of file system method serves two major purposes:
 Purpose 1:
 Understanding shortcomings of file system enables u to understand development of modern database
 Purpose 2:
 Many of probs aren’t unique to file systems
 Failure to understand such probs is likely to lead to their duplication in a database environ., even though database
tech makes it easy to avoid them
 Following probs associated w/ file systems, whether created by DP specialists or thru a series of spreadsheets,
severely challenge the types of info that can be created fr data as well as accuracy of info:
 Lengthy development times
 First & most glaring prob w/ file system approach is that even simplest data-retrieval task requires extensive
programming
 w/ older file systems, programmers had to specify what must be done & how to do it
 modern database use a nonprocedural data manipulation language that allows user to specify what must be done
w/o specifying how
 Difficulty of getting quick answers
 Need to write programs to produce even simplest reports makes ad hoc queries impossible
 Harried DP specialists who worked w/ mature file systems often received numerous requests for new reports
 They were often forced to say that report will be ready “next week” or even “next month”
 Getting it next week or next month will not serve your info needs if u need info now
 Complex system administration
 System admin. Becomes more difficult as # of files in system expands
 Even a simple file system w/ a few files requires creating & maintaining several file management programs
 Each file must have its own file management programs that allow user to add, modify, & delete records; to list file
contents; & to generate reports
 File reporting programs can multiply quickly b/c ad hoc queries aren’t possible
 Prob is compounded by fact that each department in organization “owns” its data by creating its own files
 Lack of security & limited data sharing
 Another fault of a file system data repository is a lack of security & limited data sharing
 Data sharing & security r closely related
 Sharing data among multiple geographically dispersed users introduces a lot of security risks
 In terms of spreadsheet data, while many spreadsheet programs provide rudimentary security options, they aren’t
always used, & even when they r, they r insufficient for robust data sharing among users
 In terms of creating data management & reporting programs, security & data-sharing features r difficult to program
& consequently r often omitted fr a file system environ
  Such features include effective password protection, ability to lock out parts of files or parts of system itself, &
other measures designed to safeguard data confidentiality
 Even when an attempt is made to improve system & data security, security devices tend to be limited in scope &
effectiveness
 Extensive programming
 Making changes to an existing file structure can be difficult in a file system environ.
 In fact, any change to a file structure, no matter how minor, forces modifications in all of programs that use data in
that file
 Modifications r likely to produce errors (bugs), & additional time is spent using a debugging process to find thos errors
 Those limitations, in turn, leads to probs of structural & data dependence
o Structural & Data Dependence
 File system exhibits structural dependence
 Structural Dependence-means that access to a file is dependent on its structure
 All of file system programs must be modified to conform to new file structure
 Exhibit structural dependence b/c file system app. programs r affected by changes in file structure
 Structural Independence-exists when u can change file structure w/o affecting app.’s ability to access data
 Even changes in characteristics change (that is, changing data type), file system is said to exhibit data dependence
 Data independence exists when u can change data storage characteristics w/o affecting program’s ability to access
ability
 practical significance of data dependence is the difference between logical data format (how human being views
data) & physical data format (how computer must work w/ data)
 any program that accesses a file system’s file must tell computer not only what to do but how to do it
 each program must contain lines that specify opening of a specific file type, its record specification, & its field
definitions
 database dependence makes file system extremely cumbersome fr point of view of a programmer & database
manager
o Data Redundancy
 Organizational structure promotes storage of same basic data in different locations
 Database pros use term islands of info for such scattered data locations
 Dispersion of data is exacerbated by use of spreadsheets to store data
 Islands of info often contain different versions of same data b/c data stored in different locations will probably not be
updated consistently
 Data Redundancy-exists when same data r stored unnecessarily at different places
 Uncontrolled data redundancy sets stage for following:
 Poor data security
 Having multiple copies of data increases chances for a copy of data to be susceptible to unauthorized access
 Data inconsistency
 Exists when different & conflicting versions of same data appear in different places
 Reports will yield inconsistent results that depend on which version of data is used
Note
 Date display data inconsistency r also referred to as data
that lack data integrity.
 Data Integrity-is defined as the condition in which all of
data in the database r consistent w/ real-world events &
conditions
 Data integrity means that:
o Data r accurate-there r no data inconsistencies
o Data r verifiable-the data will always yield consistent
 Data-entry errors r more likely to occur when complex entries r made in several different files or recur frequently in
one or more files
 Data anomalies
 A field value change should be made in only a single space
 Data redundancy, however, fosters an abnormal condition by forcing field value changes in many different
locations
 Any change in any field value must be correctly made in many places to maintain data integrity
 Data Anomaly-develops when not all of the required changes in the redundant data r made successfully
 Data anomalies r commonly defined as follows:
 Update anomalies
 Insertion anomalies
 Deletion anomalies
o Lack of Design & Data-Modeling Skills
 New prob that has evolved w/ use of personal productivity tools (such as spreadsheets & desktop databases) is that
users typically lack proper design & data-modeling skills
 People naturally have an integrated view of data in their environ.
 Forcing this type of integrated data into a single 2D table structure is a poor data design that leads to a large degree
of redundancy for several data items
 Data-modeling skills r also vital part of design process
 It is important to documents design properly
 Design documentation is necessary to facilitate communication among database designer, end user, & developer
 Data modeling is most common method of documenting database designs
 Using a standardized data-modeling technique ensures that data model fulfills its role in facilitating comm.
 Data model also provides an invaluable resource when maintaining or modifying a database as business
requirements change
 Database Systems
o Consists of logically related data stored in a single logical data repository unlike file system w/ its many separate &
unrelated files
o “logical” label reflects fact that data repository appears to be a single unit to end user, even though data might be
physically distributed among multiple storage facilities & locations
o Database represents a major change in way end-user data r stored, accessed, & managed b/c database’s data
repository is a single logical unit
o Database’s DBMS provides numerous advantages over file system management by making it possible to eliminate
most of fiel system’s data inconsistency, data anomaly, data dependence, & structural dependence probs
o Current generation of DBMS software stores not only data structures, but also relationships between those structures &
access paths to those structures-all in a central location
o Current generation of DBMS software also takes care of defining, storing, & managing all required access paths to
those components
o Database & File Systems Contrasting Example:

o Database System Environment

 Database System-refers to an organization of components that define & regulate the collection, storage,
management, & use of data within a database environment
 Is composed of five major parts:
 Hardware
 Refers to all of system’s physical devices, including computers (PCs, workstations, servers, & supercomputers),
storage devices, printers, network devices (hubs, switches, routers, fiber optics), & other devices (automated teller
machines, ID readers, & so on)
 Software
 Three types of it r needed to make database systems system functionally:
 OS (operating systems) software
 Manages all hardware components & makes it possible for all other software to run on computers
 DBMS software
 Manages database within database system
 App programs & utilities
 R used to access & manipulate data in DBMS & to manage computer environ. in which data access &
manipulation take place
 App programs r most commonly used to access data within database to generate reports, tabulations, & other
info to facilitate decision making
 Utilities r software tools used to help manage database system’s computer components
 All major DBMS vendors provide graphical user interfaces (GUIs) to help create database structures, control
database access, & monitor database operations
 People
 This component includes all users of database system
 Five types of users can be identified in a database system:
 System administrators
 Oversee database system’s general operations
 Database administrators
 Also known as DBAs, manage DBMS & ensure that database is functioning properly
 Database designers
 Design database structure
 R database architects
 Their job description has expanded to cover new dimensions & growing responsibilities b/c organizations strive
to optimize their data resources
 System analysts & programmers
 Design & implement app programs
 Design & create data-entry screens, reports, & procedures thru which end users access & manipulate
database’s data
 End users
 R people who use app programs to run organization’s daily operations
 High-level end users employ info obtained fr database to make tactical & strategic business decisions
 Procedures
 R instruction & rules that govern design & use of database system
 R a critical, although occasionally forgotten, component of system
 Play an important role in a company b/c they enforce standards by which business is conducted within organization
& w/ customers
 Also help to ensure that companies have an organized way to monitor & audit data that enter database & info
generated fr those data
 Data
 Word data covers collection of facts stored in database
 Determining what data to enter into database & how to organize those data is a vital part of database designer’s
job
  each user type, described next, performs both unique & complementary functions
 adds a new dimension to an organization’s management structure
 complexity of this managerial structure depends on organization’s size, its function, & its corporate culture
 can be created & managed at different levels of complexity & w/ varying adherence to precise standards
 managers must also take another important fact into account: database solutions must be cost-effective as well as
tactically & strategically effective
o DBMS Functions
 DBMS performs several important functions that guarantee integrity & consistency of data in database
 Most r transparent to end users, & most can be achieved only thru use of a DBMS
 Include:
 Data Dictionary Management
 DBMS stores definition of data elements & their relationships (metadata) in a data dictionary
 All programs that access data in database work thru DBMS
 Data Dictionary-used to look up required data component structures & relationships
 Relieve u fr having to code such complex relationships in each program
 Any changes made in a database structure r automatically recorded in it, thereby freeing u fr having to modify all
of programs that access changed structure
 DBMS provides data abstraction, & it removes structural & data dependence fr system
 Data storage management
 DBMS creates & manages complex structures required for data storage, thus relieving u fr difficult task of defining
& programming physical data characteristics
 modern DBMS provides storage not only for data but for related data-entry forms or screen definitions, report
definitions, data validation rules, procedural code, structures to handle video & picture formats, & so on
 Is also important for database performance tuning
 Performance Tuning-relates to the activities that make the database perform more efficiently in terms of storage &
access speed
 DBMS actually stores database in multiple physical data files although user sees database as a single data storage
unit
 DBMS can fulfill database requests concurrently
 Data transformation & Presentation
 DBMS transforms entered data to conform to required data structures
 DBMS relieves u of chore of distinguishing between logical data & physical data format
 DBMS formats physically retrieved data to make it conform to user’s logical expectations
 DBMS must manage date in proper format for each country regardless of data presentation format
 Security management
 DBMS creates a security system that enforces user security & data privacy
 Security rules determine which users can access database, which data items each user can access, & which data
operations (read, add, delete, or modify) user can perform
 This is especially important in multiuser database systems
 All database users may be authenticated to DBMS thru a username & password or thru biometric authentication
such as a fingerprint
 DBMS uses this info to assign access privileges to various database components such as queries & reports
 Multiuser access control
 DBMS uses sophisticated algorithms to ensure that multiple users can access database concurrently w/o
compromising its integrity to provide data integrity & data inconsistency
 Backup & recovery management
 DBMS provides backup & data recovery to ensure data safety & integrity
 Current DBMS systems provide special utilities that allow DBA to perform routine & special backup & restore
procedures
 Recovery management deals w/ recovery of database after a failure
 Data integrity management
 DBMS promotes & enforces integrity rules, thus minimizing data redundancy & maximizing data consistency
 Data relationships stored in data dictionary r used to enforce data integrity
 Ensuring data integrity is especially important in transaction-oriented database systems
 Data access languages & app programming interfaces
 DBMS provides data access thru a query language
 Query Language-is a nonprocedural language-one that lets user specify what must be done w/o having to specify
how
 Structured Query Language (SQL)-is the de factor query language & data access standard supported by
majority of DBMS vendors
 DBMS also provides app programming interfaces to procedural languages:
 COBOL
 C
 Java
 Visual Basic.NET
 C#
 DBMS provides administrative utilities used by DBA & database designer to create, implement, monitor, & maintain
database
 Database communication interfaces
 Current-generation DBMS accepts end-user requests via multiple, different network environments
 Communications can be accomplished in several ways in this environment:
 End users can generate answers to queries by filling in screen forms thru their preferred web browser
 DBMS can automatically publish predefined reports on a website
 DBMS can connect to third-party systems to distribute info via email or other productivity apps
 Note
Why A Spreadsheet Is Not a Database
 While a spreadsheet allows for the manipulation of data in tabular format, it
doesn’t support even the most basic database functionality such as support
for self-documentation thru metadata, enforcement of data types or
domains to ensure consistency of data within a column, defined
relationships among tables, or constraints to ensure consistency of data
across related tables
 Most users lack the necessary training to recognize the limitations of
spreadsheets for these types of tasks
o Managing the Database System: A Shift in Focus
 Intro of a database system over file system provides a framework in which strict procedures & standards can be
enforced
 Role of human component change fr an emphasis on programming (in file system) to a focus on broader aspects of
managing organization’s data resources & on administration of complex database software itself
 Database system makes it possible to tackle far more sophisticated uses of data resources, as long as database is
designed to make use of that power
 Kinds of data structures created within database & extent of relationships among them a play a powerful role in
determining effectiveness of database system
 Database systems do carry significant disadvantages although database system yields considerable advantages over
previous data management approaches:
 Increased costs
 Database systems sophisticated uses of hardware & software & highly skilled personnel
 Cost of maintaining hardware, software, & personnel required to operate & manage a database system can
database systems can be substantial
 Training, licensing, & regulation compliance costs r often overlooked when database systems r implemented
 Management complexity
 Database systems interface w/ many different technologies & have a significant impact on a company’s resources
& culture
 Changes intro by adoption of a database system must be properly managed to ensure that they help advance
company’s objectives
 Security issues must be assessed constantly b/c database systems hold crucial company data that r accessed fr
multiple sources
 Maintaining currency
 Must keep ur system current to maximize efficiency of database system
 Therefore, must perform frequent updates & apply latest patches & security measures to all components
 Personnel training costs tend to significant b/c database tech advances rapidly
 Vendor dependence
 Given heavy investment in tech & personnel training, companies might be reluctant to change database vendors
 As a consequence, vendors r less likely to offer pricing point advantages to existing customers, & those customers
might be limited in their choice of database system components
 Frequent upgrade/replacement cycles
 DBMS vendors frequently upgrade their products by adding new functionality
 Such new features often come bundled in new upgrade new versions of software
 Some of these versions require hardware upgrades
 Not only do upgrades themselves cost money, it also costs money to train database users & administrators to
properly use & manage new features
 Preparing For Your Database Professional Career
o Database Career Opportunities
Title Description Sample Skills Required
Database Developer Create & maintain database-based Programming, database fundamentals,
apps SQL
Database Designer Design & maintain databases Systems design, database design, SQL
Database Manage & maintain DBMS & databases Database fundamentals, SQL, vendor
Administrator courses
Database Analyst Develop databases for decision SQL, query optimization, data
support reporting warehouses
Database Architect Design & implementation of database DBMS fundamentals, data modeling,
environments (conceptual, logical, & SQL, hardware knowledge, etc
physical)
Database Consultant Help companies leverage database Database fundamentals, data modeling,
technologies to improve business database design, SQL, DBMS, hardware,
processes & achieve specific goals vendor-specific technologies, etc
Database Security Implement security policies for data DBMS fundamentals, database
Officer administration administration, SQL, data security
technologies, etc
Cloud Computing Data Design & implement the infrastructure Internet technologies, cloud storage
Architect for next-generation cloud database technologies, data security, performance
systems tuning, large databases, etc
o Database technologies r constantly evolving to address new challenges such as large databases, semistructured &
unstructured data, increasing processing speed, & lowering costs
o Fundamental concepts & skills don’t while database technologies can change quickly
o Complex database technologies such as following:
 Very Large Databases (VLDB)
 Many vendors r addressing need for databases that support large amounts of data, usually in petabyte (is more than
1,000 terabytes) range
  Vendors include:
 Oracle Exadata
 IBM’s Netezza
 HP’s Vertica
 Teradata
 Big Data Databases
 Products such as Cassandra (Facebook) & BigTable (Google) r using “columnar-database” technologies to support
needs of database apps that manage large amounts of “nontabular” data
 In-memory Databases
 Most major database vendors also offer some type of these database support to address need for faster database
processing
 Store most of their data in primary memory (RAM) rather than in slower secondary storage (hard disks)
 Include:
 IBM’s solidDB
 Oracle’s TimesTen
 Cloud databases
 Companies can now use its services to quickly add database systems to environ. while simultaneously lowering total
cost of ownership of a new DBMS
 Offers all advantages if a local DBMS, but instead of residing within ur organization’s network infrastructure, it
resides on internet