Topic 2 Data Collection

CXC CAPE APPLIED MATHEMATICS

UNIT 2: STATISTICAL ANALYSIS
MODULE 1 : COLLECTING & DESCRIBING DATA
TOPIC B : DATA COLLECTION

Students should be able to:

✓ design questionnaires, interviews and observation schedules;
✓ use simple random, stratified random, systematic random, cluster and quota sampling to obtain a
sample;
✓ collect experimental data using questionnaires, interviews or observation schedules;
✓ write a report of the findings obtained from collected data.

Data Collection Methods

Once a sample of the entire population has been selected for study, the researcher must now go about
gathering the data from the selectees. This is known as primary data collection, and involves gathering
data directly from the sample by the researcher.
The tools utilized to conduct primary research include:
a. Questionnaires
b. Interviews
c. Observations

Questionnaire Design
i. What is a Questionnaire?

This is a list of questions prepared by the researcher and issued to participants from the sample. The
participant will answer the questions themselves and return the completed form to the researcher.

ii. Questionnaires are best used to:

a. Collect detailed information which can be used to test suppositions or hypotheses

b. Reveal relationships between variables or to quantify the behaviour of some variable.
c. Collect quantitative information about variables under question.

iii. Qualities of a Good Questionnaire

As such questionnaires must be carefully constructed to collect the unbiased, relevant data. The
qualities of a good questionnaire depend on the nature of research being conducted, but they share the
following features:

1. Questionnaires are developed only AFTER the research aims, objectives and literature have been
reviewed. The questionnaire must therefore meet the research objectives.
2. Questionnaires must be designed to gather the most accurate information. Thus questions should be
easy to understand and avoid bias or confusion. They must also be well organised.
3. The questions must allow the researcher to easily collect and analyse the information. Thus,
questions should provide answers which are easy to record, collate and analyse.
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4. Questionnaires should only contain questions relevant to the study, and be as short as possible, so as
to keep the subject’s interest.

iv. Steps in Questionnaire Design

1. Define the research topic, aims and objectives

The research topic establishes the purpose and guiding principle for all questions. Furthermore, the
specific objectives (such as gathering quantitative information, qualitative information, etc.) will
influence the types and nature of questions. The purpose of the questionnaire is to gather data to
support the course of study, thus the topic at the heart of the course of study is a primary factor
governing the structure of the questionnaire.

2. Gather necessary secondary information to determine the basis of the questionnaire.

Once the topic has been chosen, the researcher must endeavour to gather as much information about the
topic before constructing the questionnaire. This allows the researcher to know what has already been
researched, and reveals areas for possible future research where there are existing gaps in the literature.
This analysis also forms the foundation of sound question construction, informing the researcher of
critical information which can be tested/investigated in the sample.

3. Determine the information required to conduct the study

The analysis of the existing literature will either highlight areas of limited knowledge, or it will
highlight areas of interest to research. Once this has been achieved, the researcher must now consider
what information they need/require from the sample to conduct the study. Do they require personal
opinions, quantitative/statistical data, qualitative information, etc? Once the researcher knows what
information is required, the researcher can now construct the questions to properly collect the data.

4. Define the sample (the target audience)

The sample refers to the group of the population which the researcher will issue the questionnaire to.
These can be chosen using multiple methods (see sampling methods/techniques). The structure, order,
wording and nature of questions depends on a variety of factors inherent to the sample - example: age,
gender, employment status, educational level, etc.

5. Determine question content and wording (dealt with in the following section).

6. Structure the questions in logical and meaningful order

In order to gather complete information and keep questions simple and easy to understand it may be
necessary to ask sequential, follow-up questions. Additionally, if the questionnaire investigates separate
topics, it may be required to group similar questions in the same section. This makes it easier for the
respondent to follow the logic of the questionnaire, and easier for the researcher to collate and analyse
the information.

7. Check the length of the questionnaire

Depending on the nature of the research, and the characteristics of the sample, an appropriate length of
the questionnaire is normally between 15 and 30 questions on average, taking approximately no more
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than 30 minutes ideally. While this is subjective and depends on many factors, these estimates can be
utilized for most research purposes.

v. Question Content and Structure

There are three major types of questions utilized for questionnaires:

1. Close Ended Questions

The researcher provides all the options for the respondent, who simply indicates which option(s) best
answers the question. These include yes/no (true/false) type questions, or ones where the researcher
will provide the only responses.

Example:
Do you currently own a cellular phone:
Yes
No

What brand of cellular phone do you currently use?

Nokia
Samsung
Blackberry
Stupid Apple
Blu
HTC

Advantages:
Such questions are the easiest for respondents to answer - they do not need to think about how to
articulate or structure the answer

Responses are easiest to chart, include in diagrams and collate by the researcher. This simplifies the
analysis and synthesis processes of research

These allow for rapid completion of the questionnaire by respondents

The given answers prompt the respondent, providing significant context for the question. This
improves the applicability of respondent’s answers.

Disadvantages
Such a style places great pressure on the researcher to imagine all potential responses, which is, in
practice, sometimes impractical

They do not allow the respondents to offer an answer not present

They suggest answers which may not have been considered by the respondents, thus potentially
introducing bias to the results

1b. Likert Item Questions

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These are a type of closed-ended question which can be used in place of some yes/no questions when
conducting qualitative research. Instead of offering only two dichotomous responses (i.e. opposites), a
Likert Item is a qualitative question with a psychometric scale which provides a range of responses to
better capture the actual feelings of the respondent. Likert responses thus incorporate gradations (or
degrees) in responses.

An example of a 5 point Likert item is:

Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree

An example of a 7 point Likert Item is:

Entirely disagree
Mostly disagree
Somewhat disagree
Neutral
Somewhat agree
Mostly agree
Entirely agree

Special Notes:
The range of responses normally contains an odd number of elements, with the central one being a
neutral or unsure response.

On either side, there should be an equal number of positive responses and negative responses, so to
avoid bias.

As far as possible, each possible response on the range should be ‘equally spaced’ in nature, and
clearly understood to be such.

Examples:
Are you pleased with the performance of your Applied Mathematics Teacher?
Yes
No

Can instead be written as:

You are pleased with the performance of your Applied Mathematics Teacher.
Strongly Agree
Agree
Neutral
Disagree
Strongly Disagree

Thus, some yes or no question (bi-conditional) can be converted into statements which can be qualified
using a Likert scale of varying degree.

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Further Example:
How would you describe the effectiveness of your Applied Mathematics Teacher?
Very Effective
Moderately Effective
Neutral
Moderately Ineffective
Very Ineffective

Exercise:

Which of the following are appropriate Likert ranges?

1. Agree Unsure Disagree Strongly Disagree
2. Very Pleased Pleased Neutral Displeased Very Displeased
3. Excellent Amazing Neutral Bad Terrible
4. Excellent Very Good Good Satisfactory Neutral
5. Very Good Satisfactory Average Unsatisfactory Poor
6. Top 10% Top 20% Average Bottom 20% Bottom 10%
7. Never Infrequently Neutral Frequently Always

Coding
Each option can be given a numerical value to simplify both the question and analysis by the
researcher. This is known as coding. Coding is the act of converting qualitative responses into
numerical values- e.g.
Strongly Disagree = 1,
Disagree =2,
Neutral =3
Agree = 4
Strongly Agree = 5.

Values can be placed on the range of response across all questionnaires, simplifying the construction of
the survey, and rendering it easier for the respondent to follow. Upon analysis, the researcher can now
use this numerical interpretation to determine statistics such as ranges, averages and variances from
innately qualitative information.

Grouping Similar Questions

Related Likert items can be grouped, and their responses summed. The range of all possible sums is
known as the LIKERT SCALE, and can be used by the research to make inferences about the sample
under investigation.

Example:
Using the scale strongly agree (5), agree (4) neutral (3) disagree (2) and strongly disagree (1), answer
the following questions:
You wanted to be in applied mathematics 1 2 3 4 5
You think applied mathematics is important 1 2 3 4 5
Applied maths is easier than pure maths 1 2 3 4 5
You enjoy the content of applied mathematics 1 2 3 4 5
These questions test the respondents’ current attitude to applied mathematics. Thus, we can combine
the result of each question to attain information about their attitude.

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The Likert scale for these questions would range from 4 (if for all 4 questions the respondents chose 1)
to 20 (if for all 4 questions the respondent chose 5). The sum of all responses will lie within this range.
This allows the researcher to draw some inference about the respondents’ general attitude to applied
mathematics.

In class practice:
Answer the above questions and determine the Likert value for your attitude to applied mathematics.

When to use Likert Scale Questions

This is a very useful question type when you want to get an overall measurement of sentiment
around a particular topic, opinion, or experience and to also collect specific data on factors that
contribute to that sentiment.

You should not use this form of question (or at least not call it a Likert scale) when the items in the
question are unrelated to each other, or when the options are not presented in the form of a scale.

When using a Likert scale within your surveys, do not mix the scale weights. Choose a particular
scale (3 point, 5 point, 7 point, etc.) and use it as your standard throughout the survey. This will cut
down on potential confusion and reduce survey fatigue. It also allows for accurate comparisons within
and between your data sets.

Advantages:
The use of Likert scales allows the researcher to gather a greater range of information from the
respondents, reducing the chance of a false response. This gives respondents more options/choices to
better reflect their views.

The Likert scale allows the respondents to be more specific in their responses than is possible in a
yes/no set. This increases the accuracy of the information collected.

The use of Likert scales allows the researcher to convert qualitative information into quantitative
data through coding.

Likert scales are better suited for visual presentations such as charts, graphs and tables

Disadvantages
Respondents may become influenced by the way they have answered previous questions. For
example if they have agreed several times in a row, they may continue to agree. They may also
deliberately break the pattern, disagreeing with a statement with which they might otherwise have
agreed. This patterning can be broken up by asking reversal questions, where the sense of the question
is reversed - thus in the example above, a reversal might be 'I think applied math is NOT important’.
The ‘NOT’ should be emphasized, although this can cause bias and hence needs great care.

Persons tend to avoid taking extreme positions, thus moderate choices tend to be preferred, even if
this does not reflect their true opinion. This introduces bias to the results of the survey.

An odd number of options which includes a ‘neutral’ choice allows individuals to ‘sit on the fence’
and not offer a true opinion, especially when investigating complex or uninteresting topics. Too many
neutral responses limit the ability of the researcher to draw conclusions.

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An even number of responses forces respondents to make a choice, whether this reflects their true
position or not, and can lead to bias.

2. Open Ended Questions

These are questions where the researcher simply leaves a space for the respondent to reply. This type of
question is mostly utilized when responses can be varied, and it may be too difficult for the researcher
cannot predict the possible responses.

Advantages:
They allow the respondent to answer in his or her own words, with no influence by any specific
alternatives suggested by the interviewer. This reduces bias in question design.

They reveal the issues which are most important to the respondent, and this will yield findings which
were not originally anticipated by the researcher

Respondents can qualify their responses to better explain their position or views and avoid
misinterpretation.

Disadvantages
Respondents may find it difficult to properly articulate their responses - to properly and fully explain
their attitudes or motivations

Respondents may not give a full answer simply because they may forget to mention important points
without a provided prompt.

Data collected is in the form of diverse comments which must then be coded in order to be
categorized. This is a time consuming and difficult process.

Examples:
What were your reasons for choosing applied mathematics?
__________________________________________________________________
What is your name?
__________________________________________________________________

3. Open Response-Option Questions

These are questions which include both options and an opened-ended response as well.

Example:
What were your reasons for choosing applied mathematics?
I liked the topics
I wanted to avoid pure mathematics
My career requires it
I wanted to get into QC
Because I adore mathematics

Other (please specify) __________________________________

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Advantages:
It possesses the advantages of all other forms discussed prior, and avoids many of their
disadvantages.

The researcher can avoid the potential problems of poor memory and articulation by having options
which prompt the respondent, but does not limit them to just those responses.

Disadvantage
It requires the researcher to have a thorough background in the subject in order to generate realistic
or likely response options when creating the questionnaire.

General Guide to Question Writing

Questions should be simply worded to avoid confusion. Thus, the fewer words, the better

Questions should be specific, and avoid ambiguity.

Avoid ‘loaded’ questions which hint to a ‘correct’ answer or limits the responses of individuals.

Personal Interviews
In a personal interview, the researcher sits with an individual (or individuals) and asks the interviewee
the questions. The researcher then records the answer to the questions. Thus, a questionnaire can be
used in an interview, but the researcher will fill in the answers, instead of the respondent.
In the face-to-face interview it is possible to record more than the verbal responses of the interviewee,
which are often superficial. When human beings communicate directly with each other much more
information is communicated between them. When two people face one another, the dialogue is
conducted on several levels. It goes beyond verbal expression. The nature of words used, facial
expressions and body language all communicate what the other party means.

Types of Personal Interviews

1. Unstructured informal interview

The unstructured informal interview is normally conducted as a preliminary step in the research process
to generate ideas/hypotheses about the subject being investigated so that these might be tested later in
the survey proper. Such interviews are entirely informal and are not controlled by a specific set of
detailed questions. Rather the interviewer is guided by a pre-defined list of issues. These interviews
amount to an informal conversation about the subject.
The respondent is encouraged to talk freely about the subject, but is kept to the point on issues of
interest to the researcher. The respondent is encouraged to reveal everything that he/she feels and
thinks about these points. The interviewer must note (or tape-record) all remarks that may be relevant
and pursue them until he/she is satisfied that there is no more to be gained by further probing. Properly
conducted, informal interviews can give the researcher an accurate feel for the subject to be surveyed.
Focus groups, discussed later in this chapter, make use of relatively unstructured interviews.

2. Structured standardized interview

With structured standardized interviews, the format is entirely different. A structured interview follows
a specific questionnaire and this research instrument is usually used as the basis for most quantitative
surveys. A standardized structured questionnaire is administered where specific questions are asked in
a set order and in a set manner to ensure no variation between interviews.
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Respondents' answers are recorded on a questionnaire form (usually with pre-specified response
formats) during the interview process, and the completed questionnaires are most often analysed
quantitatively. The structured interview usually denies the interviewer the opportunity to either add or
remove questions, change their sequence or alter the wording of questions.

Interview Schedules
Dillon et al.1 believe that to be effective, the interviewer must adhere to six fundamental rules. These
are:
he/she must avoid appearing superior or condescending and make use of only familiar words.
he/she must pose questions indirectly and informatively.
he/she must remain detached and objective.
he/she must avoid questions and question structures that encourage 'yes' or 'no' answers.
he/she must probe until all relevant details, emotions and attitudes are revealed.
he/she must provide an atmosphere that encourages the respondent to speak freely, yet keeping the
conservation focused on the issue(s) being researched.

It is essential, for both types of interview formats, that the interviewer has a good grasp of the study's
objectives, and of the information that is to be collected. This will enable 'probing' to elicit the right
data required, and ensure all relevant issues are covered. Furthermore, some respondents may ask why
a particular question was included in an interview, and it may be necessary for the interviewer to be
able to 'justify' particular questions.

Before commencing interviews it is also good for the interviewer to prepare what he/she is going to say
when he/she first meets a respondent. Decisions need to be made as to whether the respondent is to be
told who is sponsoring the study, the purpose of the study, or how the data is to be used, and so on.
These points need to be decided beforehand to ensure that a 'standardised' approach is used for each
interview. Variations in approach style may lead to different types of response from respondents and
therefore variations in results. If suitable introductions are prepared in advance, no time will be lost
during the interview in lengthy explanations, and a good impression can be created from the start.

Sources of error and bias

In personal interviews there are many ways in which 'errors' can be made by both the respondent and
the interviewer, and this can lead to 'bias' in the results. The objective of the interviewer should be to
minimise the likelihood of such bias arising.

Respondent Induced Biases:

Faulty memory: Some respondents may answer a question incorrectly simply because they have a
poor memory. The key to avoiding this problem is to steer clear of questions requiring feats of
memory.

Exaggeration and dishonesty: There can be a tendency on the part of some respondents to exaggerate
claims about their conditions and problems if they think it will further their cause and lead to
improvement in their well-being. The interviewer must be alert to this and note any inconsistencies
arising.

Failure to answer questions correctly: If rapport is not developed sufficiently, the respondent may be
unwilling to respond or fail to give sufficient attention or consideration to the questions asked, and if
the respondent does not understand a question properly he may give inappropriate answers. The

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interviewer needs to ensure that the respondent fully understands the questions being asked and is
responding in the appropriate context.

Influence of groups at interview: During interviews the presence of other individuals is almost
inevitable. Most of the time other family members or neighbours will wish to join in the discussion.
Such a situation can have important implications for the type of data obtained. The respondent may be
tempted to answer in a way that gives him/her credibility in the eyes of onlookers, rather than giving a
truthful reply. In circumstances where the presence of third parties cannot be avoided, the interviewer
must ensure as far as possible that the answers being given are the honest opinions of the individual
being interviewed.

Courtesy bias: In interview situations it is quite possible that one will come across the problem of
courtesy bias, i.e. the tendency for respondents to give answers that they think the interviewer wants to
hear, rather than what they really feel. The respondents may not wish to be impolite or to offend the
interviewer, and may therefore endeavour to give 'polite' answers. Courtesy bias can be an obstacle to
obtaining useful and reliable data and therefore needs to be minimised.

Biases induced by interviewer

It is also possible for the interviewer him or herself to introduce bias into an interview, and this must be
avoided at all costs.

Desire to help the respondent: The interviewer may become too sympathetic to the problems and
conditions of the respondent, and this can affect the conduct of, and results obtained from, the
interview. Objectivity must be retained at all times.

Failure to follow instructions in administering the questions: It is often tempting for the interviewer
to change the wording of a question or introduce inflections in questions. This can affect the
respondent's understanding and can bias his/her replies. Particular problems may arise if the respondent
does not understand the question as stated and the interviewer tries to simplify the question. The altered
wording may constitute a different question. When questions are open-ended, this can involve the
interviewer in formulating probing questions that go beyond the printed words.

Reactions to responses: When respondents give answers, the interviewer must be careful not to 'react.'
A note of ‘surprise’ or ‘disbelief’ may easily bias the respondent's subsequent answers. Interviewers
must respond with a uniform polite interest only.

Focus Group Interviews

Focus group interviews are a survey research instrument which can be used in addition to, or instead of,
a personal interview approach. It has particular advantages for use in qualitative research applications.
The central feature of this method of obtaining information from groups of people is that the
interviewer strives to keep the discussion led by a moderator focused upon the issue of concern. The
moderator behaves almost like a psycho-therapist who directs the group towards the focus of the
researcher. In doing so, the moderator speaks very little, and encourages the group to generate the
information required by stimulating discussion through terse, provocative statements.

Characteristics of Focus Groups

The groups of individuals (e.g. housewives, farmers, manufacturers, etc.) are invited to attend an
informal discussion. Usually between 6 and 8 participants are involved and the discussion would last
between 1 and 2 hours. Small groups tend to lose the mutual stimulation among participants, whilst

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large groups can be difficult to manage and may prevent some participants having the opportunity to
get fully involved in the discussion.
The researcher raises issues for discussion, following a 'guide list of topics' rather than a structured
questionnaire. The participants are encouraged to discuss the issues amongst themselves and with the
researcher in an informal and relaxed environment. The researcher records comments made by the
participants (usually utilizing a tape or video recorder).
The participants within a focus group are selected in such a way that they exhibit a high degree of
homogeneity with respect to either background, behaviour or both.

Advantages of Focus Groups

Synergism: The combined effort of the group will produce a wider range of information, insight, and
ideas than will the accumulation of responses of a number of individuals when these replies are secured
in personal interviews.

Snowballing: A bandwagon effect often operates in that a comment by one person triggers a chain of
responses from other participants.

Stimulation: Usually after a brief introductory period the participants become enthusiastic to express
their ideas and feelings as the group begins to interact. In a personal interview, the respondent may not
be willing to expose his/her views for fear of having to defend his/her view or fear of appearing
'unconcerned' or 'radical'. Like most animals, the human being feels safer psychologically - as well as
physically - when he/she is in a group.

Spontaneity: Since no individual is required to answer any given question in a group interview, the
individual's responses can be more spontaneous, less conventional, and should provide a more accurate
picture of his position on some issues. In short, respondents are able to speak when they have definite
feelings about a subject and not because a question requires an answer.

Serendipity: It is more often the case in a group interview than a personal interview that unexpected
responses or ideas are put forward by participants. The group dynamics encourages ideas to develop
more fully.

Specialization: The group interview allows the use of a more highly trained, but more expensive,
interviewer since a number of individuals are being 'interviewed' simultaneously.

Scientific scrutiny: It allows closer scrutiny in several ways: the session can be observed by several
observers. This allows some check on the consistency of the interpretations. The session can be taped
or even video-taped. Later detailed examination of the recorded session allows the opportunity for
additional insight and also can help clear up points of disagreement among analysts with regard to
exactly what happened.

Disadvantages of Focus Groups

Qualitative data: The researcher cannot produce hard quantitative data or conduct elaborate statistical
analysis because of the usually small number of participants involved in group surveys. It is unlikely
that one will be able to include a statistically representative sample of respondents from the population
being studied.

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Potential biases
There are many potential opportunities for bias to creep into the results of group discussions:
Some participants may feel they cannot give their true opinions due to the psychological pressure on
them arising from their concern as to what other members of the group may think. Some may feel
tempted to give opinions that they feel will be respected by the group.
The presence of one or two 'dominant' participants may repress the opinions of others. Some may not
feel confident about expressing an opinion. Some may prefer to submit to the opinions of others rather
than cause conflict/argument to develop.

Constructing the Group Interview Schedule

The interview schedule has at least four distinct sections: the warm-up, exploration of discussion
points, the core discussion section and a summary.

The warm-up:
This section has the objective of creating an atmosphere conducive to an open and free-flowing
discussion.
The warm-up phase of the session then moves on to encourage the group members to engage in a free-
ranging discussion around the topic upon which the discussion will eventually focus. During the warm-
up phase the moderator will direct the discussion in such a way as to obtain general information on how
participants currently behave with respect to the topic, issue or phenomenon under investigation. The
emphasis is upon a description of current behaviour and attitudes. For instance, the traders would be
asked to describe their own modes of operation within the wholesale market as well as those of fellow
traders.

Exploration of discussion points:

In this phase the discussion moves on to the participants' attitudes, opinions and experiences.

Core discussion:
This part of the group discussion focuses directly upon the principal purpose of the research. The flow
of the session moves on to the participants' perceptions of new concepts, possible developments or
innovations.

Summary:
This final phase of the focus group session allows participants to reflect upon the foregoing discussion
and to add any views or information on the topic that they may have previously forgotten or otherwise
have omitted.

3. Observation Research

Observation involves watching and recording the actions of the target sample in order to collect the
required information. There are two major types of observation methods:
1. Controlled Observations
2. Natural Observations

Controlled Observations
Controlled observations (usually a structured observation) are likely to be carried out in a laboratory or
some other location under the full control of the researcher. The researcher decides where the
observation will take place, at what time, with which participants, in what circumstances and uses a
standardised procedure.

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Rather than writing a detailed description of all behaviour observed, it is often easier to code behaviour
according to a previously agreed scale using a behaviour schedule (i.e. conducting a structured
observation).
The researcher systematically classifies the behaviour they observe into distinct categories.
Controlled observations are usually overt as the researcher explains the research aim to the group, so
the participants know they are being observed. Controlled observations are also usually non-participant
as the researcher avoids any direct contact with the group, keeping a distance.

Advantages
Controlled observations can be easily replicated by other researchers by using the same observation
schedule. This means it is easy to test for reliability.

The data obtained from structured observations is easier and quicker to analyse as it is quantitative
(i.e. numerical) - making this a less time consuming method compared to naturalistic observations.

Controlled observations are fairly quick to conduct which means that many observations can take
place within a short amount of time. This means a large sample can be obtained resulting in the
findings being representative and having the ability to be generalized to a large population.

Disadvantage
When participants know they are being watched they may act differently.

Naturalistic Observations
Naturalistic observation (i.e. unstructured observation) involves studying the spontaneous behaviour of
participants in natural surroundings. The researcher simply records what they see in whatever way they
can.

Advantages
By being able to observe uncontrolled behaviour, studies have greater validity.

Naturalistic observation is often used to generate new ideas. Because it gives the researcher the
opportunity to study the total situation it often suggests avenues of enquiry not thought of before.

Disadvantages
These observations are often conducted on a micro (small) scale and may lack a representative
sample (biased in relation to age, gender, social class or ethnicity). This may result in the findings
lacking the ability to be generalized to wider society.

Natural observations are less reliable as other variables cannot be controlled. This makes it difficult
for another researcher to repeat the study in exactly the same way.

With observations cause and effect relationships cannot be established.

Conducting Observation Research

1. The researcher must have a clear description of what behaviour they are investigating before starting
the exercise
2. A list of relevant research behaviours should be constructed.
3. The researcher should possess a tally sheet so to quickly record the instances of such behaviour, or to
record the causes of such behaviour
4. The researcher should choose an appropriate location from which to observe the subjects.
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With all observation studies an important decision the researcher has to make is how to classify and
record the data. Usually this will involve a method of sampling. The three main sampling methods are:
1. Event sampling. The observer decides in advance what types of behaviour (events) she is interested
in and records all occurrences. All other types of behaviour are ignored.
2. Time sampling. The observer decides in advance what observation will take place only during
specified time periods (e.g. 10 minutes every hour, 1 hour per day) and records the occurrence of the
specified behaviour during that period only.
3. Instantaneous (target time) sampling. The observer decides in advance the pre-selected moments
when observation will take place and records what is happening at that instant. Everything happening
before or after is ignored.

Collection of Data using Sampling Methods

Here, the student is required to employ the techniques discussed in prior sections to actually conduct a
research project using the required sampling techniques. The results of this analysis will be used in
section C to conduct the analysis of data, and explore the tools utilized when presenting and evaluating
data sets.

Group Work Assignments

Split into groups of 6:
The following topics must be investigated by each group. You are provided the topic, but you must:
define the target population
choose the sample/sample size (where applicable)
choose and state the research instrument (questionnaire, interviews, observation)
construct the instrument schedule
distribute the research instrument, and write a report on the results (later on).

1. Do the number of students visiting the canteen change depending on the day of the week?
2. At Queen’s College, which gender performs better in Mathematics: Girls or Boys?
3. An analysis of student satisfaction with the canteen’s serve.
4. Is there a relationship between the age of students and their weekly allowance?
5. What is the most popular colour among students of Queen’s College?
6. What is the average time spent studying and doing homework by Lower Six Students of Queen’s
College?

References
1. Dillon, W. R. Madden, T. J. and Firtle, N. H. (1994), Marketing Research in a Marketing
Environment, 3rd edition, Irwin, p. 124-125.

Queen’s College
Mathematics Department
Mr. Goodridge, Mrs. Maxwell Page 14