Indian Traditions, Culture &

Society
DR. RAJEEV RAJPUT
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
ABES INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, GHAZIABAD
drrajeevrajput@gmail.com

LECTURE 1
 Contents
✓ State in Ancient India
✓ Evolutionary Theory
✓ Force Theory
✓ Mystical Theory
✓ Contract Theory
✓ Stages of State Formation in Ancient India
 State In Ancient India
When a large number of human beings live together, there is need for
some rules and regulations. So since early days, there is a realization in
India that there has to be a ‘Society’ governed by some commonly
agreed rules and regulations. However, such a ‘society’ is only loosely
regulated - it is governed by customs and practices, not by laws.
Therefore, some more rigorous organization is needed, a system called
‘State’ in political thought, a political system with a legal sanction and
foundation, a system ruled by law.
A ‘State’or Rājya, has several dimensions - the duties/ rights of the
ruled and the rulers. ‘Society’ or Samāja, has its own components, the
different communities, and functional units called varnas or castes. In
ancient India, a society has its structural units such as family, marriage,
customs and practices such as inheritance, rituals of marriage and
mourning, and finally a framework of individual and social life for
example the āśrama vyavasthā laid down in the Hindu society as an
ideal organization of an individual’s life.
State has been the key concept in political science since the period of grand
thinkers like Plato and Aristotle. One of the most important topics in political
science has been the origin and evolution of the state. In ancient India also
thinkers like Bhisma, Narada, Brihaspati, Kautilya, Kamandaka have looked at the
problem. On the basis of the writings of these thinkers we can detect four
important theories regarding the origin of the state in ancient India, namely -
a) Evolutionary Theory
b) Force Theory
c) Mystical Theory
d) Contract Theory
 Theory of Evolutionary Origin
Evolutionary Theory - This is the oldest theory of the origin of the state in India and has been
mentioned in the Atharva Veda.. The tenth hymn of the eighth chapter of the Atharva Veda gives a
picture of the evolutionary origin of the state. According to this theory the state is the result of
evolutionary progress and it didn’t originate at a fixed time. Based on Atharva Veda several stages
of the evolution of the state can be traced. The hymns of the Atharva Veda state that the earliest
phase of human life was the stage of Vairājya or stateless state. It was a state of complete anarchy.
But with the emergence of agriculture, stable life became possible. To fulfil the needs of agriculture,
the family emerged and the head of the family became the first wielder of authority. Further, the
need of co-operation in the different realms of society led to the emergence of sabhā and samiti.
Sabhā was the organization of elderly people and samiti was the general assembly of common
people. With the emergence of sabhā and samiti organized political life began which finally
culminated in the emergence of the state.
 Force Theory
Force Theory - Though ancient Indian political thinkers did not propound force theory in
a systematic way, force was considered to be an important factor in the evolution of the
state in India. Earliest Aryan clans fought among themselves for pet animals (specially for
the cow), pastureland, settlements and sources of drinking water. Only a strong and able
warrior could lead the clan in such wars. So, he was given special status and the members
of clan started obeying him. This tendency continued in the days of peace also and
subsequently the leader became king. Citing examples from the Vedas (Rig Veda and Sāma
Veda) and the Brahmanas (Aitareya, Shatapatha) John Spellman also opines that the king
in ancient India was primarily a military leader. But it should be clearly mentioned that
none of the political commentators give a systematic and well knitted explanation of the
role of force in the emergence of the state in ancient India.
 Theory of Mystical Origin
Mystical Theory - This was the most popular theory of origin of the state in ancient
India. Kingship was given divine sanction and the king was considered not to be the
representative of God but himself a God who contained the powers of important
Gods like Indra, Varuna and Agni.

It appears first in the epics and the law books of Manu. The king was exalted far
above ordinary mortals, through the magical powers of the great royal sacrifices. The
magical power which pervaded the king at his consecration (Rājasūya) was restored
and strengthened in the course of his reign by further rites, such as the ceremonial
rejuvenation of the Vājapeya and the horse-sacrifice (Asvamedha) which not only
ministered to his ambition and arrogance but also ensured the prosperity and fertility
of the kingdom.
 Contract Theory
Contract theory is the most extensively discussed theory of the origin of the state in ancient India. The
reference to contract theory can be seen in the Buddhist texts like Dīgha Nikāya and Mahāvastu and
brahmanical texts like Shānti Parva and Arthashāstra of Kautilya.
It is said that there was a time when people were perfect and lived in a state of happiness and
tranquility. This perfect state lasted for ages, but at last the pristine purity declined. Many differences
have appeared like distinctions of colour. In a word, heavenly life degenerated into earthly life. Now
shelter, food and drink were required. People gradually entered into a series of agreements among
themselves and set up the institutions of the family and private property. But this gave rise to a new set
of problems like theft and other forms of unsocial conduct. Therefore, people assembled and agreed to
choose as chief a person who was the best favoured, the most attractive and the most capable. In
return they agreed to contribute to him a portion of their paddy. The individual, who was thus elected,
came to hold in serial order three titles: a) Mahāsammata b) Khattiya and c) Rājā
According to the text the first title means one chosen by the whole people, the second title means
the lord of the fields, the third title means one who charms the people by means of dharma.
 Stages of State Formation in Ancient India
Six main stages in the history of ancient Indian polity can be identified.
1. The earliest stage was that of tribal military democracy in which tribal assemblies, which
had some place for women were mainly pre-occupied with war. The age of Rig Veda was
primarily a period of assemblies.
2. The second stage saw the break-up of the tribal polity under the stress of constant conflicts
between the rājanyakshatriya and the ordinary businessman called the vis. The chiefs were
helped by the priesthood called the brahmins. This stage saw the beginning of taxes and
classes or varnas which came to be firmly established in the third stage.
3. The third stage was marked by the formation of the full-fledged state. There arose large
territorial monarchies of Kosala and Magadha and tribal oligarchies in North-Western India
and at the foot of the Himalayas. For the first time we hear of large standing armies and
organized machinery for the collection of land revenue.
4. The fourth or the Maurya phase saw bureaucratic centralization based on the
expanding economic activities of the state. The state with the help of its
bureaucracy controlled various aspects of the life of its subjects.
5. The fifth stage was marked by the process of decentralized administration in
which towns, feudatories and military elements came to the forefront in both the
Deccan and North India. This was partly neutralized by the emphasis on the
divinity of the king.
6. The last stage, identical with the Gupta period, may be called the period of proto-
feudal polity. Land grants now played an important part in the formation of the
political structure and those made by the Gupta feudatories conferred fiscal and
administrative privileges on priestly beneficiaries.
THANK YOU…
Indian Traditions, Culture &
Society
DR. RAJEEV RAJPUT
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
ABES INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, GHAZIABAD
drrajeevrajput@gmail.com

LECTURE 2
 Contents
✓ Kingship
✓ Council of Ministers
✓ Administration
✓ Political Ideas in Ancient India
 Kingship
The king was the most important figure in the body politic. In the Saptānga theory
of the state, developed by Kautilya the king has been described as the head or the
most important organ of the state. The king performed multi-dimensional functions.
The king’s functions involved the protection not only of his kingdom against
external aggression, but also of life, property and traditional custom against internal
foes. He protected the family system by punishing adultery and ensuring the fair
inheritance of family property. He protected widows and orphans by making them
his wards. He protected the rich against the poor by suppressing robbery. He
protected the poor against the rich by punishing extortion and oppression. Religion
was protected by liberal grants to learned brahmins and temples.
The Arthashāstra suggests a time-table for the king’s day, which allows him only four and
a half hours sleep and three hours for eating and recreation, the rest of the day being spent
in the different kinds of affairs of the state. The king is told that he must be prompt in the
administration of justice and always accessible to his people.
According to Altekar, the position, powers and privileges of the king have varied from age
to age. In the prehistoric period, the king was only the senior-most member in the council
of peers. There was a popular council (samiti) to actively supervise his administration. His
position was insecure, and powers were limited.
After 500 BC, the office of king was elevated to new heights. During this period the king
became the effective head of the executive administration and there was no popular
assembly like samiti to check him. He controlled both the treasury and the military forces,
though commander-in-chief and treasurer were under him. Ministers were selected by the
king and held office at his pleasure. The king presided over the council of ministers and its
decisions had to receive royal assent.
 Council of Ministers
Ministers or council of advisors have been regarded by ancient Indian political thinkers as a very vital
organ of the body politic. The Mahābhārata observes at one place that the king is as vitally dependent
upon ministers as animals are upon clouds, brahmins on the Vedas and women upon their husbands.
Manusmriti points out that even a simple thing appears as difficult if one is to do it single handed;
why then attempt to run the complex machinery of the administration without the assistance of
ministers.
The size of this mantriparishad or council of ministers varied, and the authorities suggested figures
ranging from seven to thirty-seven. It seems that the body was divided into two parts mantrina and
mantriparishad. Mantriparishad was the large body resembling a modern council of ministers. It
consisted of all the ministers. Mantrina was a smaller body or a core organization within the
mantriparishad largely resembling the modern cabinet. It included the few most important ministers
like the purohita (priest), senapati (supreme commander of army) and yuvaraja (the crown prince).
The council's purpose was primarily to advise the king, and not to govern, but it was no
mere rubber-stamping body. Councilors should speak freely and openly and that the king
should consider their advice. In fact, the council often exerted great powers. It might
transact business in the king's absence, and it might take minor decisions without
consulting him. The council of ministers was not merely a recording body, for very often it
used to suggest amendments to king's orders or even recommended their total reversal.
 Administration
With the advent of the Mauryas on the political stage of India, bureaucracy
developed as a well organized, hierarchical, cadre-based administrative system. If we
rely on the Arthashastra of Kautilya the establishment of a large and complex
bureaucracy was a remarkable feature of the Mauryan government.
The Arthashastra of Kautilya mentions 18 tirthas who are called mahamatras or
high functionaries. Although the term mahamatra is used only on a few occasions in
the Arthashastra, its real counterpart being amatya it is familiar enough in Ashokan
inscriptions. In addition to the 18 trithas, Kautilya provides in some detail accounts
of 27 superintendents (adhyaksas) concerned mostly with economic functions and
some military duties though social functions are not ignored.
The Mauryas developed a well-organized bureaucracy. With the help of this
centralized bureaucratic structure not only did the government regulate the economic
life of the country, but it also took an important part in it. All mines including pearl
beds, fisheries and salt pans, were owned by the state, and were either worked
directly with the labour of criminals or let out to entrepreneurs, from whom the king
claimed a percentage of output as royalty.
 Political Ideas in Ancient India
Political ideas like liberty, justice, fraternity and nationalism are a product of the modern age.
If viewed strictly from the lens of the contemporary period, we can't find any systematic
expression of these ideals, in ancient India. But seen from a different perspective, ancient
Indians did have these ideas in a rudimentary form.
Showing the importance of freedom, the Vedas state that independence is necessary for
mankind and those who are not independent are worse than dead. In varnashrma institution
too, an independent living has been kept in mind. A man lived independently during
Grihasthaashrama and when he was likely to be dependent on the offspring coming of age,
there is the provision of the older people resorting to Vanprastha and then to Sanyasa, again
living freely in the solitude of hills and dales rather than living as dependent on their
children. For disposal of justice the Mauryan state had a system of judiciary. Dharmasthiya
was the civil court and kantakashodhana was organized to deal with a large number of
economic crimes.
The Ramayana extols this country as a karmabhumi, the land of pious acts. This
shows the belongingness of people to land and their fellow beings. The early seeds
of nationalism can be traced in this instance. Similarly, the ideas of ancient Indian
thinkers was vasudhaivakutumbakam (treating the whole world like a family). This
was the concept of universal brotherhood or fraternity.
From the days of Plato and Aristotle, European thought has turned its attention to
such questions as the origin of the state, the ideal form of government, and the basis
of law and the politics has long been looked on as a branch of philosophy. From the
above discussion, it is clear that ancient India also thought about such questions, but
she had no schools of political philosophy in the Western sense.
THANK YOU…
Indian Traditions, Culture &
Society
DR. RAJEEV RAJPUT
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF APPLIED SCIENCES & HUMANITIES
ABES INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY, GHAZIABAD
drrajeevrajput@gmail.com

LECTURE 3
 Contents
✓ The Seven Limbs of the State or Saptanga Theory
 The Seven Limbs of the State or Saptanga Theory
Saptanga theory of state was given by Kautilya in Arthashastra. Kautilya has first
time defined the State in Arthashastra. The word – Saptang indicates seven limbs,
constituents or elements. Together, they constitute the State as an organism, - like a
chariot composed of seven parts fitted and subservient to one another.
Seven Angas, Prakritis, or elements were enumerated by Kautilya for describing -
the nature of the State in its totality. The seven limbs of a State are Swami (The
King), Amatya (The Council of Ministers), Janapada (The People and the
Territory), Durga (Fortification), Kosa (Treasure), Danda (Coercive authority) and
Mitra (The Allies).
According to Kautilya, an area cannot be a state unless there are not people and
rulers to control that state. A state consists of different cities, people, military,
treasury and tax-system. According to Kautilya the state and kingship were based
on popular good will. The king was their leader as well as head of the state and the
government. In the Vedas, the state was a source of peace, law and order, security
and justice. In Kautilya eyes, the state and king are indispensable: the later is such
an essential part of society.
 1. Swami (The King)
Kautilya assigned the highest place to the king in the body politic. Constitutionally,
Swami or King was the chief executive head and commander-in-chief of the army.
The king was the backbone of the state and the defender of the Dharma. According
to Kautilya, the king is the primary elements of the state. For Kautilya, the king is
the main pillar of state, and the master of the techniques of state craft. The king must
be a scholar of high merit.
In the state the kings are responsible for maintain peace and order to encourage,
moral, religious and material progress and provide a sense of security to his subjects.
King were vested executive, legislative, Judicial and financial powers. An ideal king
is one who has the highest qualities of leadership, intellect, energy and personal
attributes.
The qualities of leadership are birth in a noble family, good fortune, powers,
association with elders, being righteous, truthful, resolute, enthusiastic and
disciplined, not breaking his promise, showing gratitude, having lofty aims, being
stronger than neighboring, kind and having ministers of high quality.
Kautilya preferred a king who is a native of the territory, who follows the teachings
of the Arthashastra, who is free from disease and is strong. According to Kautilya
the happiness of the king lies in the happiness and welfare of the people.
The king was to regard himself as an agent of people and the foremost duty of a
king is protection of the people. Kautilya says if the king is energetic, his subjects
will be equally energetic. Hence the king or swami should himself always be
energetic. As the king occupies the central position in the theory of Arthashastra,
most of the activities of state are controlled by him.
 2. Amatya (The Councils of Ministers)
Amatya constitutes the second elements of the state. The term Amatya or Mantris is
used for the minister of the high grade. Amatya generally means the council of
ministers. In the Arthashastra the Amatya constitute a regular cadre of the service
from which all high officers such as chief priest, ministers, collectors, officers,
envoys and the Superintendents of various departments are to be recruited. Kautilya
says kingship is possible only with assistance. Therefore, there was the need of
Council of minister.
The highest category of the Amatya is the Mantrins. The king deliberates over the
policy of state with three or four ministers. The council of ministers is largely
responsible for shaping the policy of the government. The king and ministers
constituted the central government, which exercised the sovereign powers.
The Arthashastra reminds the king that he could succeed only if he assisted by competent
councilors. The King and ministers are the two essential and most important parts of the
state. The King cannot rule the kingdom alone. There should be ministers to be help him. But
ministers should be men of wisdom, integrity bravely and loyalty.
The council of minister managed administration of the state. The size of the council of
ministers should be neither too big nor too small. The ministerial appointment should purely
depend on qualifications. According to Kautilya, the Mantris, Purohita, Senapati, and Yuvraj
were the most important in administration. Mantris formed the topmost part of the
administrative pyramid and were appointed by the king. The ministers were chosen on the
basis of high merit and qualities like loyalty and noble birth. But the king occupied the center
position in the administration. According to Kautilya the number of ministers should not be
fixed, but the number depends on requirement.
 3. Janpad (The People and The Territory)
Janpad forms the third elements of the state. This unique element of Saptanga is the symbol of State, which
stands for a - territorial society. Here, Jana denotes people and Pada is a symbol of territory where these
inhabitants permanently reside. The implication of Janpad defined in the Arthashastra implies both territory
and population of because without the territory and the population a state cannot exist. The territory should
contain fertile lands, mines, timber, pasture grounds, forests and water ways etc. The people should include
men with good character and loyalty, intelligent, wise masters and slaves. Kautilya envisaged ethnic
different among the people. In the beginning only people of common ethnic origin inhabited the land but
with conquest and migration more than one ethnic people were included in the Janpad. Kautilya advised the
king to induce people from other countries to migrate and settle in new village on old sites or new sites or
cause people from thickly populated areas of his own kingdom to settle down in such village with a view to
securing that each village should consist of not less than one hundred and not more than five hundred
families and contain a sufficient number of cultivators. The king was to protect agriculture and industry.
Kautilya prescribes the following requisites of a prosperous Janapada in terms of
territory: (i) accommodate and support people; (ii) defend the state against enemies;
(iii) find occupation of people; (iv) have manageable neighbours; (v) provide
pastures; (vi) have arable land, mines, forest and (vii) provide good internal
communication, i.e. rivers, roads, and outlet to sea.
 4. Durga (Fortification)
For every state it is necessary to have safety and protection system. Therefore,

Kautilya considered the forts as one of the main components of a state. He considers

forts as powerful as people and land. Internal and external securities both are

important for state. Without external security, no state can be stable. The king can

protect the state from external attacks by forts and fortification. The security of the

treasury and army depends on fortification.

Fortification should be done for the purpose of security from the attacks. Kautilya

advocates that there should be forts at all the four corners of the state so the

security from all the sides can be ensured. Fort should be solid and there should be

proper arrangement for ration and ammunition for the army.

Kautilya has classified forts in four types. Firstly, the Audak fort, where there should
be trenches always filled with water. Secondly Parvat Fort which should surrounded
with high mountains and rocks. Thirdly Dhanvan fort which should surround with
deserts and there should be no oasis nearby. It is almost impossible to reach such
forts. Fourthly Van Fort, which are built in dense forest. It is very difficult to reach
there. Such forts are important for the defense and protection of the state and its
citizens. Audak and Parvat forts are most important when the state is going to attack
on an enemy country. In case the need arises, the king could hide in such fort to
protect from outside attack. The security of the treasury and the army depends on
these forts. Battle can be controlled from these forts effectively. The maintenance of
army and the welcome ceremony of the foreign delegates are also done in these
forts. They are also used to keep off the forest tribe and wild animals.
 5. Kosha (The Treasury)
Kosha or Treasury is an extremely important resource. It is the backbone of any
business. A strong and well managed treasury is the heart of any organization. Kosha
or Treasury constitutes the fifth elements of Kautilya‘s state. Kosha or Treasury is
necessary for the protection and maintenance of the state and army. The treasury
should be filled with gems, gold, jewels etc and should have the capacity to sustain
the calamities for long time. Kautilya says that all undertakings depend upon Kosha.
Income of the state was derived from taxes like export taxes, sales tax, village tax,
etc. In Arthashastra, Kautilya has given utmost importance to public finance.
Without treasury even a family cannot run. He has described three aspects of finance
at the time of war and peace.
The need of money is different in both the cases. Therefore, public finance has been
divided in two parts-public finance during peace and public finance during war. But
the basic principle for both finances was same. It is the duty of a king to keep the
treasury full and prosperous. The king should reward the well-behaved subjects and
should punish the thieves. The king should collect taxes and fill the treasury.
According to Kautilya, the treasury should be collected and maintained honestly and
religiously. The treasure should be such full that it may be helpful in the time of
difficulty for a long time.
 6. Danda (The Army or The Force)
Without a sound defence system there cannot be the existence of state. For the defence of the
state there should be a strong army. Therefore, it is very necessary that King constitute a
strong army and use it for the internal and external threats.
Kautilya has described the army as sixth aspect of the state. He has used force word for army.
Force means army and army is very compulsory for the defence of the state. Army is used to
control anti-social elements in the society and disloyal people. Army is also useful in
defending the state from outside attacks. Accepting the army as the most important part of a
state, Kautilya, in order to constitute the army, has described the six components of the army,
First, is the clan army in which the son of soldiers becomes a soldier. Second, is the hired
soldiers (hired troops). Third, is the army constituted by the corporations. Fourth, is the army
formed with help of friendly countries. Fifth, is the army formed with POW (Prisoner of War)
i.e. soldiers of enemy country caught during war. The sixth type of army can be formed with
tribal people.
According to Kautilya, the state army should be given the best training and they should be
provided with the best weapons. Soldiers should be fully satisfying especially when they are
fighting in the field. For this purpose, the king should try his best effort to meet soldier‘s
needs. Army played an important role in the state. A good soldier should be loyal,
adventurous, courageous, brave, well versed in military science, etc.
According to Kautilya, it consists of hereditary and hired soldiers comprising infantry,
chariots, elephants and cavalry. Kautiya says the Kshatriyas constitute the main part of the
army. But unlike Manu, Kautilya allows even the lower castes to join the army if emergency
arises. But according to Kautilya, the best army should be strong, obediently and happy
officers in the army should have more of these qualities. Kautilya gives a good description
of the organization of the army and military science.
 7. Mitra (The Allies)
Having realized that - political isolation means death, Kautilya proceeded to consider the Mitra or the
ally as a vital factor. Kautilya’s concept of Mitra (ally) is based more an ethical considerations. The real
ally should be hereditary and not artificial. It should be one with whom there is no possibility of
rupture and one who is ready to come to help when occasion demands it. But on the other hand, one is
to be treated as an enemy who is greedy, possessed with disloyal subjects, loose character, addicted to
mean pleasure, powerless and impotent. The ideal ally is one who has the following qualities, a friend
of the family for a long time, constant, amenable to control, powerful in his support, sharing a common
interest, able to mobilize quickly and not a man who double crosses his friends.
Kautilya realizes that every nation acts to maximize its own interests and power. Alliances are only
good so long as they appear in the best interest of both parties. However as soon as the balance of
power shifts allies and enemies may becomes enemies. Sine this is the natural order and to be expected.
It is only responsible of the king to maintain his own kingdom’s best interest at heart when dealing with
foreign powers, be the king must be to destroy his enemies and protect his own people, to bring his
subjects the three goals of life, material gain, spiritual goal and pleasure.
Kautilya says if one shall make an alliance with a king who is stronger than one’s
neighbouring enemy, in the absence of such a king one should in agurate oneself
with one’s neighbouring enemy, either by supplying money of army and by keeping
oneself aloof, for there can be no greater evil to kings than alliance with a king of
considerable power, unless one is actually attacked by one‘s enemy.
Kautilya recognizes two kinds of allies, namely Sahaja and Kritrima. The Sahaja or
natural ally is the one whose friendship is derived from the times of King‘s father
and grandfather and who is situated close to the territory of the immediately
neighbouring enemy. On the other hand, the Kritrima or the acquired ally is the one
whose friendship is specially resorted to for the protection of wealth and life.
Kautilya, however, preferred an ally who is traditional, permanent, disciplined, and
enthusiastic and from whom the possibility of opposition or rebellion is minimum.
THANK YOU…
 THE UPANISHADS
The concluding part of the Vedas are called as Upanishads. The Upanishads are also called
Vedanta. Literally, Vedanta means the end of Veda, Vedasya antah, the conclusion (Anta) as
well as the goal (Anta) of the Vedas. Chronologically they came at the end of the Vedic period.
As Upanishads contain difficult discussions of ultimate philosophical problems, they were
taught to the pupils at the end of their course. The chief reason why the Upanishads are called
the end of the Veda is that they represent the central aim of the Veda and contain the highest
and ultimate goal of the Veda as they deal with Moksha or Supreme Bliss.
Meaning of the word Upanishad
The word Upanishad has been derived from the root Sad (to sit), to which are added two
prefixes: Upa and Ni. The prefix Upa denotes nearness and Ni totality. Thus, this word means
sitting nearby devotedly. This no doubt refers to the pupil’s sitting down near his teacher at the
time of instruction. The word in course of time gathered round it the sense of secret teaching
or secret doctrine (Rahasya) which was imparted at such sittings. Due to secrecy and mystery
of the teachings, a teacher refuses to impart instruction to a student who has not proved his
worthiness to receive the instruction.
Number of the Upanishads
It is difficult to ascertain the exact number that should be regarded as authentic Upanishads.
Different estimates of their number have been given by scholars and they have been put by
some scholars at as many as 200. One hundred and eight Upanishads are enumerated in the
Muktikopanishad and a popular edition contains them. However, among these Upanishads, ten
Upanishads, the names of which have been mentioned in the Muktikopanishad, are considered
the most important Upanishads from the point of view of Vedantic Philosophy. Ten Principal
Upanishads known as Dashopanishad are: Isha, Kena, Katha, Prashna, Munda, Mandukya,
Taittiriya, Aitareya, Chandogya and Brihadaranyaka.
Besides, Shvetashvatara, Kaushitaki and Maitrayaniya Upanishads are often listed in old
Upanishads.
Division of the Upanishads
According to the Muktikopanishad, 108 Upanishads are divided according to four Vedas are
as follows: 10 Upanishads from the Rigveda, 19 Upanishads from the Shukla-Yajurveda, 32
Upanishads from the Krishna-Yajurveda, 16 Upanishads from the Samaveda and 31
Upanishads from the Atharvaveda.
 The Principal thirteen Upanishads, related to the Vedas are:
(A) Upanishads of the Rigveda:
(1) Aitareya Upanishad,
(2) Kaushitaki Upanishad
(B) Upanishads of the Shukla-Yajurveda:
(3) Brihadaranyaka Upanishad,
(4) Isha Upanishad
(C) Upanishads of the Krishna-Yajurveda:
(5) Taittiriya Upanishad,
(6) Katha Upanishad,
(7) Shvetashvatara Upanishad,
(8) Maitrayaniya Upanishad
(D) Upanishads of the Samaveda:
(9) Chandogya Upanishad,
(10) Kena Upanishad
(E) Upanishads of the Atharvaveda:
(11) Mundaka Upanishad,
(12) Mandukya Upanishad,
(13) Prashna Upanishad.
Thirteen known Upanishads were composed from the middle of the 5th century through the
2nd century BC. The first five of these—Brihadaranyaka, Chandogya, Taittiriya, Aitareya,
and Kaushitaki—were composed in prose interspersed with verse.
The middle five—Kena, Katha, Isa, Svetasvatara, and Mundaka—were composed primarily
in verse. The last three—Prasna, Mandukya, and Maitri—were composed in prose.

Major Theme of the Upanishads

The Upanishads are religious and philosophical treatises. They constitute the last phase of the
Vedic revelation. They represent the knowledge of Brahman (Brahma-Vidya). What is this
world? Who am I? What becomes of me after death? – Such questions are asked and answered
in these Upanishads. The essential theme of the Upanishads is the nature of the world and God.
Already in the hymns of the Rigveda, we notice here and there a shift of emphasis from the
innumerable gods to the one Infinite. The doctrine of true knowledge and salvation are major
subjects of the Upanishadic philosophy.
 In the Upanishads, we get an intelligible body of verified and verifiable spiritual insights mixed
with a mass of myths and legends and cosmological speculations relating to the nature and
origin of universe. The principal contents of the Upanishads are philosophical speculations.
The spirit of their contents is anti-ritualistic. Although the subject-matter of most of the
Upanishads is almost the same, yet each Upanishad has its own unique ideas.
Importance of the Upanishads
1) The Upanishads occupy a unique place in the development of Indian philosophical thought.
They contain the highest authority on which the various systems of philosophy in India rest.
So, Vedanta Philosophy is directly related to the Upanishads. Not only the Vedanta philosopher
professes his faith in the ends and objects of the Veda, but the Sankhya, the Vaisheshika, the
Nyaya and Yoga philosophers, all pretend to find in the Upanishads some warranty for their
tenets.
2) The Upanishads are associated with the Vedas and make the entire range of Vedic knowledge
as complete. The Upanishads generally mention the Vedas and their study with respect. Certain
verses from the Vedas, such as the Gayatri, form the subject of meditation here.
3) Brahmavidya or the knowledge of Brahman, the Supreme Reality is the great kingdom of the
principal Upanishads. They give importance to Knowledge alone. Anyone having knowledge
may be Guru or Acharya. Even kings approached to them for the attainment of knowledge. The
story of Satyakama Jabala, who though unable to give his father’s name, was yet initiated into
spiritual life, shows this fact. In the Chandogya Upanishad (4.1-3) Raikva a Brahmana not by
caste but by his knowledge, instructed king Janashruti. This shows that for Upanishads
knowledgeable person is the most important and not the Brahmana, Kshatriya or anyone else.
4) Each of the Vedas has many Mahavakyas or great sayings. But four Mahavakyas found in the
Upanishads related to four Vedas are very important, thought-provoking and powerful. These
spells out the non-duality of the Jiva and the Brahman - Prajnanam Brahma-Rigveda, Aham
Brahmasm – Yajurveda, Tattvamasi – Samveda, Ayamatma Brahma – Aharvaveda
5) Without understanding the Upanishads, it is impossible to get an insight into Indian history and
culture. Every subsequent development of philosophy and religion in India has drawn heavily
on the Upanishads.
6) They are concerned with the contemplative-realizational rather than with the ritualistic-
ceremonial aspect of the spiritual life of the people.
7) The Upanisads gave the people a philosophy but not a religion.
 THE RAMAYANA
The Ramayana by the sage Valmiki is one of the great epics of the Sanskrit language. There
are many versions of Ramayana in Indian language beside Buddhist, Sikh, and Jain adaptation.
There are also Cambodian, Indonesian, Filipino, Thai, Lao, Burmese and Malaysian version of
tale. Ramayan narrates the life of Rama, Prince of legendary kingdom of kosala. Ramayana is
one of the largest ancient epics in world literature. It consists of nearly 24000 verses.
Origin
The original Ramayana written by the Sage Valmiki comprised of seven - Kandas or books.
1) Bala Kanda: - The Book of the Youth, the boyhood and adolescence of Rama.
2) Ayodhya Kanda: - The Book of Ayodhya, the court of Dasharatha and the scenes that set the
stage for the unfolding of the story, including the exchange between Dasharatha and Kaikeyi
and the exile of Rama.
3) Aranya Kanda: - The Book of the Forest, life in the forest during the fourteen-year exile and
the abduction of Sita by Ravana
4) Kishkindhya Kanda: - The Book of The Empire of Holy Monkeys, Rama’s residence in
Kishkindhya, the quest for Sita, and the slaying of Bali.
5) Sundara Kanda: - The Book of the Beautiful (Hanuman), sundara means beautiful, and this
portion of the book has passages of lyrical beauty; description of the landscapes over which
Rama roams, and the arrival of Rama and his allies in Lanka.
6) Yuddha Kanda: The Book of War, the defeat of Ravana, the recovery of Sita, the return to
Ayodhya, and the coronation of Rama and
7) Uttara Kanda: - The Book Beyond, the - later section, detailing Rama’s life in Ayodhya, the
banishment of Sita, the birth of Lava and Kusa, the reconciliation of Rama and Sita, her death
or return to the earth, and Rama’s ascent into heaven.
Ramayana: Lessons the epic taught us
This Hindu epic has given us number of lessons that we must not forget. These lessons help us
better ourselves and emerge as refined and reformed human beings with each passing day. The
basic teaching of Ramayana is that no matter how powerful evil is, it will always be defeated
by Good. Truth always wins. The win of good over evil is a universal fate. A person should
always have a noble heart and good values. That is how Lord Rama defeated the most
knowledgeable person Ravana.
1. Respect elders and be duty bound towards parents - Ram left for vanvas after his step-
mother expressed her desire to see biological son Bharat as the future king of Ayodhya.
2. Remain united with siblings even during the toughest of times - Bharat refused to
accept the throne after his father’s demise and waited for Ram to return from his vanvas.
Lakshman accompanied his brother Ram for the 14-year-long vanvas.
3. Be deeply committed to your duty - Besides being Sita’s husband, Ram was also the
King of Ayodhya. And the duty of the king is to keep his subjects happy. And hence, he
had to abandon his wife for the sake of the masses after they questioned her chastity. As a
husband, he was duty bound towards his wife. But as a King, he had to think of his subjects
wishes ahead of his personal ones.
4. Choose the path of righteousness - Vibhishana, younger brother of Ravana chose to not
support his sibling in the war against Ram. He knew his brother had committed a sin by
abducted someone - a married lady.
5. Remain humble no matter how powerful you become - Hanuman could have easily
rescued Sita from Ravana’s Ashoka Vatika. He had the power to single- handed fight
against Ravana’s army. But he chose to surrender to Lord Ram’s divinity and let him do
the needful.
6. Never consider anyone inferior - Mighty prince Ram took the help of Vanar sena
(monkey army) to build a bridge (Ram Setu) so that he could reach Lanka to free Sita. The
little monkeys not just helped him build the setu but also took part in the war against
Ravana.
7. All that glitters is not gold - Sita got attracted to a spotted deer that looked incredibly
beautiful. She wanted Ram to get the deer for her from the jungle. Actually, it wasn’t a
deer, but Mareech, Ravana’s accomplice in disguise of the animal.
8. Embrace all irrespective of caste, creed or colour - Prince Ram ate fruits that were
already tasted by Shabri, a poor old woman who had nothing much to offer but pure love.
9. Be loyal to your spouse - Ravana tried to lure Sita after abducting her. But Sita never let
him succeed in his attempts. Ram didn’t remarry after Sita was forcefully abandoned by
him even after conducting the Agni Pariksha. Being a King, he enjoyed the privilege of
having many queens, but he chose to remain loyal to his beloved wife – Sita.
10. Abandon the following - Kama (lust), Krodha (anger), Moha (desire), Lobha (greed),
Mada (pride), Ahankar (ego), Irshya (jealousy), Jaddata (insensitivity), Ghrina (hatred),
Bhaya (fear).
 THE MAHABHARATA
Mahabharata, (Sanskrit - Great Epic of the Bharata Dynasty) one of the two Sanskrit epic
poems of ancient India (the other being the Ramayana). The Mahabharata is an important
source of information on the development of Hinduism between 400 BCE and 200 CE and is
regarded by Hindus as both a text about dharma (Hindu moral law) and a history. Appearing
in its present form about 400 CE, the Mahabharata talks about the struggle for sovereignty
between two groups of cousins, the Kauravas (sons of Dhritarashtra, the descendant of Kuru)
and the Pandavas (sons of Pandu).
It is written by Ved Vyasa. The poem is made up of almost 100,000 couplets divided into 18
parvans, or sections, plus a supplement titled Harivamsha Genealogy of the God Hari i.e., of
Vishnu).

Influence
In its scope, the Mahabharata is more than simply a story of kings and princes, sages and
wisemen, demons and gods; its legendary author, Vyasa, said that one of its aims is elucidating
the four Purusarthas (goals of life): Kama (pleasure), artha (wealth), dharma (duty), and
moksha (liberation).
The Mahabharata includes large amounts of Hindu mythology, cosmological stories of the gods
and goddesses, and philosophical parables aimed at students of Hindu philosophy. Among the
principal works and stories that are a part of the Mahabharata are the following:
• Bhagavadgita (Krishna instructs and teaches Arjuna – Anusasanaparva)
• Damayanti (or Nala and Damayanti, a love story – Aranyakaparva)
• Krishnavatara (the story of Krishna, the Krishna Leela, which is woven through many chapters
of the story)
• Rama (an abbreviated version of the Ramayana – Aranyakaparva)
• Rishyasringa (also written as Rshyashrnga, the horned boy and rishi – Aranyakaparva)
• Vishnu sahasranama (the most famous hymn to Vishnu, which describes His 1000 names –
Anushasanaparva)

Modern interpretations
In the late 1980s, the Mahabharata was televised and shown on India’s national television
(Doordarshan), directed by B. R. Chopra and his son Ravi Chopra. It became the most popular
Indian TV series in history. When the Mahabharata was first broadcast in India, it shattered
 television records by reaching 97.8 percent viewership there. It also entered the Guinness Book
of World Records as having been watched by over 96 percent of the worldwide Indian
population. It was also shown in the UK by the BBC, where it achieved audience figures of 5
million, unheard of for a subtitled series being aired in the afternoon.
Important Life Lessons from The Mahabharata That Are Relevant Even Today
The epic tale Mahabharata is something everyone should read at least once in their life. Even
if you are not into mythology and religion, this book will still hold great value in your life.
There are plenty of life lessons one can learn from the Mahabharata.
1) Being kind, humble and generous is not enough to live life.
The way Karna’s life moved, we realised, more often than not, that the world is an evil place
to survive in. And to ace it, we must understand how it really works.
2) Bad company can ruin your life beyond imagination.
We all hate Shakuni mama, don’t we? He literally destroyed everything that the Kauravas
owned, and he influenced them to be negative. If it wasn’t for him, the war wouldn’t have
happened at all.
3) Unconditional support and loyal friends can take you places.
The Pandavas had Lord Krishna, and the Kauravas had Karna. Both of them always backed the
two parties, no matter what. In fact, Duryodhan was really weak without Karna.
4) You need to fight for what you think belongs to you.
The Pandavas never stopped fighting for what rightfully belonged to them. Their courage and
determination are definitely something to admire and learn from.
5) Being too emotional can be a bad idea.
Dhritrashtra’s love for his son was blind. Throughout the epic, he remained torn between his
principles and keeping his son happy. Somehow this made Duryodhan even more evil than
what he already was, leading to awful consequences and the war.
6) Learning throughout life is the best gift you can give yourself.
Arjun grasped whatever came his way. Not only did he learn the best of military science from
Drona, but he was also interested in learning about divine weapons from Indra. He learnt about
Pashupatastra from Mahadev as well. Additionally, he treated Yudhishter and Krishna as his
mentors too, and continued learning whatever they had to offer.
7) Sometimes, enemies come in the form of friends.
Although the Kauravas were more in number, their supporters were not really in favour of
them. Bheeshma, Vidura and Drona secretly admired the Pandavas. Especially Vidura, who
was the ultimate guide in everything the Kauravas did.
8) Respect Woman
Draupadi had five husbands. They were strong and wealthy, but they all became helpless when
she was disgraced by multiple other men. They had everything, but failed to show courage.
Draupadi’s anger and desire for revenge led to the war and downfall of the Kuru clan.
9) Half knowledge can be more dangerous than no knowledge
Abhimanyu wouldn’t have died. Although we remember him for his bravery and undying
courage, he ultimately lost his life.
10) You cannot be stopped if you are passionate about what you do.
Most of us know that Arjun was the greatest archer in the world. But Eklavya was even better
than him. He hid himself behind the trees and grasped everything that Drona taught Arjun. His
passion for archery and hunger for knowledge made him even better than Arjun at archery.
11) A good strategy is what you need to sail your boat.
If Pandavas didn’t have Krishna and his master plan, they wouldn’t have witnessed the victory
they did. Always have a plan.
 THE PURANAS
The Puranas are ancient Hindu texts that tell stories of the creation of the world, legends of the
gods, and explanations of how to perform religious rituals.
Purana is a Sanskrit word that means ancient or old. Puranas are encyclopaedic texts that cover
various topics such as cosmogony, cosmology, folk tales, pilgrimages, temples, medicine,
astronomy, grammar, mineralogy, theology and philosophy as well as the genealogies of gods,
goddesses, kings and sages.
The Puranas were written with the object of popularizing the truths taught in the Vedas by
presenting them in relation to specific personages and to the events of their lives. The main
value of the Puranas consists in amplifying, enforcing and illustrating the spiritual truths stated
in the Vedas in the form of injunctions and commands.
Puranas are traditionally defined as comprising five main topics –
1. Sarga (Creation)
2. Pratisarga (Dissolution and recreation)
3. Vamsa (Divine genealogies)
4. Manvantara (ages of Manus)
5. Vasmanuchari (Genealogies of Kings).

The purpose of the puranas was to bring people closer to the gods. All of the purana texts are
sectarian, dedicated to certain deities - some to gods, some to goddesses. Puranas also served
to give the common people access to and understanding of the essential teachings and complex
yogic philosophies of the ancient Vedic texts. Traditionally, there are 18 main puranas
(Mahapuranas) and 18 minor puranas (Upapuranas), which contain over 400,000 verses.

The Mahapuranas
Of the many texts designated Puranas the most important are the Mahapuraṇas. These are
always said to be eighteen in number, divided into three groups of six.
1) Agni Purana (15,400 verses)
2) Bhagavata Purana (18,000 verses). One of the most celebrated and popular of the Puranas,
telling of Vishnu’s ten Avatars. Its tenth and longest canto narrates the deeds of Krishna,
introducing his childhood exploits, a theme later elaborated by many Bhakti movements.
3) Bhavishya Purana (14,500 verses)
4) Brahma Purana (24,000 verses)
5) Brahmanda Purana (12,000 verses; includes Lalita Sahasranamam, a text some Hindus recite
as prayer)
6) Brahma Vaivarta Purana (18,000 verses)
7) Garuda Purana (19,000 verses)
8) Kurma Purana (17,000 verses)
9) Linga Purana (11,000 verses)
10) Markandeya Purana (9,000 verses; includes Devi Mahatmyam, an important text for Shaktas)
11) Matsya Purana (14,000 verses)
12) Narada Purana (25,000 verses)
13) Padma Purana (55,000 verses)
14) Shiva Purana (24,000 verses)
15) Skanda Purana (81,100 verses), the longest Purana, it is an extraordinarily meticulous
pilgrimage guide, containing geographical locations of pilgrimage centers in India, with related
legends, parables, hymns and stories. Many untraced quotes are attributed to this text.
16) Vamana Purana (10,000 verses)
17) Varaha Purana (10,000 verses)
18) Vishnu Purana (23,000 verses)

The Mahapuranas are frequently classified according the three aspects of the divine Trimurti,
1) Brahma Puranas - Brahma Purana, Brahmanda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana,
Markandeya Purana, Bhavishya Purana, The Brahma Purana is one of the eighteen major
Puranas, genre of Hindu texts in Sanskrit language. It is listed as the first Maha-Purana in all
the anthologies, and therefore also called Adi Purana. Another title for this text is Saura
Purana, because it includes many chapters related to Surya or the Sun god. The Brahma Purana
dedicates a majority of its chapter to describing the geography, temples and scenes around the
Godavari River.
2) Vishnu Puranas - Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Naradeya Purana, Garuda Purana,
Padma Purana, Varaha Purana, Vamana Purana, Kurma Purana, Matsya Purana. The Vishnu
Purana is one of the eighteen Mahapuranas, a genre of ancient and medieval texts of Hinduism.
It is an important Pancharatra text in the Vaishnavism literature corpus. Vishnu Purana, like
all major Puranas, attributes its author to be sage Veda Vyasa.
3) Shiva Puranas - Shiva Purana, Linga Purana, Skanda Purana, Agni Purana, Vayu Purana.
Shiva Purana is one of the eighteen major Puranas, a genre of Sanskrit texts in Hinduism, and
 part of the Shaivism literature corpus. It primarily centers around the Hindu god Shiva and
goddess Parvati, but references and reveres all gods.

According to the Padma Purana, the texts may be classified in accordance with the three
gunas or qualities; truth, passion, and ignorance:
1) Sattva ("truth; purity"): Vishnu Purana, Bhagavata Purana, Naradeya Purana, Garuda
Purana, Padma Purana, Varaha Purana
2) Rajas ("dimness; passion"): Brahmanda Purana, Brahma Vaivarta Purana, Markandeya
Purana, Bhavishya Purana, Vamana Purana, Brahma Purana
3) Tamas ("darkness; ignorance"): Matsya Purana, Kurma Purana, Linga Purana, Shiva
Purana, Skanda Purana, Agni Purana

The Upapuranas
The Upapuraṇas are lesser or supplementary texts. These are sometimes also said to be
eighteen in number. They include: Sanat-kumara, Narasimha, Brihan-naradiya, Siva-rahasya,
Durvasa, Kapila, Vamana, Bhargava, Varuna, Kalika, Samba, Nandi, Surya, Parasara,
Vasishtha, Devi-Bhagavata, Ganesha, Mudgala, and Hamsa. The Ganesha and Mudgala
Puranas are devoted to Ganesha. The Devi-Bhagavata Purana, which extols the goddess Durga,
has become (along with the Devi Mahatmya of the Markandeya Purana) a basic text for Devi
worshipers. There are many others all over the Indian subcontinent.

Sthala Puranas
This corpus of texts tells of the origins and traditions of particular temples or shrines—the word
sthala means "spot" in Sanskrit. There are numerous Sthala Puranas, most written in
vernaculars, some with Sanskrit versions as well. Some appear in Sanskrit versions in the
Mahapuranas or Upapuranas. Some Tamil Sthala Puranas have been researched by David Dean
Shulman.
Kula Puranas
These Puranas deal with a caste's origin myth, stories, and legends (the word kula means
"family" or "tribe" in Sanskrit). They are important sources for caste identity though usually
contested by rival castes. This subgenre is usually in the vernacular and may at times remain
oral. These have been little researched, though they are documented in the caste section of the
British Census of India Report and the various Gazetteers.
 KAUTILYA’S ARTHASHASHTRA
The Arthashastra is an Indian treatise on politics, economics, military strategy, the function
of the state, and social organization attributed to the philosopher and Prime Minister Kautilya
(also known as Chanakya, Vishnugupta) who was instrumental in establishing the reign of the
great king. Much of our knowledge about state policy under the Maurya comes from the
Arthashastra written by Kautilya, who was a Brahmin minister under Chandragupta Maurya.
The book, written in Sanskrit, discusses theories and principles of governing a state. The title,
Arthashastra, which means the Science of Material Gain or Science of Polity, does not leave
any doubts about its ends. Kautilya's philosophy is based on the principles of "Saam, Daam,
Dand, Bhed" (persuasion, temptation, punishment, and division) as various, different, and
sequential means to achieve an end. According to Kautilya, the ruler should use any means to
attain his goal and his actions required no moral sanction. Though the kings were allowed a
free rein, the citizens were subject to a rigid set of rules.
Arthashastra remains unique in all of Indian literature because of its total absence of specious
reasoning, or its unabashed advocacy of real politic, and scholars continued to study it for its
clear-cut arguments and formal prose till the twelfth century.
Kautilya’s Arthashashtra is an important treatise of the Mauryan times. Kautilya helped the
young Chandragupta Maurya, who was a Vaishya, to ascend to the Nanda throne in 321 BC.
Kautilya’s counsel is particularly remarkable because the young Maurya’s supporters were not
as well armed as the Nandas. Kautilya continued to help Chandragupta Maurya in his
campaigns and his influence was crucial in consolidating the great Mauryan empire. It reflects
the state of society and economy at that time and provides rich material for the study of ancient
Indian polity and economy.
HISTORY OF BUDDHIST AND JAIN LITERATURE: PALI, PRAKRIT AND
SANSKRIT
Buddhist Literature
The earliest Buddhist works were written in Pali, which was spoken in Magadha and South
Bihar. The Buddhist works can be divided into parts Tripitakas and Jatakas.
Tripitakas, that is, three baskets - Vinaya Pitaka, Sutta Pitaka and Abhidhamma Pitaka.
Vinaya Pitaka deals with rules and regulations of daily life. Sutta Pitaka contains dialogues
and discourses on morality and deals with Dharma while Abhidhamma Pitaka deals with
philosophy and metaphysics. It includes discourses on various subjects such as ethics,
psychology, theories of knowledge and mataphysical problems.
Jatakas - Jatakas are the most interesting stories on the previous births of the Buddha. It was
believed that before he was finally born as Gautama, the Buddha practising Dharma passed
through more than 550 births, in many cases even in the form of animals. Each birth story is
called a Jataka. The Jatakas throw invaluable light on the social and economic conditions
ranging from the sixth century BC to the second century BC. They also make incidental
reference to political events in the age of the Buddha.

Sanskrit Buddhist literature

It refers to Buddhist texts composed either in classical Sanskrit, in a register that has been called
Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit , or a mixture of the two. Several non-Mahayana Nikayas appear to
have kept their canons in Sanskrit, most prominent among which was the Sarvastivada. The
Mahayana Sutras are also in Sanskrit, with less classical registers prevalent in the gatha
portions. Buddhist Tantras too are written in Sanskrit, sometimes interspersed with
Apabhramsa, and often containing notable irregularities in grammar and meter (traditionally
ascribed to the esoteric nature of the texts)
Before the modern derivatives of Sanskrit existed, a group of languages known as the Prakrits
or Middle Indo Aryan languages evolved from India’s classical language. These were the
vernacular dialects of ancient times, and several of them became important literary vehicles in
their own right. The best known of this group is Pali, which still serves as the canonical
language of Buddhism in Sri Lanka and Southeast Asia. Other Prakrit languages such as
Sauraseni, Maharastri, Magadhi and Gandhari embody various facets of the literatures of both
the Brahmanical/Hindu and Buddhist traditions.
Besides texts considered "Word of the Buddha" (Buddhavacana) by the traditions that
transmitted them, Buddhist authors have composed treatises and literary works in Sanskrit
dealing with Buddhist philosophy, logic, etc., but also with more worldly topics such as
gemology, erotics, literary aesthetics, etc
Sanskrit Buddhist literature is therefore vast and varied, despite the loss of a significant amount
of texts. A large number of works survive only in Tibetan and Chinese translations.

Rise of Sanskrit in Buddhism

While some hypotheses say that Buddhism was originally written in Prakrits, Sanskrit
gradually became the main language of Buddhist scriptures. It began with the north-western
Indian Buddhists of the Kushan empire (BC 375). The Sarvastivadin Piṭakas were mostly
transmitted in Sanskrit and many Mahayana sutras such as the Prajnaparamita sutra were
composed in different registers of Sanskrit. The Buddhist use of classical Sanskrit for literary
purposes possibly began with Asvaghoṣa (c. 100 CE), author of the Buddhacarita and one of
the earliest Sanskrit dramatists. Buddhist thinkers like Nagarjuna, Aryadeva, Asanga,
Dharmakīrti, Bhaviveka, Candrakīrti, etc., also wrote in Sanskrit
 Jainism Literature
The Jain texts were written in Prakrit and were finally compiled in the sixth century AD in
Valabhi in Gujarat. The important works are known as Angas, Upangas, Prakirnas, Chhedab
Sutras and Malasutras.
Among the important Jain scholars, reference may be made to Haribhadra Suri, (eighth century
AD) and Hemchandra Suri, (twelfth century AD). Jainism helped in the growth of a rich
literature comprising poetry, philosophy and grammar. These works contain many passages
which help us to reconstruct the political history of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The Jain
texts refer repeatedly to trade and traders.
Jain literature begins with the last of the Tirthankara, Mahavir, who reorganized the old
Nirgrantha sect and revitalized its moral and religious zeal and activities. He preached his faith
of ahimsa (non-violence or harmlessness) and self-purification to the people in their own
language which was not Sanskrit, but Prakrit. The form of Prakrit which he is said to have
used was Ardha-Magadhi, by which was meant a language that was not pure Magadhi but
partook of its nature.
Twelve Angas
Mahavira’s teachings were arranged in twelve Angas (parts) by his disciples. These Angas
formed the earliest literature on Jainism
1) Acaranga laid down rules of discipline for the monks.
2) Sutrakrtanga contained further injunctions for the monks regarding what was suitable or
unsuitable for them and how they should safeguard their vows. It also gave an exposition of
the tenets and dogmas of other faiths
3) Sthananga listed in numerical order, categories of knowledge pertaining to the realities of
nature.
4) Samavayanga classified objects in accordance with similarities of time, place, number, and so
on
5) Vyakhya-prajnapti or Bkagavat explained the realities of life and nature in the form of a
catechism
6) Jnatrdhamakatha contained hints regarding religious preaching as well as stories and
anecdotes calculated to carry moral conviction
7) Upasakadhyayana or Upasaka-dasaka was meant to serve as a religious code for householders
8) Antakrddasaka gave accounts of ten saints who attained salvation after immense suffering
9) Anuttaraupapatika contained accounts of ten saints who had gone to the highest heaven after
enduring intense persecution
10) Prsnna-vyakarana contained accounts and episodes for the refutation of opposite views,
establishment of one’s own faith, promotion of holy deeds, and prevention of evil.
11) Vipaka-Sutra explained how virtue was rewarded and evil punished
12) Drstivada included the five sections namely Parikarmani contained tracts describing the
moon, the sun, Jambudvipa, other islands and seas, as well as living beings and nonliving
matter, Sutra gave an account of various tenets and philosophies numbering no less than 363,
Prathamanuyoga recounted ancient history and narratedthe lives of great kings and saints.
Purvagata dealt with the problems of birth, death, and continuity.

Jain literature in Sanskrit

The language of Jain literature was primarily the Prakrits which were prevalent amongst the
people at one time or the other in different parts of the country. But Sanskrit was not altogether
shunned. Amongst the Jains, the earliest work in Sanskrit devoted to religious writing is the
Tattvarthadhigama - Sutra of Umasvamin which epitomizes the whole Jain creed in about 375
sutras arranged in ten chapters. The work occupies a unique position in Jain literature as it is
recognized as authoritative equally by the Digambaras and the Svetambaras with a few
variations in the readings, and is very widely studied by both. It has been commented upon by
the most eminent authors of both the sects.
 INDIAN LITERATURE
Sanskrit Literature and Famous Authors
There are large numbers of books in Sanskrit dealing with various subjects like science, law,
medicine and grammar. The law books were called as the Dharmasutras and smritis, together
known as Dharmashastras. The Dharmasutras were compiled between 500 and 200 BC. These
lay down duties for different varnas as well as for the kings and their officials. They prescribed
the rules according to which property had to be held, sold and inherited. They also prescribe
punishments for persons guilty of assault, murder and adultery. The Manusmriti tells us about
the role of man and woman in society, their code of conduct and relationship with each other.
The works of Ashwaghosha, Bhasa, Shudraka, Kalidasa and Banabhatta provided us with
glimpses of the social and cultural life of northern and central India in times of the Guptas and
Harsha. The Gupta period also saw the development of Sanskrit grammar based on the works
of Panini and Patanjali. The Kushana kings patronised Sanskrit scholars. Ashvaghosha wrote
the Buddhacharitra which is the biography of the Buddha. He also wrote Saundarananda,
which is a fine example of Sanskrit poetry. India produced great literary works on subjects like
Maths, Astronomy, Astrology, Agriculture and Geography etc.
Books on medicine were written by Charak and on surgery by Sushruta. Madhava wrote a
book on pathology. Books written on astronomy by Varahamihira and Aryabhatta and on
astrology by Lagdhacharya had all achieved prominence. There is none that can compete with
Varahamihira’s Bhrihatsamhita, Aryabhatia and Vedanga Jyotisha.
The post-medieval period in northern India saw the rise of Sanskrit literature in Kashmir.
Somadeva’s Katha-sarit-sagar and Kalhan’s Rajatarangini are of historical importance. It
gives a vivid account of the Kings of Kashmir. The Geet Govinda of Jaidev is the finest poem
of Sanskrit literature of this period, besides numerous works on different aspects of art and
architecture, sculpture, iconography and related fields.

Telugu, Kannada, Malayalam and Tamil Literature

There are four languages Tamil, Telugu, and Malayalam developed their own literature. Tamil
being the oldest of these languages began writing earlier and produced the Sangam literature
the oldest literature in Tamil.

Telugu Literature
Telugu is one of the classical languages of India. It is the language of the Dravidian family.
Telugu literature consists of poems, short stories, novels, plays and song lyrics. Early Telugu
literature is religious in subject matter. Poets and scholars drew most of their material from
epics such as the Ramayana, the Mahabharata and the Puranas. The Vijayanagar period was
the golden age of Telugu literature. Nachana Somnatha, a court poet, produced a poetical work
titled Uttaraharivansam. Krishna Dev Rai, the greatest of the Vijayanagar, was a poet of great
merit. His work Amukta Malyada is regarded as an excellent prabandhan in Telegu literature.
Eight Telugu literary luminaries, popularly known as ashtadiggajas adorned his court. Among
them, Allasani Peddana, the author of Manucharitram, was the greatest. The other seven poets
of the group were Nandi Timmana, the author of Parijathapaharanam, Madayagari Mallana,
Dhurjati, Ayyalaraju Ramabhadra Kavi, Pingali Surana, Ramaraja Bhushana and Tenali
Ramakrishna.

Kannada Literature
Apart from Telugu, Vijayanagara rulers extended their patronage to Kannada literature.
Kannada language developed fully after the tenth century AD. The earliest known literary work
in Kannada is Kaviraj written by the Rashtrakuta king, Nripatunga Amoghavarsha. Pampa,
known as the father of Kannada, wrote his great poetic works Adi Purana and Vikramarijiva.
In the thirteenth century new feats were achieved in Kannada literature. Harishvara wrote
Harishchandra kavya and Somanatha charita whereas Bandhuvarma wrote
Harivanshabhyudaya and Jiva Sambodhana.
Kannada literature flourished considerably between the fourteenth and sixteenth centuries
under the patronage of the Vijayanagara kings. Poets of all religious groups made important
contribution to it. Kunura Vyasa wrote Bharata and Narahari wrote Tarave Ramayana. This is
the first Rama Katha in Kannada composed on the basis of Valmiki’s Ramayana. Lakshamisha
who lived in the seventeenth century wrote Jaimini Bharata.

Malayalam Literature
Malayalam is spoken in Kerala and the adjoining areas. The language of Malayalam emerged
around the eleventh century AD. The earliest known literary work in Malayalam is
Ramacharitam, an epic poem written by Cheeraman in 1198 AD. By fifteenth century
Malayalam was recognised as an independent language. Bhasa Kautilya, a commentary on
Arthashashtra and kokasandisan are two great works. Rama Panikkar and Ramanujam
Ezhuthachan are well known authors of Malayalam literature.
 Though it developed much later compared to other South Indian languages, Malayalam has
made a mark as a powerful medium of expression. Now a large number of journals, newspapers
and magazines are published in Malayalam.

Tamil or Sangama Literature

Tamil as a written language was known since the beginning of the Christian era. In ancient
times the association or academy of the most learned men of the Tamil land was called Sangam
whose chief function was promotion of literature. Poets in assemblies were patronised by kings
and chieftains produced the Sangama literature over a period of three to four centuries. Such
assemblies were called Sangamas, and the literature produced in these assemblies was called
Sangama literature.
Later Tamil writers mention the existence of three literary academies (Sangams) at different
periods. The last academy is credited with the corpus of literature now known as Sangam
Works. Naturalism and romanticism were the salient features of the poems of the Sangam
bards.
Tolkappiyam, the name signifying the ancient book or the preserver of ancient institutions, was
written by Tolkappiyanar and is the oldest extant Tamil grammar dating back to 500 B.C. It
lays down rules for different kinds of poetical compositions drawn from the examples furnished
by the best works then extant. Containing about 1,610 suttirams, Tolkappiyam is in three parts.
The first two parts are interesting from both linguistic and philological points of view, the third,
poruladhikdram, is most valuable as it gives a glimpse of the political, social, and religious life
of the people during the period when the author of this treatise lived.

NORTHERN INDIAN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE

We have already seen how languages evolved in India right up to the early medieval period.
The old apabhramsha had taken new forms in some areas or was in the process of evolving into
other forms. Languages were evolving at two levels:
1) The spoken language
2) The written language
The old Brahmi script of the Ashoka days had undergone a great change. The alphabets during
Ashoka’s period were uneven in size but by the time of Harsha, the letters had become of the
same size and were regular, presenting the picture of a cultivated hand. The studies have
indicated that all the scripts of present northern Indian languages, except that of Urdu, have
had their origin in old Brahmi.
If we compare the scripts of Gujarati, Hindi and Punjabi, we can easily understand this change.
There are over 200 languages or dialects spoken in India at present. Some are widely used
while others are limited to a particular area.
A large number of people speak Hindi in its different forms that include Braj Bhasha, and
Avadhi (spoken in Oudh region), Bhojpuri, Magadhi, and Maithili (spoken around Mithila),
and Rajasthani and Khadi Boli (spoken around Delhi). Rajasthani is another variant or dialect
of Hindi. This classification has been made on the basis of literature produced by great poets
over a length of time. Thus, the language used by Surdas and Bihari has been given the name
of Braj Bhasha; that used by Tulsidas in the Ramacharitamanasa is called Avadhi and the
one used by Vidyapati has been termed as Maithili. But Hindi, as we know it today is the one
called Khadi Boli. Though Khusrau has used Khadi Boli in his compositions in the thirteenth
century its extensive use in literature began only in the nineteenth century. It even shows some
influence of Urdu.

Persian and Urdu

• Urdu emerged as an independent language towards the end of the 4th century AD.
• Arabic and Persian were introduced in India with the coming of the Turks and the Mongols.
• Persian remained the court language for many centuries. Urdu as a language was born out of
the interaction between Hindi and Persian.
• Originally it was a dialect but slowly it acquired all the features of a formal language when
the authors started using Persian script.
• Urdu became more popular in the early eighteenth century. People even wrote accounts of
later Mughals in Urdu.
Urdu was patronised by the Nawabs of Lucknow, who held symposiums in this language.
Slowly it became quite popular as Persian was the language of the court, much of the literature
produced in this period was written in Persian. Amir Khusrau and Amir Hasan Dehelvi wrote
superb poetry in Persian. Historians like Minhas-us-Siraj, Zia Barani and Ibn Batuta who came
to India during those days wrote accounts of rulers, important political events and incidents in
this language. In the medieval period, Persian was adopted as the court language. Several
historical accounts, administrative manuals and allied literature in this language have come
down to us. The mughal rulers were great patrons of leaning and literature. Babar wrote his
Tuzuk (autobiography) in Turkish language, but his grandson Akbar got it translated into
Persian. Akbar patronized many scholars. He got Mahabharata translated into Persian.
Jahangir’s autobiography (Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri) is in Persian and is a unique piece of literature.
It is said that Noorjahan was an accomplished Persian poetess. Quite a fair amount of Persian
literature has been produced by the courtiers of the Mughals. Abul Fazl’s Akbarnamah and
Ain-e-Akbari is a fine piece of literature. From there we get a good deal of information about
Akbar and his times. Faizi wrote beautiful Persian poetry. Several collections of letters of the
Mughal period (insha) have come down to us. Besides shedding light on Mughal history, they
indicate different styles of letter writing. Another name in prose and history writing is that of
Chandra Bhan, a writer of Shahjahan’s days. Similarly, we have a work named Tabqat i-
Alamgiri, shedding light on Aurangzeb. Badauni was another writer who belonged during
Akbar’s time. In the twentieth century, Iqbal wrote good Persian poetry. All this has now
become a part of Indian heritage and culture quite popular. Pakistan has adopted Urdu as the
state language.

Hindi Literature
The emergence of all these languages resulted in the decline of Sanskrit as they came to be
used as the medium through which the administrative machinery functioned. Prithviraj Raso is
supposed to be the first book in Hindi language. It is an account of exploits of Prithvi Raj
Chauhan. Hindi evolved during the Apabhramsha stage between the 7th AD and the 14th AD.
There was a tremendous growth of regional languages like Hindi, Bengali, Assamese, Oriya,
Marathi and Gujarati. It was patronised by the Rajput rulers as it glorified chivalry and poetry.
The most famous figures from this period were Kabir and Tulsidas.
During the last 150 years, many writers have contributed to the development of modern India
literature, written in a number of regional languages as well as in English. One of the greatest
Bengali writers, Rabindranath Tagore became the first Indian to win the Nobel Prize for
literature (Geetanjali) in 1913. However, it is only with the beginning of nineteenth century
that Hindi prose came into its own. Bharatendu Harishchandra was one of the earliest to
produce dramas in Hindi which were basically translations of texts written in Sanskrit and other
languages. Mahavir Prasad Dwivedi was another author who wrote translations or made
adaptations from Sanskrit. Bankim Chandra Chatterji (l838-94) wrote novels originally in
Bangla. They came to be translated into Hindi and became very popular. Vande Mataram, our
national song, is an excerpt from his novel, Anand Math. Swami Dayanand’s contribution to
Hindi cannot be ignored. Originally a Gujarati and a scholar of Sanskrit, he advocated Hindi
as a common language for the whole of India. He started writing in Hindi and contributed
articles to journals essentially engaged in religious and social reforms. Satyartha Prakash was
his most important work in Hindi. Among other names that have enriched Hindi literature, is
that of Munshi Prem Chand, Surya Kant Tripathi Nirala, Sumitranandan Pant,
Ramdhari Singh Dinkar and Haribans Rai Bacchan. Mahadevi Verma is the first woman
writer in Hindi to highlight issues related to women. Maithili Sharan Gupt is another
important name. Jaishankar Prasad wrote beautiful dramas.

If we look at the above writers, we find that they all wrote with a purpose. Swami Dayanand
wrote in order to reform the Hindu society and rid it of false beliefs and social evils. Munshi
Prem Chand tried to draw the attention of the society to the miserable existence of the poor and
Mahadevi Verma recipient of Padma Vibhushan, highlighted the conditions of women in the
society. Nirala became the pioneer of awakening of Modern India.
 Jagadguru Adi Shankaracharya

▪ Adi Shankaracharya was an Indian philosopher who consolidated the doctrine of Advaita Vedanta.
▪ Birth: The Sringeri records state that Shankara was born in the 14th year of the reign of
Vikramaditya (7th Century BC), but it is unclear. Shankara was born in the southern Indian state
of Kerala, according to the oldest biographies, in a village named Kaladi.
▪ In the 8th century, Jagadguru Adi Shankaracharya integrated diverse thoughts and practices
through his philosophy of Advaita Vedanta. Shankaracharya’s works in Sanskrit discuss the unity
of the Ātman and Nirguna Brahman “brahman without attributes”.
▪ He wrote many commentaries on Brahma Sutras, Principal Upanishads and Bhagavad Gita.
▪ He toured all the Indian Subcontinent to propagate his philosophy through discourses and debates
with other thinkers.
▪ He established the importance of monastic life as sanctioned in the Upanishads and Brahma Sutra,
in a time when the Mīmāṃsā school established strict ritualism and ridiculed monasticism.
▪ He established four major mathas in different regions of India - Joshimath, Dwarka, Puri, Sringeri.
He established them to propagate the philosophy of advaita vedanta and to promulgate the concept
of Sanatana dharma.
▪ Adi Sankara is believed to have died aged 32, at Kedarnath in the northern Indian state of
Uttarakhand.
His works
▪ His works are the foundation of Advaita Vedanta school of Hinduism, and his doctrine.
Shankaracharya is most known for his systematic reviews and commentaries (Bhasyas) on ancient
Indian texts. His masterpiece of commentary is the Brahma Sutra Bhasya (literally, commentary
on Brahma Sutra), a fundamental text of the Vedanta school of Hinduism. His commentaries on
ten Mukhya (principal) Upanishads are also considered authentic by scholars. Other authentic
works of Shankara include commentaries on the Bhagavad Gita.

Concept of Advaita, Non-duality philosophy

Advaita Vedānta is a school of Hindu philosophy, and is a classic system of spiritual realization in
Indian tradition. The term Advaita refers to the idea that Brahman alone is ultimately real, the
phenomenal transient world is an illusory appearance (maya) of Brahman, and the true self, atman, is
not different from Brahman. Originally known as Puruṣavāda and as māyāvāda, the followers of this
school are known as Advaita Vedantins.
 BHAKTI MOVEMENT
The Bhakti movement was a nationwide mass movement. This movement contributed to reduce the
mutual bitterness and struggle of Hindu and Muslim religion. It is said that the rise of Sufism was
actually a product of this religious movement of Hindus. The preachers and reformers of this
movement aroused consciousness in India and created a new wave of progressive ideas. It gave a
direction to Indian culture and society. This movement stirred human sentiments, while strengthening
the individualist ideology, in which direct contact with God through devotion was considered
necessary. Special emphasis was laid on salvation in devotion and renunciation in enjoyment, caste-
system and establishment of classless egalitarian society.
Reasons for the Bhakti movement -
The first major cause of the Bhakti movement was the predominance of bigotry, polytheism and
rituals in Hinduism. The second reason for this movement was the coming of the Sufi saints and other
Hindu saints and Mahatmas into contact with each other and avoiding the defects of bigotry by them.
The third major reason for this movement was to show the straightforward path of devotion in place
of Vedic complex rituals of Hinduism. The fourth reason was to create a sense of social, religious
equality and tolerance in the minds of the people. God and man are one, this was its basic principle.

Objectives of Bhakti Movement:

This movement was born and developed to remove the many flaws hidden under the veil of external
pomp, hypocrisy and polytheism prevalent in Hinduism. Similarly, in Hinduism, there were many
laws of worship, fasting, rituals in Hinduism, which were difficult. This movement worked to
simplify them. Its main objective is to remove the discrimination prevalent in Hinduism, to create a
sense of equality, to get rid of worldly bonds for attaining salvation.

Head of Devotional Movement:

Among the leading Saints and reformers of the Bhakti movement were Swami Ramanujacharya,
Swami Ramanand, Nibankacharya, Vallabhacharya, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu, Kabir, Guru Nanakji,
Namdev, Meerabai, Raidas, Tulsidas etc.

Swami Ramanujacharya: Born in 1016 in the area called Tirukudur in the south, Keshav Bhatt
Brahmin's house, Swami Raganujacharya gained knowledge of the Veda-Vedangs by staying with
the abbot of Kanchi after his father's death. He rendered the specifics.
Describing the soul and the divine as slightly different, he considered Lord Vishnu as Sarveshwar
and Sarvatma, those who are born in human incarnations to have mercy on man. Also stressed the
worship of Lakshmi with Vishnu. Man should only do karma; one should not expect fruit. God and
salvation are possible by devotion.

Ramanamnvadya: Swami Ramanand was also born in a Brahmin family in the south. Lord considered
Vishnu his favourite. He was a staunch opponent of caste practice. He described devotion as the only
means of salvation. Kabir among his major disciples, Raidas, Narhari, Keg, Sukhanand.

Madhavacharya: He had passed through the world since childhood. He was a worshiper of Vishnu.
According to his theory, devotion arises only from knowledge. The ultimate goal of man is to
"darshan".

Nibankacharya: was born in Nibampur, located in the Bellary district of Madras. He has specialized
dualism, coordinating dualism and monotheism adopted the middle path. He considered Krishna to
be the incarnation of God. Following the teachings of Srimad Bhagwat and Bhagavad Gita, he
considered the attainment of salvation. He made Leela Tattva the major part of the Vaishnava sect

Ballabhacharya: Vallabhacharya Krishna was the nobleman of the Bhakti Branch. He travelled
throughout the country and strongly preached his teachings and ideas. He insisted on adopting the
path of God-devotion by abandoning the worldly fascination. He adopted the Siddhiramarg's
Siddhanta and in Lord Krishna Educated to be isolated

Shaivacharya: Like the lonely sons of Vaishnava devotees, the Nayanar devotees were uninterrupted
among the Shaiva devotees. Just like, Lavar. Devotees have considered Lord Vishnu to be
omnidirectional, in the same way Nayanar Santhas considered Lord Shiva, in his vision Shiva is
prevalent in the whole creation, in consciousness, in the universe, he is the eternal and true form. The
Shaivas have told the five processes of creation: 1. Creation of creation, 2. observance of creation, 3.
Destruction of creation, 4. Attachment to the creature and, 5. Liberation of Jeeva by Shiva's grace

Shri Chaitanya Mahaprabhu: Born in Bengal, Chaitanya Mahaprabhu took control of physical life by
doing grihatyagya at the age of 25. He spent his entire life in Hari-bhakti. Walking in India for 6
years, he preached Krishna devotion. One of his disciples was untouchable. Embracing this
untouchable disciple, he said: “Haridas, this body of yours is my own, your body is like a temple with
the feeling of love and surrender. Chaitanya Mahaprabhu put more force on purification by opposing
external odors and false rituals. He said: “By sacrificing his personal pleasures to every person, your
life, The body and soul should be dedicated to God. Day by night, one should be immersed in the
beauty of God. "

Sant Kabir: Kabirdas Nirvadriya was the Gyanamargi Sana and Sas-Reforming poet of Kavidhara.
Niru and Neema were Ramanandji, the Guru of the Palit-nurtured Kabirdasji, here in Julhe Dampati.
Kabirdasji was illiterate, However, life-darshan and their religion could not be stayed in front of the
whole knowledge. Kabirdasji did the religious official rituals prevailing in the then times, strongly
opposed the laws of worship
There were also satirists on religious stereotypes prevalent in Muslim religion, keeping fasting and
abetting. Kabirdasji fiercely reprimanded the contractors of Hindu and Muslim religion. He told the
public the simple path of godly devotion and religion

Kabirdasji called God omnipresent, told the soul and the divine the same. Accepting God as demerit,
he also opposed idolatry, garland, pilgrimage and mustache shaving etc

Kabir in his bold and clear voice gave importance to religious co-ordination, indigestion, good faith,
purity of conduct, renunciation of Maya-moh, Gura glory, name remembrance, uniformity of soul
and divine and non-violence. All his words are stored by his disciples in "Bijak"

Gurunanak Devji: Born in a Khatri family in 1469 in Talwandi village of Lahore, Gurunanak Devji
is considered the founder of Six Sampradaya. He was a philanthropist and Dani temperament since
childhood. They were absorbed in devotion by renouncing worldly life and false stories. He
emphasized Hindu-Muslim unity. The coordinated ideal of Hindu and Six religions is found in the
Nanak cult

Like Mahatma Kabir, he emphasized purification by treating everyone as equal. He said: “To remain
holy in the midst of the desecration of the world, everyone has the same religion. He preached to the
Muslims that: Build a mosque of kindness, Read the prayers of honesty, consider humility as
circumcision as a beauty, believe virtue, Only then will you become a true Muslim. "

Namdev: Born in Maharashtra in the 13th century, this saint condemned ethnic discrimination by
emphasizing religious unity. Adopting the Nath Panth, the ubiquitous Nirguna emphasized the
worship of Brahma.
He also made such an impact of his devotion on Muslims that many Muslims became his disciples.
He said that: 'There is neither a temple nor a mosque for devotion.'

Gyanadeva: Born in Panderpur, Maharashtra in the late 13th century, Namdevji was a worshiper of
Vishnu. He worshiped Krishna Vittal Swami. He used to be engaged in Sankirtana. He was a
monotheist. He wrote Danyaswari in the public language Marathi. Of knowledge devotion While
coordinating handsomely, he said that through enlightenment, the true nature of God should be
devoutly contemplated and observed. Saguna Bhakti is the only way to attain God

Sant Raidas: Sant Raidas was a disciple of Swami Ramanand. He was a Vaishnava pantheon. Born
in the lower total, Sant Raidas suffered a severe insult to caste discrimination and neglect. His
homogeneous followers converted into a separate cult. He also purified, Human equality, Emphasized
religious ordination

Surdas, Tulsidas v Meerabai: Surdas and Meerabai expressed their exclusive devotion and dedication
to Krishna, then Tulsidas expressed his uninteresting attitude towards Rama and delivered his ideal
character saga to the public through Ramacharitmanas.

Impact of Bhakti movement:

The Bhakti movement had the most impact in the social sphere, which emphasized the equality of
human beings while removing caste discrimination. Formulated Hindu-Muslim unity. Increased
respect for lower class.

Wanted to remove social evils. Karmakand spread by Brahmins in the religious sphere, Reduced
external believers and beliefs. Enhanced the importance of Guru. Nationality from a political point
of view: got strength. Unique coordination and awe-inspired sentiment developed between Hindus
and Muslims, Due to which they started being natamastak in each other's worships, religious and
social parochialism took away a bit

Epilogue:
In this way, it is clear that the Bhakti movement was the revolutionary movement of the then time.
The Santa and Mahatmas of that era gave their religious views, Principles, and sermons not only
taught the general public the lesson of social and religious unity, but He also showed the true path of
God attainment and religion
From the time to the present day, the ideology and ideal of those saints has demonstrated the path of
the people. The true followers of those saints and Mahatmas are still following their path and making
their lives meaningful and fulfilling, and human religion are promoting .
 SUFI MOVEMENT
Just as the Bhakti-movement started among the Hindus in medieval India, in the same way Sufism
emerged on the basis of love-devotion among Muslims. There are various opinions among scholars
on the subject from where the word Sufi originated. Some scholars think that the word originated
from the word Safa. Safa means sacred. Among the Muslims, the saints who lived a life of purity and
sacrifice were called Sufis. There is also an idea that the word Sufi originated from Sufa, which means
wool. After Muhammad Sahib, saints who used to preach their views by wearing woolen clothes,
they were called Sufis. Some scholars believe that the word Sufi originated from the Greek word
Sophia, which means knowledge.
Sufis are those who are concerned with the simplicity, purity, equality and generosity of Islam. Sufis
have two main streams related to Allah and the world.
1. Vajudia (non-existent stream) - Those who existed in the Indian context were more liberal,
had a greater inclination towards mysticism, and kept a distance towards radical Islam, so they did
not promote Islam, most of the Sufis of the Sultanate period were of this ideology.
2. Saudia - On the contrary, the Saudia stream was much closer to orthodox Islam, in which there
was not so much emphasis on mysticism but on the propagation of Islam.

Life and principles of Sufi saints-

The residence of Sufis is called 'Khankah'. The spiritual area free from state control is called 'Vilayat'
in Sufi terminology. The successor of a Sufi saint was called Vali.
Sufi saints lived a life of simplicity and purity. They voluntarily accepted poverty. They considered
personal property as a hindrance to spiritual growth. Their habitats were usually made of mud.
Although many of these saints had married, they had not left a life of simplicity. On the sultan's
behalf, these saints were proposed to be given both rank and wealth. These Sufies did not accept any
title for themselves, nor did they take any stipend. The public voluntarily donated them, they used to
live in them. These saints used to fast for suppression of physical desires. Their clothes were simple.
Generally, they preferred to live in poverty by wearing torn and old clothes. Sufi saints believed in
purity of mind. He believed that to achieve liberation (Nizad), the mind of man should be very pure,
because God resides in the pure mind. They considered that it is necessary to eradicate ego for the
attainment of the God because a person living in ego is not worthy of seeing God. The Chishti saints
were of liberal views. Many of their customs were similar to those of Hindus. His main principles
were love for God and service to man. He believed in the principle of Adaitvaad (monotheism). Due
to this many Hindus became his devotees. The simplicity and simple manner of living of these saints
influences the Hindus greatly. These saints considered the service of man is higher than all devotion.
They considered that ultimate duty of human being is to serve the sad and the poor people. These
saints did not believe in personal property and considered keeping property as a hindrance to the
attainment of God.

Sufism in India
The advent of Sufism in India is said to be in the eleventh and twelfth centuries. One of the early
Sufis of eminence, who settled in India, was AI-Hujwari who died in 1089, popularly known as Data
Ganj Baksh. The Sufis came to India via Afghanistan on their own free will. Their emphasis upon a
pure life, devotional love and service to humanity made them popular and earned them a place of
honour in Indian society.

Different schools of Sufism

Sufism later got divided into different Silsilahas (sects). There are differences regarding the definite
number of these sects. Their number is believed to be up to 175. Abul Fazl mentions 14 silsilahas in
Ain. Four major sects in India became more famous. They are Chishti, Suharavardi, Qadri and
Naqshbandi.

Main Silsilahas & Introduction

Sufi is an Arabic language word which means matif (Chatai). Those who worshiped God by sitting
in a row on a mat were called Sufi saints. In a broad sense, Sufi was a class of Muslim thinkers who
lived a simple life and gave prominence to self-sacrifice, philanthropy and penance.
1. The Chishti Silsilah - The Chishti Silsilah was founded in a village called Khawaja Chishti. In
India, the Chishti Silsilah was founded by Khawaja Moinuddin Chishti who came to India around
1192. He made Ajmer the main centre for his teaching. He believed that serving mankind was the
best form of devotion and therefore he worked amongst the downtrodden. He died in Ajmer in
1236.
2. The Suhrawardi Silsilah - This Silsilah was founded by Sheikh Shahabuddin Suhrawardi. It was
established in India by Sheikh Bahauddin Zakariya. He set up a leading khanqah in Multan, which
was visited by rulers, high government officials and rich merchants. The Suhrawardi Silsilah was
firmly established in Punjab and Sind.
3. Qadiri Silsilah - The originator of the Qadiri sect was Sheikh Abdul Qadir Jilani (1077–1166 AD)
of Baghdad. In India, this community was propagated by Makhdoom Muhammad Jilani and Shah
Niamatullah. In 1482 AD, Syed Bandgi Muhammad made Sindh the center of propaganda for this
sect. Later, this community spread to Kashmir, Punjab, Bengal and Bihar. The followers of this
sect were opposed to music.
4. Naqshbandi Silsilah - Khwaja Wahaldin Naqshband of Turkistan was the originator of this sect.
This community came to India in the 16th century by Khwaja Muhammad Shaki Gillah Vairang.
The saints of this sect opposed the bigotry of Islam. The saints opposed religious fervor and
preached to live a simple truthful life.
Indian Traditions, Culture & Society (KNC-602) Dr. Rajeev Rajput
Assistant Professor
ABESIT

UNIT IV
Science, Management and Indian Knowledge System
Astronomy
Astronomy made great progress in ancient India. The movement of planets came to be emphasized
and closely observed. The Rigveda spoke of a year of 360 days divided into 12 equal parts and used
a five-year Yug or Era to reconcile the lunar and Solar years. The Yajur Veda considered a lunar year
of 354 days and a solar year of 365 days and divided the year into 6 ritus or seasons of two months
each.
Jyotish Vedanga texts established systematic categories in astronomy but the more basic problem
was handled by Aryabhatta (499 AD). His Aryabhattiya is a concise text containing 121 verses. It
contains separate sections on astronomical definitions, methods of determining the true position of
the planets, description of the movement of the sun and the moon and the calculation of the eclipses.
The reason he gave for eclipse was that the earth was a sphere and rotated on its axis and when the
shadow of the earth fell on the moon, it caused Lunar eclipse and when the shadow of the moon fell
on the earth, it caused Solar eclipse. On the contrary, the orthodox theory explained it as a process
where the demon swallowed the planet. All these observations have been described by Varahamihira
in Panch Siddhantika which gives the summary of five schools of astronomy present in his time.
Aryabhatta deviated from Vedic astronomy and gave it a scientific outlook which became a guideline
for later astronomers. Astrology and horoscope were studied in ancient India.

Chemistry
The Indus valley civilization was the earliest society, which had developed and elaborate urban
system. they also had the means of mass production of pottery, houses of baked bricks and the script
of their own. So, the early chemistry in India begins from here.
Glass making, Pottery, Jewellery making, dyeing of clothes and tanning of leather etc. were the major
chemical arts and crafts in the later periods. as a result of this expanded activity, the alchemical
knowledge increased. Following where the major chemical products that contributed to the
development of chemistry in India -
1. Glass - There is ample evidence to suggest that ancient India glass making was quite widespread
and high degree of perfection was achieved in this craft. There was a traditional glass factory at
Kopia in Basti district of Uttar Pradesh. Glass slag was found at Kolhapur, Nevasa, Paunar and
Maheshwar. Glass furnaces of late mediaeval period were found at Mysore.
Indian Traditions, Culture & Society (KNC-602) Dr. Rajeev Rajput
Assistant Professor
ABESIT

2. Paper - The process of paper making was simple and more or less similar in all parts of the
country. The main centres of paper making in medieval India were Sialkot, Zafrabad
Murshidabad, Ahmedabad, Mysore etc.
3. Soap - For washing clothes ancient Indian used certain plants and their fruit like the soap nuts of
Ritha and Sikakai. Fruits like Sriphala and Sarsapa were also used to wash different kinds of
clothes.
4. Dyeing - A number of classical texts like Atharva Veda (1000 BC) mentioned some dye stuffs.
Dyes were extracted from inorganic substances by repeatedly soaking and mixing them in water
and allowing the materials to settle. Then the solution was taken out and spread on a pot and
evaporated to get the dry dye.
5. Cosmetics and Perfumes - A large number of references to cosmetics and perfumes in Sanskrit
literature were found like in Brhatsamhita of Varahamihira. Cosmetics and Perfumes making
were mainly practised for the purpose of worship, sale and sensual pleasure.
6. Ink - An ink pot was unearthed during the excavations and Taxila which suggests that 1 was
known and used in India from 4th century BC.
7. Alcoholic liquors – Somarasa, which was mentioned in Vedas was probably the earliest evidence
of the use of intoxicants in India. Kautilya’s Arthashastra also lists a variety of liquors. Alcoholic
liquors were classified into various categories depending upon their applications in alchemical
operations.

Mathematics
The town planning of Harappa shows that the people possessed a good knowledge of measurement
and geometry. By third century AD mathematics developed as a separate stream of study. Indian
mathematics is supposed to have originated from the Sulvasutras. Apastamba in second century BC,
introduced practical geometry involving acute angle, obtuse angle and right angle. This knowledge
helped in the construction of fire altars where the kings offered sacrifices. The three main
contributions in the field of mathematics were the notation system, the decimal system and the use of
zero. The notations and the numerals were carried to the West by the Arabs. These numerals replaced
the Roman numerals.
Zero was discovered in India in the second century BC. Brahmagupta’s Brahmasputa Siddhanta is
the very first book that mentioned ‘zero’ as a number, hence, Brahmagupta is considered as the man
who found zero. He gave rules of using zero with other numbers. Aryabhatta discovered algebra and
also formulated the area of a triangle, which led to the origin of Trignometry. The Surya Siddhanta
Indian Traditions, Culture & Society (KNC-602) Dr. Rajeev Rajput
Assistant Professor
ABESIT

is a very famous work. Varahamihira’s Brihatsamhita of the sixth century AD is another pioneering
work in the field of astronomy. His observation that the moon rotated around the earth and the earth
rotated around the sun found recognition and later discoveries were based on this assertion.
Mathematics and astronomy together ignited interest in time and cosmology. These discoveries in
astronomy and mathematics became the cornerstones for further research and progress.

Physics
1. From the Vedic times Indians had classified the material word into five elements viz., Earth, Fire,
Air, Water and Ether (Akasha).
2. Indian philosophers believed that accept akasha, all other elements were physically tangible and
hence comprised of tiny particles of matter. The last tiny particles of matter which could not be
subsided further was termed as Parmanu (Atoms).
3. The term Parmanu is suggestive of the possibility that Indian philosophers in ancient times had
conceived the possibility of splitting an atom which, as we know today, is the source of atomic
energy.
4. In the Vaisheshika one of the six philosophical system of ancient India, the concept of Parmanu
appeared.
5. Besides, substance had 24 different qualities (gunas) including fluidity, viscosity, elasticity and
gravity. Fluidity was related to water, earth and fire. Viscosity was unique to water and gravity
to earth.
6. Distinctive characteristics of sound, heat, and light were also discussed, which often came close
to later discoveries of Physics. Lacking mathematical instruments, they did not evolve into
scientific theories
Indian Traditions, Culture & Society (KNC-602) Dr. Rajeev Rajput
Assistant Professor
ABESIT

UNIT IV
Science, Management and Indian Knowledge System
Agriculture
The history of agriculture in India dates back to Indus Valley civilization and in some parts of
southern India, it was found to be practiced even before the Harappans. India has one of the most
extensive agricultural lands in the world. India's monsoon is nature's abundant irrigating system. India
is also blessed with a large network of perennial rivers that over ages have created vast stretches of
highly productive soil. India has been an agricultural economy and civilization and has evolved a
long, rich and diverse tradition of agricultural practices. In the medieval period, the pattern of
agricultural practices was more or less the same as that in early ancient India. Some important changes
were brought about by the foreigners such as the introduction of new crops, trees and horticultural
plants. The principal crops were wheat, rice, barley, millets, pulses, oil seeds, cotton and sugarcane.
Tobacco, chillies, potato, guava, custard apple, cashew and pineapple were introduced in India during
16th and 17th centuries. Improved horticultural methods were adopted with great success. In the field
of irrigation, wells, tanks, canal and rahats were used to lift water with the help of oxen, which
continued to be the means of irrigation. In the medieval period the system of land measurement and
land classification, beneficial both to the rulers and to the tillers were introduced.

Geography
The constant interaction between man and nature forced people to study geography. Though the
people were clear about their own physical geography and also the Western countries, they were
unaware of their position on the earth and the distances with other countries. Indians also contributed
to shipbuilding. In the ancient period, voyages and navigation was not a familiar foray for the Indians.
However, Lothal, a site in Gujarat has the remains of a dockyard proving that trade flourished in those
days by sea. In the early medieval period with the development of the concept of tirtha and tirtha
yatra, a vast mass of geographical information was accumulated. They were finally compiled as parts
of Puranas.

Metallurgy
Metallurgy may be defined as the extraction, purification, glowing and application of metals. For over
7000 years, India has had a high tradition of metallurgical skills. The glazed potteries and bronze and
copper artefacts found in the Indus valley excavations point towards a highly developed metallurgy.
By the first century AD, mass production of metals like iron, copper, silver, gold and of alloys like
Indian Traditions, Culture & Society (KNC-602) Dr. Rajeev Rajput
Assistant Professor
ABESIT

brass and bronze were taking place. Metal artefacts produced by the Harappans were arrowheads,
axes, chisels, sickles, blades, needles, hooks and vessels such as jars, pots and pans. Many bronze
figurines have been unearthed from Harappan sites. These figurines were cast by the lost wax process.
Harappans also used gold and silver to produce a wide variety of ornaments such as pendants, bangles,
beads, rings or necklace parts. The Ganges civilization which emerged in the first millennium BC
belong to the iron age. Recent excavations in central parts of the Ganges valley and in the Eastern
Vindhya hills have shown that iron was produced there possibly as early as in 1800 BC. Its use
appears to have become widespread from about 1000 BC. India was major innovator in the field,
producing two highly advanced types of iron. The first, wootz steel, produced in South India from
about 300 BC, was iron carburized under controlled conditions. The second advance iron is the one
used in the famous 1600-year-old Delhi iron pillar. It is indicative of the high quality of alloying that
was being done. Indian metallurgists were familiar several other metals, of which zinc deserve a
special mention. Pure zinc could be produced only after a sophisticated downward distillation
technique in which the vapour was captured and condensed in a lower container.

Biology
The bulk of the Ayurvedic medicines belong to the plant kingdom. All the Ayurvedic text deal with
botanical aspects, mainly the identification and categorization of plants as source of drugs. The
Charaka Samita has a chapter dealing with the classification of plants. The Susruta Samita also deals
with several aspects of botany such as morphology and taxonomy. Susruta also provide a
classification of plants on the basis of medicinal properties.
Plants in Vedas - The most celebrated plants that find frequent mention in the Rig Veda and later
Samhitaa is the Soma plant. The second most mentioned plant was Peepal for the Asvattha during the
Vedic period. The Vedic Indians knew about many flowers bearing and fruit bearing plants.
Parasara’s Vrksayurveda is supposed to be the most ancient work in actual botany to have been
composed during first century BC and first century AD.
Plant Pathology - Many references to plant diseases and their treatment are also available in the
Vedic literature. Vinaya, the famous Buddhist text describe the blight and mildew diseases. Sukraniti
gives a detail account of danger to grains from various agents such as fire, snow, worm, insect etc.
Gunaratna observes that plants are affected by diseases, displacement or dislocation of flowers, fruits,
leaves and barks in the same way as the human body suffers from jaundice, dropsy, emaciation etc.,
and respond to treatment like human bodies.
Indian Traditions, Culture & Society (KNC-602) Dr. Rajeev Rajput
Assistant Professor
ABESIT

Germination - The technical term used for seed is vija. Germination of seed is called ankurodbheda.
According to Susruta, proper season, good soil requisite supply of water and good seeds are required
for germination of the seed.
Hamsadeva compiled Mrga-pasi-sastra in the thirteenth century which gives a general, account of
some of the beasts and birds of hunting. The medieval rulers as warriors and hunters, kept animals
such as horses, dogs, cheetahs and falcons. Akbar showed special interest in producing good breeds
of domestic animals, elephants and horses. Jahangir, in his Tuzuk-i-Jahangiri, described about thirty-
six species of animals. As a naturalist, Jahangir was interested in the study of plants and his court
artists in their floral portraiture describe some fifty-seven plants.

Medicine
Diseases, cure and medicines were mentioned for the first time in the Atharva Veda. Fever, cough,
consumption, diarrhoea, dropsy, sores, leprosy and seizure are the diseases mentioned. In Ancient
India, Medical Science were highly developed as it has the indigenous system of medicine called
Ayurveda Which literally means the science of good health and longevity of life. Ayurveda with the
help of herbal medicine aims at removing the cause of diverse by striking at the roots. It is the oldest
medical system.
From 600 BC began the period of rational sciences. Takshila and Varanasi emerged as centres of
medicine and learning. Charak, Madhava, Vagbhatta and Jeevak were noted Ayurvedic practitioner
of that time. The two important texts in this field are Charaksamhita by Charak and Sushrutsamhita
by Sushruta. Their work was reached as far as China and Central Asia through translations in various
languages. The plants and herbs used for medicinal purposes have been mentioned in
Charaksamhita. Surgery came to be mentioned as a separate stream around 4rth century AD.
Sushruta was a pioneer of this discipline. He considered surgery as the highest division of the healing
arts and least liable to fallacy. He mentions 121 surgical instruments. In Susruta Samhita over 1100
diseases were mentioned with 760 plants are described to provide remedy. All parts of the plant
roots, barks, flowers, leaves etc. were used. He mentioned the process of preserving the dead body
for the purpose of study. He was greatest contribution in the field of Rhinoplasty (Plastic Surgery)
and Ophthalmic Surgery (Removal of Cataracts). Along with this he also mentions the methods of
operations, bone setting, cataract and so on. Stress was laid on diet (e.g., salt free diet for nephrites).
Both the Charaksamhita and the Sushrutsamhita became the predecessors of the development of
Indian medicine in the later centuries.
Indian Traditions, Culture & Society (KNC-602) Dr. Rajeev Rajput
Assistant Professor
ABESIT

UNIT IV
Science, Management and Indian Knowledge System

Harappan Technology of Ancient India

When we deal with humanity’s early stages, the word ‘Technology’ applies to any made modification
of the natural environment from a stone tool to a woven piece of clothing or a construction.
One mainstay of the Indus or Harappan civilization was agriculture. Along with it, ceramic
technology developed and produced fine fired bricks as well as pots.
POTS - The pots were used to carry water, store seeds and grains and to cook food. Harappans
produced wheel-turned pots in various shapes and sizes, some of them glazed or painted. Their pottery
was generally covered with red slip. On the pots white floral, animal or geometric designs were
painted in black. The black pigment was the result of mixing iron oxide with black manganese.
BRICKS – Harappan fired bricks had proportions of 1x2x4 (width equals two heights, length equals
two widths). There was a practical reason for this proportion to make stronger walls with the least
quantity of bricks. Along with baked or mud bricks, stone was also used on a huge scale as a building
material. Harappan cities generally followed the grid plan and made a sanitation system that collected
used waters from individual bathrooms into municipal drains.
BEAD-MAKING - Harappans craftsman took bead-making to a different level and perfected
techniques of polishing, colouring, glazing, drilling and bleaching. Their favourite semiprecious
stones were carnelian, agate and jasper. The long-perforated carnelian beads were highly prized in
royal families of Mesopotamia; their length-wise drilling with special drill bits represented a
technological feat.
OTHER CRAFTS - Other crafts include stone and ivory carving, carpet making and inlaid wood
work. Harappans also manufacturer bangles from gold, bronze, conch-shell and terracottas. Weavers
used wheel-spun thread like cotton and silk.

Textile technology in India

The Vedas refer to various types of garments as well as fabrics such as wool, silk and also to weaving
and looms. We get some information on weaving skills from Buddhist literature. The Ajanta paintings
are rich source of information on clothes worn some 2000 years ago and on the techniques of weaving
including different dyes. By the time trade with the Roman Empire reached its peak; India was a
major exporter of textiles especially cotton and silk. India exported cotton to China, silk to Indonesia
Indian Traditions, Culture & Society (KNC-602) Dr. Rajeev Rajput
Assistant Professor
ABESIT

and all the way to the far East. Until the colonial era, textile production was one of the chief sources
of India’s wealth. Some of India specialties in the field of textile have been –
Muslin – This thin, loosely woven cotton fabric is highly suitable for hot climate. It was introduced
in Europe from Bengal.
Calico - It is plain-woven textile made from unbleached cotton; it was originally from Kozhikode or
Calicut (Kerala).
Chintz – It is a form of calico printed with floral and other colour pattern.
India also produced large quantities of very useful fabrics from fibres such as hemp, flax or linen and
jute. Two important technologies associated with textile are weaving technology and dying
technology. Weaving technology saw the development of complex looms, with different regional
characteristics. Dyes were extracted from both vegetal and mineral sources; blue usually from indigo,
red from various plants such as madder, yellow from turmeric, pomegranate rind or mango bark and
black from iron acetate.

Writing Technology in India

Traditionally, in India the manuscripts were written on materials such as birch bark and palm leaves.
Birch bark was mainly used for north Indian scripts and the writing was done with ink made of finely
ground charcoal powder in a medium of gum or soot from oil lamps. With palm leaves, a sharp point
was used to tear the leaf’s surface film; it would then be smeared with a paste of charcoal powder
mixed in oil, and wiped off, leaving the charcoal to adhere to the incised characters. In both cases,
considerable skills were developed to preserve manuscripts from insects and fungi. The art of paper
making was introduced into India by the 11th century, perhaps from China through Nepal. The earliest
extent Indian paper manuscripts are datable to 1105 CE; it was made from the fibres of a mountain
plant. By the later half of the 15th century, Kashmir was producing paper of attractive quality from
the pulps of raga and hemp, with lime and soda added to whiten the pulp. Sialkot, Zafrabad, Patna,
Murshidabad, Ahmedabad, Aurangabad and Mysore were among the well-known centres of paper
production. Several Europeans visitors from the 15th to 18th century testify that Indian paper was of
high quality.
Indian Traditions, Culture & Society (KNC-602) Dr. Rajeev Rajput
Assistant Professor
ABESIT

UNIT IV
Science, Management and Indian Knowledge System

Pyrotechnics in India
Pyrotechnic is the science of using materials capable of undergoing self-sustained exothermic
chemical reactions for the production of heat, light, gas, smoke and/or sound. The use of firecrackers
is not new to India. While they originated in China, the crackers soon made their way into India
through trade and military contact. The earliest evidence we have of firecrackers in India dates back
to the Mughal times. Some historians have pointed out that the knowledge of materials used to make
firecrackers existed in India as back as 300 BC. Historians believe that knowledge of gunpowder
existed in India back in the 8th Century. Sanskrit texts such as the Nitiprakasika of
Vaisampayana which was compiled in the 8th Century mentions a similar substance. But the potential
of gunpowder had not been realized during this time. Though a section of historians is of opinion that
Indians were aware of the existence of saltpetre as agnichurna or a powder that creates fire. It is
believed that Chinese pyrotechnic formulas were brought to India around 1400 AD and then modified
with the use of Indian substitutes for the Chinese ones not available in India. Gunpowder became an
article of warfare at the beginning of the 16th century. The Indian craftsman learned the technique
from the Mughals and were able to evolve suitable explosive compositions. Fireworks and
pyrotechnic shows existed as a form of royal entertainment in many medieval Indian kingdoms during
festivals, events and special occasions like weddings. 16th or 17th century Sanskrit treatise contains
a description of preparation of the gunpowder using saltpetre, sulphur and charcoal in different ratios.
From 16th century onward, rockets too began being used in wars waged in India. The rockets
consisted of a tube of soft hammered Iron tube closed at one end and strapped to a shaft of bamboo,
with a sword often fitted at the other end. The iron tube contained well-packed black powder
propellent. Though not very accurate, when fired they could cause damage as well as panic among
the troops. The British took a few rockets to England for study, which ended up boosting rocket
technology in European warfare.

Trade in ancient India

During ancient times Hindus were the masters of the sea-borne trade of Europe, Asia and Africa. Till
about the beginning of the 18th century most of the Nations obtained to a large extent its supplies of
fine cotton and silk fabric, spices, indigo, sugar, drugs, precious stones and many other works of art
Indian Traditions, Culture & Society (KNC-602) Dr. Rajeev Rajput
Assistant Professor
ABESIT

from India in exchange of gold and silver. This traditional prosperity of India began to vanish only at
the dawn of the Industrial Revolution in the west.
In industrial production ancient India was far ahead in comparison with other countries of those times.
The skills of the Indians in the production of delicate woven fabrics, in the mixing of colours, the
working of metals and precious stones, the preparation of essences and in all manner of technical art,
has from early times enjoyed a world-wide celebrity. For instance, surgical instruments of great
delicacy and accuracy were manufactured in India and it was from Indians that the art of tempering
steel was learnt by other people. Factors favouring India to emerge as the number one country in
trade, commerce and manufacturing activities were-
1. The Hindu mercantile community was very enterprising and known for their entrepreneurship,
trustworthiness and resilience.
2. Indian goods were known for its excellence. The skilled artisans of India manufactured varieties
of goods which people in other parts of the world could not find elsewhere.
3. In the art of building ocean going huge ships, ancient Hindus were far ahead of others. With the
knowledge of sea routes, monsoon winds and other navigational aspects they were able to sail to
distant corners of the earth with their goods.
4. Fairs were an important means for commercial activities and were held in every part of the country.
Huge number of people assembled at these fairs for the purpose of exchanging merchandise as
well as discussing religious and national topics.
5. The peace and prosperity that prevailed in the country gave a great impetus to inter-provincial and
inter-state trade.
Infrastructure
To facilitate trade and commerce roads were constructed all over the country from east to west and
from north to south. These roads were provided with mile stones and planted with trees. The river
Ganga and its tributary were used for carrying goods. During the Mauryan times the Great Royal
Highway more than 1600 kilometers in length connected the capital Patliputra with Taxila and the
North-West Frontier. Another long road of great commercial importance ran through Kasi and Ujjain
and linked the capital with the great sea-ports of Western India. Yet another road linked the capital
with the port of Tamralipti. It was through this principal port in Bengal that India carried extensive
trade with China, Ceylon, Java and Sumatra. Some of the important towns of trade were Arikamedu,
Kaveripattanam, Madurai, Cranganore, Nagapattanam, Mahabalipuram, Calicut, Cochin, Mangalore,
Tamralipti, Pataliputra, Vidisha, Ujjaini, Kausambi, Mathura, Taxila, Aihole, Paithan, Surat, Lothal,
Sopara, Broach, Kalyan, etc.
Indian Traditions, Culture & Society (KNC-602) Dr. Rajeev Rajput
Assistant Professor
ABESIT

Trade during the Vedic times

The Rig-Veda contains several references to sea voyages undertaken for commercial and other
purposes. God Varuna is credited with the knowledge of sea routes followed by ships. Later when
urban culture flourished in cities like Harappa and Mohenjodaro, India had established trade and
commercial relations with Sumer, Egypt and Crete. Lothal in Gujarat was one of the biggest port
towns of that period with a huge dockyard constructed out of brick. In the Old Testaments, we have
reference to trade between India and Syrian coast dating back to 1400 B.C. According to the
chronicles of the Jews, during the reign of King Solomon (c.800.B.C.), a navy equipped by Hiram,
King of Tyre, undertook a triennial voyage to the eastern countries and brought back with-it gold,
silver, ivory, apes, peacocks, Almug trees, jewels and precious stones.
From 1st century AD commodities greatly in demand in Roman world from India were spices,
perfumes, precious stones, muslins and cotton. All these commodities were paid for in gold and silver
by the Roman traders.
During the Mauryan age
During the Mauryan reign manufacturing activity was abuzz and Greek writers refer to the
manufacture of chariots, wagons, arms and agricultural implements and building of ships. Strabo
mentions richly embroidered dresses in gold duly adorned with precious stones and also flowered
robes made of fine muslin. The fact that one committee of the municipal board of Patliputra was
entrusted with the supervision of manufactured articles in the metropolis indicates the existence of
good manufacturing industries in the Mauryan period.
There were considerable number of foreign residents in Patliputra and they were in all probability
were traders. Sweet fine wines, pigments, glass-vessels and costly vessels of silver were some of the
articles imported in India while India exported fine silks, muslin, spices, perfumes, medicinal herbs,
indigo, sandalwood, pearls, ivory, iron, steel, etc.
Gupta and later period
While the Mauryans carried on their trade mainly with the east through the Kalinga ports, the Guptas
not only increased their eastern trade effectively but opened up the western sea-borne trade and this
led to unprecedented economic prosperity. In Bengal, Tamralipti was the principal port, while in
Tamilnadu, Kaveripattanam and Tondai were the principal ports. In the Malabar, coast Kottayam and
Muziris (modern Crangnore) were the main ports through which brisk trade was carried with the
Eastern Archipelago and China. The Arabs used to visit the west coast to purchase goods like teak,
drugs, perfumes, shoes, black salt, spices, indigo, textiles, muslin, etc. Indian commodities were very
popular in Arabian countries. Many of these Arabs settled in the west coast and the Hindu rulers
Indian Traditions, Culture & Society (KNC-602) Dr. Rajeev Rajput
Assistant Professor
ABESIT

allowed them to practice their religion. Ships from China, Sindh and the Persian Gulf used to anchor
at Broach and merchandise from every country was found there and was sent from there to other
countries.
In the 15th century Calicut became one of the busiest ports in the west coast and merchants from
South Africa, Abyssinia, and Arabia brought their merchandise to this port for distribution in India.
Many ships from Pegu and Malacca on their way to Red Sea halted at Calicut and carried Indian
goods for distribution to various directions. Some of the items exported were cloths, rice, iron,
saltpeter, sugar and spices while pearls, copper, coral, mercury, vermilion, elephants and horses were
imported.
The Trading Class
The traditional trading class in India was the Vaisyas. Later we find this profession being followed
by Parsis, Banias and Marwaris in Bombay Presidency, the Lingayaths in Karnataka region, Chettis
and Komatis in the Madras Presidency, Khatris in Punjab and Marwaris in Bengal and Assam. The
Vaisya community was the richest being of the business class and was represented in district councils.
This class contributed much to the cultural progress of the country. Some of them excavated caves
and build temples while others were well versed in folklore and astrology.

India’s Dominance up to Pre-colonial times

From the beginning of the historical period, India enjoyed a favourable balance of trade, thereby
accumulating stocks of gold. India's trade dominance continued in later times. In Mughal times, Abul
Fazal’s Aine Akbari records that 40000 vessels were engaged in trade in the Indus and its tributaries
of Punjab. While studying the Indian economy in the few centuries preceding British rule, economics
historians have pointed out India's high trade surplus with most of her trading partners in Europe,
West Asia or Africa. This was the result of efficient low-cost products such as cotton or spices, but
also of well-organised communities of traders. Indian merchants generally operated as guilds, a
structure that provided them with greater security, shared and reliable information and effective
access to good as well as markets. India and China controlled nearly 60% of the world's GDP 2000
ago. They were the premier economic and trade powers from early times until the colonial era. The
Colonial rule coincided with the steep decline in India's overseas trade dominance and overall
production, as the rules of trade and industry began being dictated by the colonial master
Indian Traditions, Culture & Society (KNC-602) Dr. Rajeev Rajput
Assistant Professor
ABESIT

UNIT V
Cultural Heritage and Performing Arts
Indian Architecture
Architecture is not a modern phenomenon. It began as soon as the early cave man began to build his
own shelter to live in. Indian Architecture evolved in various ages in different parts and regions of the
country. Caves, Stupas, Pillars, Temples and Indo-Islamic architecture are variety of architecture
found in India which is a very important part in Indian art and architecture.
Types of Architecture found in India
A. Cave architecture - Cave architecture is often called as Rock-cut architecture. Indian rock-
cut architecture is one of the main forms of architecture seen in caves. It is the practice of creating a
structure by carving it out of solid natural rock. The earliest caves were natural caves used by people
for a variety of purposes such as shrines shelters. Indian rock-cut architecture is mostly religious in
nature. There are more than 1500 rock-cut structures in India. Some of the famous caves are Ajanta
caves, Ellora cave, Elephanta cave etc.

B. Stupa architecture - A Stupa is a dome-shaped sacred burial mound of brick which was used
to house Buddha’s relics or to commemorate significant fact and events related to Buddhism. The
term Stupa comes from Sanskrit and it means heap. Stupas are usually built on a foundation laid with
blocks of stone or bricks. On this foundation, a hemispherical dome was raised. In India, Sanchi,
Sarnath and Amarvati are among the oldest known stupas.
Indian Traditions, Culture & Society (KNC-602) Dr. Rajeev Rajput
Assistant Professor
ABESIT

C. Pillar architecture – Erection of pillars is an age-old tradition in India. Development in the

field of pillar architecture in a proper way commence during the Mauryan age. The Mauryan pillars
were rock cut. These had proclamations inscribed on them and were used to spread the message of
the Buddha by Emperor Ashoka. The top portion of the pillar is called capital and it typically has
animal figures like bull, lion, elephant etc.

These capital figures are carved standing on a square or circular abacus. The abacuses are on the base
which could be a stylised inverted Lotus. Example of pillars with capital figures are Sarnath, Basarah-
Bakhira, Rampurva, Sankisa etc

D. Temple architecture - A temple is defined as an enclosed place of worship having a roof or

a covered structure. The word temple is derived from the Latin word templum. Temple is the dwelling
place of God and it is used for worship by devotees. The basic elements that comprise a Hindu temple
are

i. Garbhagriha – It is a cave like santum which houses the main icon of the temple.
ii. Mandapa - The entrance to the temple.
Indian Traditions, Culture & Society (KNC-602) Dr. Rajeev Rajput
Assistant Professor
ABESIT

iii. Shikhara/ Vimana - It is a mountain likes spire on top.

iv. Amalaka - Stone like disc seen at the top of the temple.
v. Kalasha - It is the top most part of the temple.
vi. Antarala - It is a vestibule between the Garbhagriha and the Mandapa.
vii. Jagati - This is a raised platform where devotees can sit and pray.

E. Indo-Islamic architecture - After the Turkish conquest of North India in the 13th century,
building activity on a large scale began. Muslims absorbed many aspects of local architectural
traditions. A mix of many techniques, stylized shapes and surface decorations evolved through a
continuous amalgamation of architectural elements from various styles. Such architectural entities
that showcased multiple styles are known as Indo Islamic architecture. Types of architectural
buildings are mosques for daily prayers, Jama Masjids, Dargahs, Tombs, Minars, Gardens, sarai etc.

Sculpture
Sculpture in the Indian subcontinent essentially consists of sculpture of stone, metal or terracotta. The
first known sculpture in the Indian subcontinent is from the Indus valley civilization, when small
items of bronze sculpture and terracotta sculpture were produced. Images are in the form of cult object
(religious objects) such as Mother Goddess, toys, animals and human beings. After the collapse of
the Indus valley civilization there is little record of sculpture until the Buddhist era. Thus, the great
tradition of Indian monumental sculpture in stone appears to begin relatively late, with the reign of
Ashoka from 272 to 232 BC and the pillars of Ashoka be erected around India. Besides religious,
secular elements were also present in Indian sculptures. Figures of Gods and Goddesses, Kings,
Queens, birds, animals and trees were made by Indian artists.
Gupta age sculpture was simple, sober and graceful. The artist used both stone as well as metal to
make images. Lost wax method was used for making metal images. During post Gupta period and
early medieval age, the art of sculpture flourished along with temple building activities. Images of
God, Goddess, doorkeepers, animals etc were made by using stone. Finest example of sculpture come
from Khajuraho. In Jagannath temple of Odisha, the images are made up of wood. Some famous
schools of art were Mathura School of Art, Gandhara School of Art, Amaravati School of Art,
Greeko-Buddhist and Indo-Greek School of Art.
Indian Traditions, Culture & Society (KNC-602) Dr. Rajeev Rajput
Assistant Professor
ABESIT

UNIT V
Cultural Heritage and Performing Arts
Seals
1. Seals were used for authentication of transactions by State as well as private individuals and
organisations.
2. Seals can be compared with stamp of present times.
3. The earliest seals were found in Indian sub-continent belong to pre-Harappan phase.
4. Thousands of seals have been discovered by archaeologists from the Harappan sites. Most of the
seals were made of steatite (sharp white soft stone. A few of them were also made of terracotta, gold,
agate, chert, ivory and faience.
5. The dimension of Harappan seals varied from 0.5 inch to 2.5 inch.
6. Most Harappan seals were quadrilateral in shape. Square and rectangular shaped seals have been
found most commonly. Some circular/ round and cubical seals were also found.
7. Seals are finest piece of miniature art because various symbols and images are found on them.
Unicorn (Bull with single horn) is most common animal. Fish is most common living sign. Elephant,
Tiger, Rhino, Crocodile, deer are also depicted. Circle, cross, dots, Swastik symbol, tree and leaves
of peepal also depicted. The Pashupati Mahadev seal found at Mohenjo-Daro is one of the most
famous examples.
8. Most of the seals have been written on both sides. The writings are in the Kharosthi style (right to
left).
9. The seals throw light on relationship and interaction of the people of light on relationship and
interaction of people of Harappan Civilization with outside world.
10. The seals throw light on the language and script of the Harappan civilization. Till now more than
2500 Harappan seals have been discovered.

Coins
Coins issued by Indian rulers to the ages are important examples of human art belonging to the ancient
age because these coins of different types of symbols on them. The coins throw light on the socio-
economic, political and cultural life of people belonging to that period. Coinage of India begin
anywhere between early first millennium BC to 6th century BC. These coins were popularly known
as punch marked coins because different symbols were inscribed on them using punches. The earliest
punch marked coins were irregular pieces of metal. Die-cast coins were issued in India in the
Saurashtra region in the 5th century BC. These coins were called Karshapana because their weight
Indian Traditions, Culture & Society (KNC-602) Dr. Rajeev Rajput
Assistant Professor
ABESIT

was one karsha (unit of measurement) each. The English word ‘Cash’ has originated from the word
karsha only. Punched mark coins were generally made of silver, while some were made of copper
also. Some of the most common symbols used on punch marked coins were Sun mark, Crescent,
Chakra, Swastika, Snake. During the post Mauryan period, the most remarkable progress was
witnessed in the field of coinage. Indo-Greeks and Kushana rulers made immense contribution to the
development of coinage. Indo-Greeks were the first to issue gold coins in India.

Significance of Coinage
A study of Indian coins enlightens us with a great deal about the history of Ancient India. Coins give
us the names of the kings who ruled at various times in different parts of the country. Information
provided by coins helps in corroborating evidence from other sources such as the Puranas etc. Coins
help us in determining chronology. Coins mention the year in which they are issued. The existence
of a large number of coins issued during the different years of the reign of king helps us to place the
exact dates for the accession and the death of the king. The place of discovery of coins helps to
determine the extent of the territory of a king. Coins also throw light on trade and commercial
relations. The discovery of a large number of Roman coins in India confirms that there was trade
between India and Roman empire. Purity of coins indicates economic prosperity of people and the
state. Discovery of large number of gold and silver coins with high level of purity indicate that level
of prosperity was high. The figures of the various Kings appear on coins and from them we can have
an idea regarding the head-dress of those Kings. Coins give us genuine information regarding the
history of ancient India as there is no possibility of them being tampered with.

Puppet
A doll or a figure controlled by a person so that it appears to be moving on its own is called Puppet.
The word Puppet has been derived from the Latin word ‘Pupa’ whose literal meaning is doll.
Puppetry is a performing art or a form of theatre that involves manipulation of puppets. Puppetry is a
dying art. Various reasons are: Lack of patronage in the modern age. Competition from electronic
media which is a preferred mode of entertainment. Puppetry art is usually confined to only devotional
and mythological stories. With changing times, Puppetry does not take up modern social issues.
Puppetry lacks modernization in terms of script, lightning, sound and the other stage effects.
Puppetry has been classified as:
A. String Puppets – It has jointed body and limbs that allow movement. Puppets are made of wood,
wire or cloth stuffed with cotton, rags or saw dust. Eg. Kathputli (Rajasthan).
Indian Traditions, Culture & Society (KNC-602) Dr. Rajeev Rajput
Assistant Professor
ABESIT

B. Glove Puppets – The glove puppets are worn on hands just like a glove. Eg. Pava-kathakali
(Odisha).
C. Rod Puppets – These puppets have mostly three joints. The heads supported by the main rod, is
joined at the neck and both hands attached to rods are joined with shoulders. Eg. Yampuri (Bihar).
D. Shadow Puppets – Shadow puppets are flat puppets that are operated against the rear of a tightly
stretched white cloth screen.Eg. Ravanachhaya (Odisha).
Indian Traditions, Culture & Society (KNC-602) Dr. Rajeev Rajput
Assistant Professor
ABESIT

UNIT V
Cultural Heritage and Performing Arts
Dance
The two major dance forms in India are Classical and Folk dance. The major difference between
classical and folk dance is the origin. Classical dance has a deep-rooted relationship with the Natya
Shastra where the specific features of each of the classical dance forms have been mentioned. Folk
dance on the other hand, emerged from the local tradition of the respective state, ethnic or geographic
regions.
Basic Elements of Classical Dance
The Natya Shastra written by Bharat Muni is the most prominent source for establishing the
characteristics of the dances.
There are two basic aspects of classical dance
1. Lasya - It denotes grace, bhava, rasa and abhinaya. It is symbolic to the feminine feature of
dance as an art form.
2. Tandava - This is symbolic to the male aspects of dance and has more emphasis on rhythm
and movement.
There are three basic elements of classical dance
1. Nritta - These are the basic dance steps and are performed rhythmically but devoid of any
expression or mood.
2. Natya - It means dramatic representations and refers to the story that is elaborated through
the dance recital.
3. Nritya - It refers to the sentiment and the emotions evoked through dance. It includes the
mime and the different methods of expression including mudras in the dance.
The Guru-Shishya paramapara forms the core of the Indian classical dance forms. The basic meaning
is that each dance form is related to a Guru (teacher) and he/she transfers that knowledge of dance to
a Shishya (Student).
The 8 basic technicalities that are expressed in the classical dance are giving below
Shringer (Love), Hasya (Humorous), Karuna (Sorrow), Raudra (Anger), Veer (Heroism), Bhayanak
(Fear), Bibhats (Disgust), Adhbhut (Wonder).
Various classical dances in India are Bharatanatyam (Tamil Nadu), Kathak (Uttar Pradesh),
Kuchipudi (Andhra Pradesh), Odissi (Odisha), Kathakali (Kerala), Sattriya (Assam), Manipuri
(Manipur), Mohiniyattam (Kerala).
Indian Traditions, Culture & Society (KNC-602) Dr. Rajeev Rajput
Assistant Professor
ABESIT

Music
The fundamental elements of Indian music are
1. Shruti - Commonly refers to musical pitch. It is the shortest interval of pitch that human ears can
detect and a musical instrument or singer can produce. According to Natya Shastra, there are 22
shruti.
2. Swara - It refers to type of musical sound that is a single note, which define a relative position of
a note, rather than a defined frequency. There are 7 swaras in the form of Sa, Re, Ga, Ma, Pa, Dha,
Ni. These 7 swaras are related to sounds of certain birds and animals.
3. Raga – A raga prescribes a set of rules for building a melody. It is characterized by a combination
of notes picked out of the total 22 shruti. Ragas involves arrangement of swaras in different
sequences. All the ragas are categorized in such a way that there will be in increasing and
decreasing order of swaras. Following are some important ragas
i. Raga Bhairav – It is a morning raga.
ii. Raga Marwa – It is sung during late afternoon hours till sunset
iii. Raga Pahadi - It is an evening raga.
iv. Raga Yaman - It is an evening raga. It is sung from sunset till late evening.
v. Raga Jog – It is sung after midnight in the wee hours of morning.
vi. Raga Malhar - It is associated with rain.
vii. Raga Deepak - It is associated with fire.
4. Tal - Tal refers to the beat set for a particular composition (a measure of time). It is a sequence of
beats performed by singers using hands and fingers at fixed time cycles. These rhythmical cycles
vary from 3 to 128 beats. Tal is intricately related to Laya which refers to a repetitive nature of
any activity.

Theatre
Traditional theatre is a combination of acting, singing, dance, music, dialogue and narration. It started
as a narrative form of art where recitations, dance and music played a central role in depicting the
local history, societal ethos etc. It is based on spontaneous creativity emerging from circumstances.
Traditional theatre is often a key feature of cultural promotion. The main elements of theatre are
1. Plot
2. Character
3. Thought
4. Diction
Indian Traditions, Culture & Society (KNC-602) Dr. Rajeev Rajput
Assistant Professor
ABESIT

5. Music
6. Spectacle
Following are the traditional art forms of India – Bhavai (Gujarat and Rajasthan), Nautanki
(Uttar Pradesh), Rasleela (Uttar Pradesh), Swang (Haryana and Punjab), Bhand Pather
(Kashmir), Maach (Malwa in Uttar Pradesh), Anika Naat (Assam), Dashavatar (Konkan
and Goa).

The medieval period witnessed the emergence of regional language literatures. But it did not
produce dramatic works comparable to ancient classics. Some innovations happened in religious
drama due to socio-religious reform. Indian drama was a reborn during British colonial in 18th
and 19th centuries. The impetus came from two sources - the rich heritage of Indian drama and
the exposure to Western dramatic classics through English. Translations started appearing
simultaneously of Sanskrit classics and Western classics. An unprecedented development in
theatre was the rise of entertainment theatre. This arose in order to provide entertainment to the
increasing population of big cities consequent upon industrialization. The new urban theatre is
popularly known as Parsi theatre. This genre was an interesting mixture of Western naturalistic
drama, opera and several local elements.

Drama
Bharat’s Natya Shastra was the earliest and most elaborate treatise on drama written anywhere in
the world. India has the longest and richest traditions in theatre going back to at least 5000 years.
The origin of drama in India is closely related to ancient rituals and seasonal festivities. The
growth in drama took place with the introduction of garden in the ‘curtain’ in the Kushanas era.
Traditionally, the theatre consisted of the auditorium, stage and the backstage which is behind the
stage. Curtain separates the stage and backstage. The drama was performed without scenery and
decorations. It was more of acting and gestures by the actors. Costume and make-up were
regulated buy a convention so that roles were immediately recognizable. Most type of drama had
a hero, a heroine, a villain and a vidushaka as a comedian. Themes were mainly based on love.
The drama generally opened with a benediction song followed by a prologue in the form of
dialogue/discussion between the chief actor and his actress giving the title, nature and occasion
of the play. Violence and death were forbidden to be performed in the stage. At the end of the
play came a concluding verse – a virtual vote of thanks.
Indian Traditions, Culture & Society (KNC-602) Dr. Rajeev Rajput
Assistant Professor
ABESIT

Painting
The tradition of paintings has been carried on in the Indian subcontinent since the ancient times.
With time, Indian classical paintings evolved to become a sort of blend of the various traditions
influencing them. Indian paintings provide on aesthetic continuum that extends from the early
civilization to the present day. In the beginning Indian painting was essentially religious in
purpose. But as year passed, Indian painting became a fusion of various culture and traditions.
During the colonial era, Western influences started to make an impact on Indian art. By the time
of Independence in 1947, several schools of art in India provided access to modern techniques
and ideas. Galleries were established to showcase these artists. Indian are got a boost with the
economic liberalization of the country since early 1990s. Artists from various fields started
bringing in varied style of work post liberalization. Indian art thus works not only within the
confines to academic traditions but also outside it.
Classification of Indian paintings –
1. Mural Paintings - Murals are large works executed on the walls of solid structures directly.
2. Miniature Paintings - They are executed on a very small scale for the books or albums on
perishable material such as paper and the cloth.

Martial Arts
India is famous for its martial art that have developed since ancient times. The term martial art refers
to creativity exhibited by warriors while fighting against their opponents. These warriors use different
gestures, postures and techniques to overcome their opponents. Nowadays these art forms are used in
rituals, celebrations, in sports, means of physical fitness as a self-defence. Many of the arts are related
to dance, yoga etc. Different martial arts forms of India are Kalaripayattu (Kerala), Silambam (Tamil
Nadu), Gatka (Punjab), Musti Yuddha (Varanasi), Thang Ta (Manipur), Lathi (Punjab & Bengal),
Mardani Khel (Maharashtra), Pari Khanda (Bihar, Jharkhand, Odisha), Inbuan Wrestling (Mizoram),
Thoda (Himachal Pradesh).

Fair and Festivals

People in India celebrate their religious and cultural occasions by organizing cultural activities in the
form of fairs and festivals, Every Indian State and socio-cultural group has its unique traditions which
reflect in their celebrations. People use folk music, dances and order forms of entertainment to enjoy
these important occasions. Vibrant, fascinating and beautiful Indian fairs and festivals reflect the
cultural strength and diversity of India. Indian festivals can be broadly divided into 3 categories,
Indian Traditions, Culture & Society (KNC-602) Dr. Rajeev Rajput
Assistant Professor
ABESIT

namely national or political, religious and economic. Most Indian festivals are connected to seasons
and economic activities. Fairs and festivals help in breaking the monotony of life. Cultural activities
organized on these occasions invigorate everyone. Economic activities get a boost because artisans
and craftsmen set up their stalls to sell their products at fairs. These occasions also give boost to
tourism because they attract millions of tourists every year. The voice of Indian heritage and culture
is carried by these celebrations beyond Indian boundaries. Festivals are secular as well as a religious
in nature. Festivals such as Independence Day and Republic Day are examples of secular festivals.
Holi, Diwali, Chhath and Onam etc are examples of religious festivals.
Major religious festivals celebrated in India are Holi, Maha Shivratri, Diwali, Navaratri, Vinayaka
Chaturthi, Guru Purnima, Thai Pongal, Raksha Bandhan, Vasant Panchami, Karva Chauth, Baisakhi,
Buddha Purnima, Janmashtami, Christmas, Ramzan, Muharram, Easter etc.
Important fairs of India are Kumbha Mela, Pushkar Mela, Kullu Mela, Rath Yatra of Puri, Hola
Mohalla, Urs of Ajmer Sharif, Goa Carnival etc.

Indian Cinema
The word Cinema is a short form of cinematography. It refers to the art of filmmaking.
Various era of Indian cinema - Following are the eras of Indian cinema –
A. Early Indian Cinema (1898 to 1945) –
i. Age of Silent Films - The earliest films were silent films. The dialogues delivered by actors were
not audible to viewers because technology was not advanced enough to record both visuals and
audio simultaneously. The plot used to be told through writings using title cards. These silent films
were not completely silent. They were accompanied by live sounds. A small orchestra used to play
music during the films as per the nature of scene.
ii. Age of Talking Films or Talkies - With the start of 1930s, a new era of talkies commenced in
Indian cinema. Talkie was a sound film or a motion picture having synchronized sound. The first
talkie in India was Alam Ara. This release set a new trend and regional talkies also started after
Alam Ara.
B. Golden era of Indian Cinema (1940 to 1960) - In the late 1940s, Indian cinema picked up the
new masala themed films depicting music, dance and romance. This era was led by directors like
Guru Dutt, Raj Kapoor, Bimal Roy and Mehboob Khan. They brought new depth to the themes
prevalent in India. This era laid the foundation stone of Indian cinema inspiring generations of
filmmakers. With the Independence of India in 1947, a statutory body was created by enacting the
Indian Traditions, Culture & Society (KNC-602) Dr. Rajeev Rajput
Assistant Professor
ABESIT

Cinematograph Act in 1952 with the name of Central Board of Film Certification (CBFC). It was
placed under the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting.
C. Classic decades of Indian Cinema (1970s and 1980s) - The films of this phase were characterized
by a mixture of genre of romance and action. This phase was dominated by filmmakers like
Ramesh Sippy, Hrishikesh Mukherjee and Vijay Anand. Ionic films like Zanjeer and Sholay
became huge commercial success and went on to become trendsetters in Indian cinema. The term
Bollywood was coined during the 1970s with the establishment of Conventions of Commercial
Bollywood Films (CCBF).
D. New Bollywood phase of Indian Cinema (1990s to Present) - During the late 1980s, Indian
cinema faced a face of stagnation because of increasing use of violence, issues related to quality
of music and rise in cases of video theft. With the release of Yash Chopra's epic film Chandni,
Indian cinema rejuvenated itself and an era of romance started. The beginning of the 21st century
marked commencement of an era of technological evolution. The new technology, advancement
in terms of animation, special effects, digital projectors, latest production techniques, etc.,
improved the quality of Indian films and increased its popularity among the masses.