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Localization in Translation

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“Miguel A. Jiménez-Crespo has already established himself as the go-to expert
for web localization, but, with this new book, he offers insights into localiza-
tion on a broader scale, taking in not only the web but also software, video
games, and apps. What’s more, he does not shy away from exploring the
complex relationships between localization and pressing issues such as acces-
sibility, sustainability, and generative large language models (LLMs). No
other resource offers such a comprehensive and up-to-date investigation of
the theory and practice of localization in all its forms, making this a must-read
for translation students or professionals seeking to add localization work to
their repertoire’’.
Lynne Bowker, University of Ottawa,
Canada

“This book by Miguel A. Jiménez-Crespo updates and builds on his previous

writings that have become standard resources on localization. Not only is
this an in-depth and timely volume, the layout and format are ideal for a uni-
versity module. The comprehensive overview, breadth of research cited, and
novel content combine to make this a key reading on localization for novice
and expert readers”.
Joss Moorkens, Dublin City University, Ireland

“In this book, Miguel Ángel Jiménez-Crespo unravels the concept of localiza-
tion, masterfully exploring the nuances of adapting content for diverse media,
be it software, websites, mobile apps, or video games. The author also pro-
vides insight into the latest developments in the field, such as Large Language
Models (LLMs), Artificial Intelligence, and Green Localization, and proposes
future research avenues. Theoretical and practical insights, real-world exam-
ples, and expert tips make this a comprehensive companion for translation
students and researchers, as well as novice and seasoned professionals in the
realm of localization’’.
Carme Mangiron, Universitat Autònoma
de Barcelona, Spain


Localization in Translation

Localization is everywhere in our digital world, from apps to websites or

games. Our interconnected digital world functions in part thanks to invisible
localization processes that allow global users to engage with all sorts of
digital content and products. This textbook presents a comprehensive
overview of the main theoretical, practical, and methodological issues related
to localization, the technological, textual, communicative, and cognitive
process by which interactive digital texts are prepared to be used in contexts
other than those of production.
Localization in Translation provides an interdisciplinary introduction
to the main practical and theoretical issues involved in localizing software,
web, video games, and apps. It discusses the many technological, cultural,
linguistic, quality, economic, accessibility, and user-reception issues related
to the different localization types. It also provides an updated overview
of localization in an ever-changing technological landscape marked by
advances in neural machine translation and AI. Each chapter includes a basic
summary, key questions, a final section with discussion and assignments, as
well as additional readings. Online resources with additional questions and
assignments are included on the Routledge Translation Studies portal.
This is the essential textbook for advanced undergraduates and graduates
in translation studies and translation professionals engaged in localization
practice.

Miguel A. Jiménez-Crespo is a Professor at the Department of Spanish and

Portuguese, Rutgers University, NJ, USA, where he directs the graduate and
undergraduate programs in Spanish <> English translation and interpreting.
Routledge Introductions to Translation and Interpreting

Series Editor:
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The series reflects the standards of the translator/interpreter training
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titles include a range of pedagogical support: activities, case studies etc.

Most recent titles in the series:

Working as a Professional Translator
JC Penet
Localization in Translation
Miguel A. Jiménez-Crespo

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Localization in Translation

Miguel A. Jiménez-Crespo
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First published 2024
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Software localization.
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Contents

List of Figures ix
List of Tables xi
Acknowledgments xii
List of Abbreviations xiii

1 Introduction 1

2 Defining localization: Main concepts 11

3 Localization: Minding the process 31

4 Quality in localization 60

5 Culture in localization 78

6 Localization and digital interaction: Interactivity,

multimodality, usability, and accessibility 97

7 Localization: Texts and digital genres 121

8 Software localization 146

9 Web localization 172

10 Video game localization 203

11 Mobile app localization 224

12 Perspectives in localization: From MT to AI 242


viii Contents

13 Researching localization 267

Bibliography 289
Index 320
Figures

2.1 Interdependence of all stages in the global GILT cycle 16

2.2 The “internationalized text” or “de-localized text” 24
2.3 Different areas of research in localization studies 25
2.4 Proposed map of Localization Studies by Jiménez-Crespo
(2013: 141) 27
3.1 Global product development cycle that interrelates localization
and internationalization (LISA 2007) 33
3.2 Storage of resources in resource files and linking them
dynamically to locale-neutral binary files 34
3.3 Representation of “waterfall” approaches 43
3.4 Description of the continuous localization process 44
3.5 Localization interface for the WYSIWYG Alchemy Catalyst 47
4.1 Translation quality cline that interrelates levels of quality with
content and process types 63
4.2 “Internal” and “external” quality in localization 64
4.3 MQM list of “issue types” or errors 69
5.1 The cultural iceberg (Katan and Taibi 2021: 51) 84
5.2 Examples of icons that cause confusion globally. “My
briefcase”, “Write new tweet”, “You have mail”, Instagram
inbox tray, and the ‘Home’ icon for Internet Explorer 87
6.1 Functionality and the digital interactive communicative process 99
6.2 Interactive mass communication model 101
7.1 Two basic hypertext structures, axial and networked 128
7.2 Formal schematic of hyperlinking as both local and global
coherence phenomena 130
7.3 Evolution of digital genres (Jiménez-Crespo 2012) 136
7.4 Example of “genre embedding” in the Women’s Health
website (http://womenshealth​.gov) 139
7.5 Typical macrostructure of a website used for development
purposes 141
8.1 Textual typology in software localization proposed by
Austermühl (2006: 8) 151
8.2 The localization process. Adapted from Roturier (2015: 85) 152


x Figures

8.3 Software localization using Catalyst by Alchemy Software

Development 164
8.4 Types of internal or external software documentation 168
8.5 The acquisition of localization competence, from translation
competence to localization competence or from engineering
and development toward localization 170
9.1 Inverted pyramid journalistic style (Jiménez-Crespo 2010: 4) 189
9.2 Conventional superstructure of a non-profit website 194
9.3 Interface Text and Content Text in a webpage from the US
Center for Disease Control (https://wwwnc​.cdc​.gov​/travel​/
page​/adventure) 195
10.1 Adapted example of UI localization table in Excel format
from the localization component of the game engine Cry
Engine. Localization into Spanish, es-ES (https://docs​
.cryengine​.com​/display​/CEPROG​/UI​+Localization) 208
10.2 Screenshot of the Dialog System/Localization Manager
section of CryEngine. The screenshot shows the scripts for the
audio units with their string ID name and the actor intended
to record it (Toftedahl 2021: 9) 216
11.1 Example of values/strings​.x​ml localization using the Android
Localization Files Editor with localization into French (fr_FR)
and Spanish (es_ES) 231
11.2 Android res/values/strings​.x​ml localization with multiple
locales. This image is reproduced from work created and
shared by the Android Open Source Project and used
according to terms described in the Creative Commons 2.5
Attribution License 233
11.3 App localization process for Apple iOS apps using XCode 237
11.4 Example of xcloc localization folders in XCode with Spanish,
Japanese, and Simplified Chinese locales 238
11.5 Example of app localization in the Android Translations
Editor in French and Spanish 239
12.1 The augmented translator, adapted from Lommel (2020) and
Lommel and DePalma (2021) 253
12.2 Gengo paid crowdsourcing workflow 256
13.1 Interdisciplinarity within localization in the context of
translation studies (TS). The interdisciplinary map of TS is
adapted from Hatim and Munday (2004: 8) and Jiménez-
Crespo (2013a: 135) 276
Tables

3.1 Standard rates of contraction or expansion from/to English

from Eriksen​.c​om 36
3.2 Types of “pseudo-languages” according to Apple 36
4.1 Summary: error typology in published localized websites 73
6.1 Nielsen’s revised set of heuristics for usability (Nielsen 2020) 108
6.2 Summary of Web Content Accessibility Guidelines 113
6.3 Main accesibilitly barriers in video games (Mangiron 2021: 272) 118
7.1 Definitions of the seven standards of textuality according to
Beaudegrande and Dressler (1981) 123
7.2 Contrastive analysis of the macrostructure of original and
localized web forms (Jiménez-Crespo 2010b). The frequencies
indicate the percentage of forms (original or localized) that
include each “move” or “step”. Frequencies marked in bold
indicate significant differences between original Spanish web
forms and those localized from English 143
8.1 Different ways of rendering plurals in Romance languages,
Russian, and Modern Greek 157
9.1 Prototypical superstructure of the genre “non-profit website”
in the United States (adapted from Jiménez-Crespo (2012:
149–150)) 192
9.2 Proposed categorization of web genres for translation purposes
(adapted from Jiménez-Crespo (2013a)) 197
11.1 Examples of strings​.x​ml files in different locales within a
project in Android 234
12.1 Differences between artificial intelligence and intelligence
augmentation (Jiménez-Crespo 2023a) 252


Acknowledgments

First of all, I would like to thank the Editor of this book series, Sergey
Tyulenev, for the kind invitation to write this book on localization, and for
insisting on and motivating me to complete this project.
My thanks go to Dr. Stephen Doherty, as well as the entire faculty of
Interpreting and Translation Studies at the University of New South Wales,
Australia, for the invitation to be a visiting researcher in Fall 2022, where
part of this book was researched and written. This book would have not been
possible without the support and the outstanding intellectual environment
they provided for the writing process.
My thanks go to my family in Úbeda, Spain, for their unconditional love
and support. My thanks also go to my family in Sydney, especially Alan D.
and the entire Davies family. This book project owes a lot to your love and
support.
I am very grateful to J. Schroepfer for the help with the editing process and
to my dear colleagues and friends, all of whom are localization and transla-
tion technology scholars, who provided feedback during my writing process:
V. Enríquez-Raido, M. Tercedor, C. I. López-Rodriguez, M. Mata Pastor, C.
Mangiron, J. Moorkens, and L. Ramírez-Polo. Your invaluable feedback and
comments on the initial chapters have made this project stronger.
Last but not least, I would like to thank a number of scholars who gave
permission to reproduce images or figures from their works, namely A. Pym,
M. Taibi, and D. Katan, as well as Alchemy Software Development for pro-
viding images of Alchemy Catalyst.


Abbreviations

ASO App Store Optimization

AI Artificial Intelligence
CMS Content Management System
G12n Globalization
GALA Globalization and Localization Association
GMS Global Management System
HCI Human-Computer Interaction
HCAI Human-Centered AI
IA Intelligence Augmentation
I18n Internationalization
ISO International Standard Association
L10n Localization
LLM Large Language Model
LQA Localization Quality Analysis, Linguistic Quality Analysis
LSI Localization Industry Standards
LISA Localization Industry Standards Association
MT Machine Translation
NMT Neural Machine Translation
PEMT Post-Editing Machine Translation
ROI Return on Investment
SaaS Software as a Service
SEO Search Engine Optimization
SEM Search Engine Marketing
ST Source text
TS Translation Studies
TT Target text
UI User Interface
UX User Experience
W3C World Wide Web Consortium
WAI Web Accessibility Initiative
WWW World Wide Web


1 Introduction

Key questions

• What is the role of localization in our contemporary digital world?

• How does this book work?
• What is the structure of this book?
• Why are the terms “localizer”, “products”, or “users” used in this
book?
• How can instructors use this book?

Summary
This first chapter is an introduction to this book and describes it for the
intended audience. It presents localization and localization phenomena within
the context of our digital world. It discusses the structure of the five distinct
parts of the book: definitions and concepts (Part 1), localization processes,
workflows, and quality assessment (Part 2), issues common to all localization
types, such as the roles of culture, interactivity, multimodality, accessibility,
or textual and discursive issues (Part 3), software, web, video game, and app
localization (Part 4), and perspectives in localization, such as Neural Machine
Translation in localization, generative Large Language Models (LLMs), and
Artificial Intelligence (AI) (Part 5). It then explains the rationale for choosing
some of the basic terms used, such as “localization”, “localizer”, “localiza-
tion products” or “users”. Finally, this introductory chapter describes how
instructors may potentially approach the book, and how to complement the
book with additional resources, materials, and activities.

The digital world and localization

Technological progress has enabled the ever-increasing transnational move-
ment of goods, services, data, and people across the world. Digital data
now travel at lightning speed globally, and digital users now have access to

DOI: 10.4324/9781003340904-1
2 Inroduction

websites, apps, digital news, conversational assistants, or networked video

games anytime, anywhere. In this context, multimedia communication using
digital devices has become ubiquitous in daily life. The digitalization and
mediafication of our lives have been fueled to a great extent by localization
practices that continue to grow and diversify. From popular online stream-
ing video platforms to digital news outlets and from social networking apps
to localized video games, localization practices have become a vital link in
the global cycle of multimedia digital content production, distribution, and
consumption.
Localization emerged in the early 80s due to the ever-growing use of inter-
active digital genres achieved by companies developing software and video
games. Localization arose when these companies realized that their revenue
would increase if these digital products were usable in other linguistic and
cultural regions. However, these digital texts obviously required a different
approach when it came to being “translated” due to how they were devel-
oped, stored, distributed, and used; hence, the emergence of the first “localiza-
tion” processes as we know them. Some of the first localization projects were
the Japanese version of the Multiplan spreadsheet software by Microsoft in
1982, and the different versions of the operating system for the Apple Lisa
computer (French, German, Italian, and Spanish) in 1983.1 With four dec-
ades of continuous developments, we cannot say that localization is a new
phenomenon, but rather a consolidated set of practices with a strong indus-
try presence. The term “localization” was adopted because those involved in
the internationalization of early software or video games decided to use the
term “locale” rather than “language”, meaning the combination of a lan-
guage and a geographic region, such as en_UK for UK English or en_AU for
Australian English (see Chapter 2). Localization is a complex technological,
textual, communicative, and cognitive process by which digital interactive
texts are processed to be used in linguistic and socio-cultural contexts differ-
ent from those of production (Jiménez-Crespo 2013, 2020a). It encompasses
a wide interprofessional cycle, in which localizers, localization managers,
localization engineers, or developers collaborate flexibly, depending on the
type and scale of the project (Pym 2011: 410). It is a highly profitable area
within the language industry and one of its main growth engines. According
to Nimdzi Insights, the annual turnover of the language industry amounted
to $69.3 billion in 2023. It is projected to reach $90.8 billion by 2027, even
when according to Common Sense Advisory (2023)2 this growth has dra-
matically slowed, driven by improvements in machine translation (MT) and
artificial intelligence (AI). A great deal of this growth will be driven by digital
texts that will be “localized” and delivered to users through digital channels.
According to DePalma (2021), the “language” and “localization” engineer-
ing/development component amounts to one-tenth of this total (DePalma
2021), although the actual global business volume of all localization-related
activities is hard to separate from the global numbers. The role of the “local-
izer” has “now become a true profession, although it’s still not easy to explain
  Introduction 3

its role to those unfamiliar with the industry” (Esselink 2022: 92). One of
the main objectives of this book is precisely that: to make this unfamiliar set
of practices “familiar” to readers. I have written this book in an accessible
manner to contribute to what we could call “localization literacy”, mirroring
recent publications on “machine translation literacy” for professional circles
and society (e.g., Bowker and Buitrago Ciro 2019a; Kenny 2022). Thus, my
intention is to help prepare future experts who can contribute to making
the many technological, cultural, textual, user-oriented, or theoretical issues
surrounding localization “familiar” to other industry experts and the wider
public alike.

How does this book work?

This book is the first to attempt to present a comprehensive or overarch-
ing introduction to “localization” as a whole, including challenges that are
common to software, web, video game, and app localization. It presents an
overview of basic common issues necessary for the study of all localization
types, from conceptual and theoretical foundations to “techno-centric” prac-
tical knowledge that you will need to become part of a localization team. It
is addressed primarily at advanced undergraduate and graduate students in
translation and interpreting programs, where localization is often taught as
part of translation technology or audiovisual translation courses or programs.
It is also addressed to other audiences with an interest in localization, such as
computational linguists, developers, localization engineers, and many others
who have an interest in understanding the many complex issues surrounding
localization processes. For example, usability experts might benefit from a
global understanding of localization practices. These usability experts recom-
mend following established conventions in the target locale to increase the usa-
bility and the usability experience (UX) ratings by users. However, they might
need to question whether usability testing alone can help to identify which
cultural conventions exist in any given locale. How, for example, can local-
izers participate in this process as intercultural communicators (see Chapter
5)? Similarly, internationalization experts follow established guidelines in the
industry but, when new internationalization problems arise, a deep knowledge
of cultural and linguistic issues in localization could be of great help.
Unfortunately, some aspects of this book will inevitably become dated
due to the speed with which some technologies evolve, especially in the age
of AI (Artificial Intelligence) and automation (see Chapter 12). However,
as Bert Esselink, pioneer of localization training and author of the seminal
2000 book Localization, recently wrote, not much has changed in the way
localization processes are conducted in the past two decades, except for the
move toward machine translation post-editing (MTPE) (Esselink 2002). I
would also add to this the move toward continuous/agile localization and
the cloud, as well as the integration of generative Large Language Models
(LLMs), such as ChatGPT, and the potential impact of augmentation and
4 Inroduction

Human-Centered AI (Jiménez-Crespo 2023a; O’Brien 2023) (see also

Chapter 12). From a global perspective, rather than a workflow or practical
one, we could also argue that a lot has changed in the past two decades. We
have experienced the mobile and data connectivity revolution, and now apps
and smartphones are more widely used globally than personal computers.
The social networking era radically changed how users communicate, access
information, and spend their time in front of digital screens. Augmented
Reality and Virtual Reality (AR and VR, respectively) are now common-
place, and new popular digital genres have emerged, such as TikToks and
tweets or X posts (see Chapter 7).
This book does not attempt to provide a detailed comprehensive descrip-
tion or step-by-step instructions for the many processes involved in locali-
zation nowadays. Similarly, it does not describe in detail how some of the
localization tools are used, or the basics of Java, or any other programming
language: most of that content can become dated quickly when localization
technologies update versions, new technologies emerge, or developers favor
different programming languages for different development tasks. Instead,
that kind of step-by-step knowledge can best be acquired through many
other channels such as tool manufacturers, demo lectures on YouTube,
expert forums, and other courses and channels. This book instead will show
you the key concepts, both practical and theoretical, underlying the many
areas surrounding localization practices. This more general approach allows
you to apply your knowledge to specific localization projects, stages, and
tasks, and the knowledge acquired will be transferable to other localization
workflows, technologies, solutions, or tasks that Localization or Language
Service Providers (LSPs) might present you with later in your professional
life. The approach taken is that, given the changing landscape of digital
tools and technologies, it is more important to learn how to learn, how to
identify when you need to learn something to solve a problem, and how to
acquire the basic principles of the different areas surrounding localization
rather than to learn step by step any specific technology, tool, stage, or pro-
cess.3 Doing the latter would require a book for each localization type. This
is also in line with the notion of “adaptive expertise” by Shreve (2020). This
author rightly claims that work activities in the language industry, and espe-
cially in localization, tend to be broader rather than definable (Shreve 2020:
154). Therefore, training future translators or localizers requires experts
who are good and efficient in their recurring or routine tasks, but who are
also able to deal more effectively with novelty and ambiguity. They also
have a “deeper understanding of the nature of their task domain and the
problems they encounter with it” (ibid: 159). A critical and self-reflective
approach, guided through deliberate practice, can lead to a flexible and
adaptive understanding of localization phenomena. The chapters thus pre-
sent the main ideas and content that lead to critical discussions and reflec-
tive practice. The approach is not prescriptive when describing the processes
or practices because, as O’Hagan and Mangiron (2014: 326) indicate, “any
  Introduction 5

prescriptive approach is doomed to fail” given the sheer diversity in locali-

zation products and practices and “the new innovations constantly being
applied to them”.
It is assumed that students will have acquired, in other courses, the princi-
ples of translation technologies, such as translation memory (TM), machine
translation post editing (MTPE) or terminology management as these are
common transversal competences in comprehensive translation programs.
Other books and resources can provide additional information about
translation and localization technologies, such as Translation Tools and
Technologies (Rothwell et al. 2023) in this same Routledge series. The book
is also structured in a way that allows instructors working with many locale
combinations and localization contexts to adapt the actual tasks and projects
conducted to suit their specific needs, be it a COVID app (Warbourton and
Krishnam 2021) or a small HTML5 video game (Dias Esqueda and Coelho
Fernandes 2019).
Note that this book’s objective is not to be the definitive resource on how
localization is conducted globally. Localization practices vary widely from
the small website of a restaurant in a tourist location, constructed by a sin-
gle localizer with some knowledge of HTML and website management, all
the way up to large portals, such as Amazon, Google, or Facebook, which
involve hundreds of participants in many separate roles. They also vary from
one LSP to another, from a small to a large organization, or from non-pro-
fessional or volunteer to professional practices (e.g., Jiménez-Crespo 2017a;
Al-Batineh and Alawneh 2021). As with others in this series, this book is
intended as a guide and a source of inspiration for future professional local-
izers. Whether you end up working primarily in textual assets of digital prod-
ucts, in the localization of layer graphics, in a localization management role,
or even as a localization scholar, this book is intended to be one more step
toward your future career in the field. I hope that this book will serve a
diverse readership and help promote, as previously mentioned, “localization
literacy” worldwide.

How the book is structured

The book is structured in five distinct parts. The first part introduces readers
to the main theoretical and conceptual principles in the study of localiza-
tion, including the notion of “Localization Studies” (Chapters 1 and 2). The
second part includes, from a descriptive perspective, components common
to all localization processes, such as workflows, agents, technologies, stand-
ards, and quality assurance (Chapters 3 and 4). The third part then pre-
sents an overview of fundamental areas such as the role of cultural or textual
approaches, as well as user-oriented issues such as interactivity, accessibility,
or usability (Chapters 5, 6, and 7). In the fourth part, the book introduces a
more detailed description of the four main localization types: software, web,
game, and app localization. Each chapter focuses on specific issues related
6 Inroduction

to each type, such as the main formats, processes, assets, or associated digi-
tal genres (Chapters 8, 9, 10, and 11). The book ends (Part 5, Chapters 12
and 13) by projecting the study of localization into the future, with Chapter
12 focusing on perspectives such as the use of MT or generative LLMs. It
also includes a focus on environmental and social issues, such as the digital
era’s potential impact on the planet, and, more specifically, a discussion on
the notion of sustainability and “green localization”. Since most localization
training programs might involve both practical and research projects (such as
BA or graduate theses), Chapter 13 presents a practical overview of how to
conduct research on localization. It describes the basic steps, tools, and meth-
odologies that have been used to date, and it opens the field to innovative
future projects that might change the future of Translation and Localization
Studies as we know them.

About the terminology used in this book

This book uses the most common terms employed in the localization industry,
Translation Studies (TS), and related disciplines (see the section in Chapter
13 on interdisciplinarity and localization). The first industry and scholarly
publications were primarily descriptive accounts of localization processes
and stages, intended to provide a foundation for educational purposes. They
were mostly written by industry experts who introduced the terms used in
their trade, such as “localization”, “locale”, “internationalization”, “quality
assurance”, and “localization level”. All these terms were quickly incorpo-
rated into academic research and the teaching of localization. They helped
both to enrich and expand the body of knowledge of TS as a whole (Pym
2004; Jimenez-Crespo 2018, 2020a). These publications provided new con-
cepts and perspectives that did not exist in the discipline back then. However,
in Chapter 2, you will see that some of these terms, or the conceptualizations
behind them, have been contested and criticized in scholarly publications.
For example, is translation a part of localization or is localization a type of
translation? Are the adaptations required in localization different from those
in other translation processes? What is the difference between a “locale”, a
“market”, and a “language”? In this book, “localization” is conceptualized
as a specific modality of “Translation” with a capital T. This means that it
is one of the many processes in which products or multimodal texts of dif-
ferent kinds, including oral texts (Pöchhacker 2022),4 are adapted to be used
in different socio-cultural and linguistic regions from those of their original
production. In localization, sometimes products are directly developed with
a multi-locale audience in mind, what Pym (2010) refers to as “international-
ized texts”. However, these internationalized texts or products might likely
be developed in English in the West or, for example, in Japanese or Chinese
in the East. We will discuss this at more length in the following chapters.
The book refers to you, the reader, as a “future localizer”. By “localizer”
here, I mean those participants in the localization process that work one
way or another with communicative, textual, cultural, or accessibility issues
  Introduction 7

within the localization cycle. It might be someone who works exclusively

with textual segments in video game localization, or someone who works in
quality assurance (QA) and testing. It might even be an in-house “localiza-
tion manager” who might also implement changes or fix linguistic bugs in
their own locale combination(s). To date, there seems to be an “unresolved
conceptual boundary” between “localization” and “translation” (O’Hagan
and Mangiron 2013: 327; Jiménez-Crespo 2018). To some extent, there is
also an “unresolved” conceptual boundary between what I refer to here as
a “localizer” and a “localization engineer” or “localization manager”. Most
LSPs, in fact, offer both “translation” and “localization” services, a differ-
ence that only corresponds to whether a text is classified under an interactive
digital genre (in which presentation, functionality, etc., are separated from
the actual textual, visual, or aural resources) or a text has no functionality
or interactive options and is meant to be “read”, rather than “used” (we
will discuss this in more depth later in this book). DePalma indicates that,
for example, “web content” translation might be considered a “translation
project”, whereas “a complex website globalization project may [require]
integration with a customer relationship management system and other
localization engineering work, but since the project description was initially
[a] ‘website translation’, it becomes a ‘translation project’” (DePalma 2021:
368).
Here, Chapter 7, on textual and digital genres, can provide a founda-
tion to differentiate between textual “content” that gets embedded in digi-
tal genres (an online campaign or a digital piece of news) from the overall
digital genre that requires “localization”, such as a global online newspaper
in which digital “content” or information units are added regularly. These
digital content units can be outsourced to translators globally, but they end
up being included in a Content Management System (CMS) that powers a
global localization project across time.
I propose here a straightforward way to clearly identify “localization”:
if the object of the process is a “digital” and “interactive” text that will be
accessed or used via a screen, then we are facing a “localization” process
(Jimenez-Crespo 2016). “Interactive” and “digital” are the key features here.
If we translate a technical report that will be posted solely on a website,
even if the text is an HTML file, this task is closer to a regular “transla-
tion” process. This could change if the project included localizing the nav-
igation menu or other structural components of the website (see Chapter
2). Some scholars have argued that participants who deal only with textual
transfer engage in “translation” within a localization project. For example,
O’Hagan indicates that, if the text is the only content that is transferred in
video games localized by fans, then these volunteers are engaging in video
game “translation” rather than video game “localization” (O’Hagan 2009b).
Nevertheless, I believe that professional localization competence, even for
those that only deal with textual content or assets, requires a vast knowledge
of the many components that make up the overall localization process, from
expert knowledge of the digital genre in question to how digital products are
8 Inroduction

developed, stored, rebuilt, and retrieved. It also includes, among many other
skills, knowledge about the wide range of constraints in the development
and management process that might impose limitations or restrictions on the
actual task during localization. “Localizers” are required to know how to
interact with other members of a localization team and to identify their roles,
etc. As such, an expert “localizer” is not just a “translator” who specializes
in “digital texts”, but an expert in “localization”, and, therefore, the term
“localizer” subsumes all the different components of the professional locali-
zation competence that you will acquire by the time you finish this book. Yes,
you might be an outstanding technical translator who worked in a highly
technical flight simulator video game, but if you specialize primarily in this
type of video game, then you become a “localizer” and a member of a “local-
ization team”. There is no clear boundary between those two terms following
a prototype approach to the definition of “translation” and “translation-
related” phenomena (Halverson 1999, 2010). As Shreve indicates, “[i]n the
context of today’s language industry, work activities are tending to broaden
in scope, rather than becoming more definable and coherent” (Shreve 2020:
154). In some cases, some professionals will be exemplars at the center of
the prototype of what a “localizer” might be, whereas some others, such as
those that specialize in web content for a digital news outlet, might be more
at the periphery and closer to what we consider to be a “translator” or even
a “linguist”, if we follow industry lingo (Jiménez-Crespo 2018).
In this book, I also use the terms “products” and “texts” to refer to the
objects of localization processes. The industry often uses “products” to refer
to the fact that a localized digital device might need to have a specific power
plug to be sold in a specific region (LISA 2004). The localization process can
thus include all sorts of legal, technical, or regulatory issues for a “product”
to be distributed and sold in a different “locale”. For example, a localized
digital web campaign might need to follow specific regulatory restrictions for
a particular market, such as how products can be marketed to different ages
or audiences. As far as the notion of “texts” goes, in contemporary concep-
tualizations of TS, a “text” includes any meaning-making mode that might
be used to communicate information, not just the actual text we can read.
For example, a “video game” is a unitary single “text” that is composed of
information delivered to the user by different channels (text-linguistic, aural,
video, sound, movement, tactile, etc.). This is precisely what the notion of
“multimodal texts” means (see the section on “multimodality” in Chapter
6). Both terms are used because not all “texts” subject to localization are
“products” (but all “products” normally contain “texts”), as many objects
of localization processes (e.g., a non-profit website) are not intended to be
sold or be part of any commercial process.
In addition, this book also primarily uses the terms “users” and “audi-
ences” to refer to those who interact with the localized digital products. Yes,
web users “read” the “content text” included in a webpage, but they “read”
differently (e.g., Nielsen 2001) – for example, there is more scanning and
  Introduction 9

skipping involved in web-based reading than on paper (see Chapter 7). One
of the main differentiating features of localization is that digital texts are
meant to be interacted with. Users chart their own paths and engage in a
dialogic exchange with the localized text. The term “users” is also justified
in localization because “usability” and “usability experience” are two key
issues specific to localization (e.g., Nielsen 2012; Mrochen 2017; Bowker
and Buitrago Ciro 2019). “User orientation” in translation in general has
become a key research area in the field (Suojanen et al. 2015),5 but “web” or
“game” usability is radically different, given the interactive nature of digital
texts.

For instructors
This book has been conceptualized from the start as a reading and practi-
cal component for a comprehensive localization course or a general intro-
duction to localization from an interdisciplinary perspective. It intends
to provide a wide-ranging overview of the main theoretical and practical
issues related to the set of phenomena that make up what we know as
“localization”. In some cases, training programs might focus exclusively
on one or more translation types, such as software programs or video game
localization. No matter the approach to the main localization types chosen,
this book provides a cross-sectional overview of common areas in which
all localization types intersect (e.g., internationalization readiness, acces-
sibility, usability, digital genres, MT, or green localization), as well as spe-
cific knowledge exclusive to each localization type in chapters dedicated to
the localization of software (Chapter 8), web content (Chapter 9), video
games (Chapter 10), or apps (Chapter 11). The book can also serve as a
reference for programs that focus exclusively on one or two localization
types, in combination with some of the seminal works that already exist for
each type. Anyone learning about software localization will greatly benefit,
for example, by critically studying how game accessibility in localization
can help expand this same area in their own specialization. Each chap-
ter recommends additional readings to expand on the content presented,
and an effort has been made to provide recommendations to freely avail-
able resources. As it is impossible to cover all areas of the world, chapters
should also be complemented with specific readings for specific locale com-
binations or in languages other than English. Even though many resources
are presented in this book, especially those studies that are published in
English, many others exist. Recently, for example, several scholars have
published work on video game localization in Saudi Arabia (Al-Batineh
and Alawneh 2021, 2022; Al-Batineh 2023), Iran (Afzali and Zahiri 2022;
Vahedi Kakhki 2022; Jooyaeian and Khoshsaligheh 2022; Zoraqi and Kafi
2023), and China (e.g., Peng 2022). The recently launched L10N Journal
(https://l10njournal​.net/), for example, publishes a large number of papers
in Slovak and English (Kabat 2023). The list of resources is endless, and
10 Inroduction

this shows the widespread popularity of localization training and research

globally.
In terms of practice, you will see that each chapter is also presented as an
open canvas on which to sketch the practical activities, projects, and tasks
that each instructor or director of a course of study might deem appropri-
ate (especially for the working locale combinations). Some sources for pos-
sible projects are suggested, but often generic repositories, such as GitHub,
Crowdin, or Transifex, are recommended to identify specific examples and
activities.
To prepare further, a large number of resources exist to plan localiza-
tion education, such as the papers on common content included in localiza-
tion courses (Sánchez Ramos et al. 2022), how to teach game localization
(Granell 2011; Mangiron 2021), or app localization (Sánchez Ramos 2019),
or even the implications of MT use for training in the localization industry
(O’Brien and Rossetti 2020). There are also works dedicated to training in
specific areas, such as accessibility (Torres del Rey et al. 2020) or the role
of ethics in localization and translation technology training (Ramírez Polo
and Vargas Sierra 2023). In addition, instructors can find a large number of
resources in different languages, from the outstanding Spanish textbooks for
teaching video game localization (Granell et al. 2016) or localization (López
Rodríguez 2023) to the papers on teaching video game localization for
Portuguese language students (Dias Esqueda and Coelho Fernandes 2019).
These represent only a small number of suggestions and a quick search on
Google Scholar or the TS database BITRA might offer additional results for
any specific locale combination.
It is my hope that instructors will find inspiration in this book, and will
use the ingenuity and creativity that we see in localization courses globally. I
hope that this work contributes to inspiring the next generation of localiza-
tion practitioners and researchers.

Notes
1 The first localized versions of the popular Microsoft Windows software were
released in 1986.
2 Common Sense Advisory (2023) refers to this slower growth as the “post-locali-
zation” era.
3 This is related to a competence described in the EMT Framework (26th Personal
and Interpersonal), the objective of which is to “continuously self-evaluate,
update, and develop competences and skills through personal strategies and col-
laborative learning, and acknowledge the importance of lifelong learning” (EMT
Board 2022).
4 For Pöchhacker, interpreting can be conceptualized under “Translation” with a
capital T “to indicate the hypernymic sense of translational activity” (2022: 149),
but he proposes an alternative formulation that includes the verb “say” in the
definition of interpreting or highlighting its oral or spoken nature.
5 Recent research on “Easy Language” has included the notions of usability in
the study of translated texts in print. However, this is not related to localization
aspects such as how “usability” impacts interactivity or functionality.
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