Sma 202 Module
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machukihitmanSma 202 Module
Uploaded by
machukihitmanKENYATTA UNIVERSITY
DIGITAL SCHOOL OF VIRTUAL AND OPEN LEARNING
DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS AND ACTUARIAL SCIENCE
SMA 202: LINEAR ALGEBRA I
WRITTEN BY: Dr. Lydia NJuguna
VETTED BY: Dr. Fidelius Magero
INTRODUCTION
Linear Algebra is an important part of Mathematical background required not only for
Mathematicians but also for other Scientists.
This module introduces the learner to the foundations of Linear Algebra. It begins with the
background information on matrices and their basic operations, determinants and inverses.
Matrices are later used in solving systems of linear equations. The module also covers
vectors, their basic operations and their application to equations of lines and planes in three
dimensions. Other topics include Vector spaces, linear independence and Independence.
The content is divided into thirteen short lessons. Each lecture begins with a brief
introduction and lesson learning outcomes before discussing the main content. Each concept
is followed by an e-tivity which is intended to help you to test your understanding. In
addition, answers to selected self help questions are given at the ended of the module. Further
reading is suggested at the end of each lecture. This is intended to help the learner get
exposed to other approaches to concepts and hopefully to more challenging exercises.
The learner is strongly advised to do all the e-tivities in each lesson before proceeding to the
next lesson.
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WEEK TOPIC
WEEK 0: INTRODUCTION
WEEK 1: MATRICES
WEEK 2: PROPERTIES OF MATRIX OPERATIONS
WEEK 3: DETERMINANTS OF 2 2 AND 3 3 MATRICES
WEEK 4: PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
WEEK 5: INVERSES OF 2 x 2 AND 3 x 3 MATRICES
WEEK 6: ROW-ECHELON FORM
WEEK 7: SOLUTION OF SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS-(GAUSS-
JORDAN METHOD)
WEEK 8: CRAMER’S RULE AND INVERSE MATRIX METHOD
WEEK 9: VECTORS
WEEK 10: VECTOR SPACES
WEEK 11: LINEAR COMBINATIONS
WEEK 12: LINEAR DEPENDENCE AND INDEPENDENCE, BASIS AND
DIMENSION
WEEK 13: PLANES AND LINES IN 3
WEEK 14 &15 EXAMINATION
OVERVIEW OF THE COURSE
Week 0: Introduction (Your Context, Your Goals)
This lesson is intended to help you acclimatize to blended learning and to create a community
of learners who will motivate each other during the course. You will be required to introduce
yourself to your lecturer and colleagues either physically during a face to face session or even
online before other academic interactions start. This will be at the discretion of individual
universities and lecturers. It will be important to also state your context and goals as well as
what you think about businesses. You can also share any experience that you may have
regarding businesses.
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Week 1:
This first lesson is divided into two subtopics.
In the first subtopic, you will be introduced to the concept of matrices. Basic definitions are
given including the order of a matrix, equal matrices, row matrix, column matrix e.t.c.
The second subtopic deals with operations on matrices. These include addition, subtraction,
scalar multiplication, dot product and matrix multiplication.
Each concept is illustrated by several examples.
Week 2:
In this lesson, we deal with the transpose of a matrix and also properties of matrix operations.
The subtopic introduces you to the transpose of a matrix. The definition is given, followed
by a number of properties.
We also deal with properties of matrix operations. These include additive commutativity, of
additive and multiplicative associativity, distributive laws etc.
Each concept is illustrated by several examples
Week 3:
This lesson is divided into two subtopics.
The first subtopic covers determinants of 2 2 and 3 3 matrices. In each case, several
worked out examples are given. The second subtopic deals with a general formula for finding
the determinant of n n matrices.
Week 4:
In this lesson you will be introduced to the concept of properties of determinants of matrices,
which can be used to find the determinant of a matrix from the determinant of another matrix.
The concept is illustrated by several examples.
Week 5:
This lesson This lecture is divided into two subtopics.
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The first subtopic deals with inverses of 2 x 2 of matrices while the second one covers the
inverses of 3 x 3 matrices.
However this lecture restricts itself to the method of using the adjoint of a matrix to find the
inverses. Row reduction method is covered in the following lecture.
Each concept is illustrated by several examples
Week 6:
This lesson is divided into three sections, each section dealing with a specific subtopic.
The first subtopic covers the inverse of a matrix using row reduction method, while the
second one covers the general concept of reducing a matrix to echelon form.
Finally, the learner is introduced to the canonical form of a matrix.
Each concept is illustrated by several examples.
Week 7:
This lesson starts with a general introduction to the solution of a system of linear equations,
followed by a more detailed section on the solution of equations using Gauss Jordan method.
Other methods are covered in lesson 8
Week 8:
The content of this lesson is divided into two subtopics.
In the first subtopic, you will be introduced to the solution of a system of linear equations
using Cramer’s rule, or the method of determinants.
The second subtopic deals with the inverse matrix method of solving linear equations. Each
method is illustrated using several examples
Week 9:
This lesson covers the concept of vectors, their dot product and cross product. The
application of dot product in looking for the angle between vectors is included. Application
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of cross product in the equations of lines and planes is covered in the last lecture in the
module. Each concept is illustrated by several examples.
Week 10:
This lesson is divided into two subtopics.
In the first subtopic, you will be introduced to the concept of a vector space.
The second subtopic deals with subspaces of vector spaces.
Each concept is illustrated by several examples.
Week 11:
This lesson covers linear combinations and linear spans. Several examples have been given
on how to write a given vector as a linear combination of other vectors. The relationship
between linear spans, vector spaces and subspaces is also included.Each concept is illustrated
by several examples
Week 12:
The content of this lesson is divided into two subtopics.
In the first subtopic, the learner is introduced to the concept of linear dependence and
independence.
The second subtopic deals with the application of linear dependence and independence in
finding the basis and dimension of a given vector space.
Each concept is illustrated by several worked out examples.
Week 13:
This lesson is divided into two subtopics.
In the first subtopic, you will be introduced to the vector equation of a line, while the second
subtopic covers the vector equation of a plane. Each concept is illustrated by several
examples.
Week 14 &15: Examination
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These two weeks bring together the work you have been doing to an end. This course unit
will be examined and will partially contribute to the award of the degree in the programme
that you are undertaking. We acknowledge that different universities across East Africa may
have different Semester dates. It is however anticipated that most Universities will have a
minimum of 13 weeks’ semester. We have therefore placed examinations in the last two
weeks but Universities are allowed to go with their schedules. Your university examinations
regulations will apply.
MODULE LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this module, you will be able to:
1. Perform basic operations on matrices
2. Find the determinants of 2 X 2 and 3 X 3 matrices
3. Find the inverses of 2 X 2 and 3 X 3 matrices
4. Solve systems of linear equations using Gauss Jordan method, Cramer’s rule and
Inverse matrix method
5. Determine whether or not a given set of vectors is linearly dependent or linearly
independent
6. Perform basic operations on vectors
7. Find the equations of planes and lines in R 3
8. Determine the basis and dimension of given of given vector spaces
COURSE DESCRIPTION
This is a common course unit meant for all students who are not taking a Bachelor of
Business Administration degree. The rationale of offering the course is to equip students
whose degree programmes are not business- related with knowledge and skills that can
assist them to undertake entrepreneurial activities should the need arise. This common
unit or course is usually taken in the first year of study and has no prerequisite unit. The
general purpose of the course therefore is to introduce you to various concepts and
theories in entrepreneurship. Emphasis will be placed on the motivation behind
entrepreneurship, types of entrepreneurships and various business models that you can
adapt as you plan to start businesses. Also covered will be Intellectual property rights and
how you can integrate technology in business. The course will take you 39 instructional
6
hours some of which will be covered face to face and others in online activities. You will
therefore be required to set aside about 5 hours per lesson to complete this course
successfully.
COURSE REQUIREMENTS
This is a blended learning course that will utilize the flex model. This means that learning
materials and instructions will be given online and the lessons will be self-guided with the
lecturer being available briefly for face to face sessions and support and also on-site
(online) most of the time. Your lecturer will be meeting you face to face to introduce a
lesson and put it into perspective and you will actively participate in your search for
knowledge by undertaking several online activities. This means that some of the 39
instructional hours of the course will be delivered face to face while other lessons will be
taught online through various learner and lecturer activities. It is important for you to note
that one instructional hour is equivalent to two online hours. Three instructional hours
will be needed per week. Out of these, one will be used for face to face contact with your
lecturer (also referred as e-moderator in the online activities) while the other two
instructional hours (translating to four online hours) will be used for online activities
otherwise referred to as e-tivities in the lessons. This will add up to the 5 hours
requirement per lesson earlier mentioned. There are 27 online activities each taking at
least two hours and totaling to 54 online hours. You are advised to follow the topic flow-
chart given so that you cover at least a lesson every week.
You will be required to participate and interact online with your peers and the e-
moderator who in this case is your lecturer. Guidelines for the online activities (which we
shall keep referring to as e-tivities) will be provided whenever there is an e-tivity. Please
note that since the online e-tivities are part of the learning process, they may be graded at
the discretion of your e-moderator. Such grading will however be communicated in the e-
tivity guidelines and feedback given as soon as possible after the e-tivity. The e-tivities
will include but will not be limited to online assessment quizzes, assignments and
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discussions. There are also assessment questions that you can attempt at the end of every
lesson to test your understanding of the lesson. The answers to all the assessment
questions are at the end of the module after lesson 10. All the resource that have been
used in this module in form of books are available under the resources section after the
answers to the questions.
ASSESSMENT
It is important to note that the module has embedded certain learner formative assessment
feedback tools that will enable you gauge your own learning progress. The tools include
online collaborative discussions forums that focus on team learning and personal mastery and
will therefore provide you with peer feedback, lecturer assessment and self- reflection. You
will also be required to do one major assignment/project that is meant to assess the
application of the skills and knowledge gained during the course. The project score in
combination with scores for e-tivities (where graded) will account for 30% of your final
examination score with the remaining 70% coming from a face to face sit-in final written
examination that will be guided by your university examination policy and procedures.
We wish you the very best of experiences in this course.
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LESSON 1
MATRICES
1.1 Introduction
This first lesson is, you were introduced to the concept of matrices. Basic definitions were
given including the order of a matrix, equal matrices, row matrix, column matrix etc. You
also studied operations on matrices including addition, subtraction, scalar multiplication, dot
product and matrix multiplication.
1.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
1.2.1 Perform basic operations on matrices including addition, subtraction, scalar
multiplication and matrix multiplication.
1.2.1 Definitions
Matrices are used as a shorthand for keeping essential data arranged in rows and columns i.e
matrices are used to summarize data in tabular form.
Definition: A matrix is an ordered rectangular array of numbers, usually enclosed in
parenthesis or square brackets. Capital (Upper – case) letters are used to denote matrices.
Order of a Matrix
The size of a Matrix is specified by the number of rows (horizontal) and the number of
columns (vertical).
A general matrix of order m n is
a11
a
a12 a1n
a ij
a 22 a 22
A 21 i ith row
j jth column
a n1 an2 a mn
A Square Matrix is a one with the same number of rows and columns i.e
m m matrix. Two matrices are of the same size if they have the same order.
A vector is a matrix with one row (1 n) or one column (n 1). A row vector is of the form
1 n, and a column vector is of the form m 1.
A zero matrix of order m n is the matrix with a ij 0 i 1, m, j 1 n .
Similarly we talk of zero rows and column vector.
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0
0
0 0,0, 0 or
0
Equal Matrices:
Two matrices A & B are said to be equal if they have the same order (size)
m n and aij bij i & j
E-tivity 1.2.1 - Definitions
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 1.2.1
Title Definitions
Purpose To identify matrices of different orders
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on definition of matrices
Spark
Individual task After watching the video, give examples of
1. 3X3
2. 2X2
3. 2X3
4. 3X2
Matrices
Interaction begins View your colleagues responses in Discussion forum
1.2.1 and summarize them in your note book
E-moderator interventions Note that
1. The order of a matrix is important as it
determines what operations can be performed on
the matrices
2. A vector can be considered to be a matrix, with
either one row or one column
Schedule and time Week 1. The activity will take 1 hour
Next Operations on matrices
1.2.2 Operations on matrices
Addition and Subtraction of matrices
This is performed on matrices of the same order (size). Let A and B be m n matrices.
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A + B = aij bij aij bij cij m n
Scalar Multiplication
This is performed on any matrix and the resulting matrix is the same size .
c A c aij caij . Each entry is multiplied by same number (scalar).
Dot product: let a and b be any two vector of size n (matrices with a single column or
row).
a = a1 , a2 , an , b b1 , b2 , bn . The dot product of a & b denoted a b , is given by
n
a b a1b1 a2b2 anbn a i bi .The dot product is also scalar product.
i 1
Dot product of a row & column vector of order n.
b1
b n
a1 , a2 an 2 a1b1 a2b2 anbn aibi a b
i 1
bn
Matrix Multiplication:
Let A aik be an m n matrix, and B bkj an n s matrix. The matrix product AB is
the m s matrix C cij where cij the dot product of the ith row of A and the jth column of
B.
n
i.e. AB C , aik bkj = cij ; C ij Ai B j a ik bkj
k 1
Remark:
1.Let A m n , B s r be two matrices .
C AB exists iff n s & C is m n
C BA exists iff r m & C is s n
2. It’s possible for AB to be defined while BA is not defined. i.e. matrix multiplication is not
commutative.
Examples
1 2 3 3 0 2
1. Let A and B . Then
4 5 6 7 1 8
1 3 2 0 3 2 4 2 5
A B
4 7 5 1 6 8 3 6 2
3 1 3 2 33 3 6 9
2. 3A
3 4 3 5 3 6 12 15 18
11
2 4 6 9 0 6 7 4 0
3. 2 A 3B
8 10 12 21 3 24 29 7 36
1 2 1 1 1 1 2 0 1 1 2 2 1 5
4.
3 4 0 2 3 1 4 0 3 1 4 2 3 11
1 1 1 2 11 1 3 1 2 1 4 4 6
0 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 0 2 2 4 6 8
The above example shows that matrix multiplication is not commutative, i.e.the products AB
and BA of matrices need not be equal.
E-tivity 1.2.2 _ Operations on matrices
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 1.2.1
Title Operations on matrices
Purpose To perform basic operations on matrices
Brief summary of overall task Watch the videos on matrix addition, subtraction and
scalar multiplication and matrix multiplication
Spark
Individual task After watching the videos, answer the following
questions
1. Does the order of a matrix determine the operations
that can be performed on it?
2. Why is it possible to get the product AB but not BA?
3. Can matrices of different orders be added or
subtracted
Interaction begins In discussion forum 1.2.2, comment on the answers
posted by two of your colleagues
E-moderator interventions Note that
1. Matrices can only be added or subtracted if they are of
the same order.
2. Matrices of different orders can be multiplied, but the
number of columns of the first matrix has to be equal to
the number of rows of the second matrix
Schedule and time Week 1. The activity will take 2 hours
Next Properties of matrix operations
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1.3 Assessment Questions
1 3 2 0 4
1. Let A and B . Find (a) AB , (b) BA
2 1 3 2 6
1 2 0
2. Given A 2,1 and B , find (a) AB , (b) BA
4 5 3
2 1
1 2 5
3. Given A 1 0 and B , find (a) AB , (b) BA
3 4 3 4 0
1.4 References
1. Linear Algebra: Schaum’s Outline Series
2. Linear Algebra by J. N. Sharma, A.R. Vasishta
3. Linear Algebra by Michael O’nan, Herbert Enderton
4. https://youtu.be/JhikgDtwpLM?list=TLPQMDIwODIwMjAGDiXU4camOg
5. https://youtu.be/QXUbFzEd3Ww
6. https://youtu.be/iJERwUVuwtY
7. https://youtu.be/vzt9c7iWPxs
LESSON 2
PROPERTIES OF MATRIX OPERATIONS
2.1 Introduction
In the first lesson, you were introduced to the concept of matrices. Basic definitions were
given including the order of a matrix, equal matrices, row matrix, column matrix e.t.c. You
also studied operations on matrices including addition, subtraction, scalar multiplication, dot
product and matrix multiplication.
In this lesson, we deal with the transpose of a matrix and also properties of matrix operations.
The first subtopic introduces you to the transpose of a matrix. The definition is given,
followed by a number of properties.
We also deal with properties of matrix operations. These include additive commutativity, of
additive and multiplicative associativity, distributive laws etc.
Each concept is illustrated by several examples
2.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes
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By the end of this lesson, you will be able to:
2.2.1 Identify and verify properties of the transpose of a matrix.
2.2.2 Identify and verify properties of matrix operations like additive
commutativity,
additive and multiplicative associativity, distributive laws etc.
2.2.1 Transpose of a matrix
The transpose of the matrix A is matrix B AT , such that bij a ji i.e. the rows become
columns and vice versa.
1. If A AT , we say A is symmetric. (only for a square matrix). If A is symmetric,
a) A A T and A AT are symmetric.
b) A k symmetric k
c) If A, B are symmetric, A BA is symmetric.
2. If AT A , we say A is skew symmetric. In that case,
(a) A AT is skew symmetric
(b) If A, B are skew symmetric, 4 B A is skew symmetric.
3. If A, S are n n (square) matrices and A is symmetric, then S T A S , S A S T are
symmetric
4. Every square matrix can be expressed as the sum of a symmetric &
skew-symmetric matrix. i.e. A A AT A AT
1 1
2 2
S ( A) A AT is the symmetric part; K A A AT is the skew-symmetric part.
1 1
2 2
5. If A is n n and f x any polynomial, then f AT f ( A)
T
E-tivity 2.2.1 Transpose of a matrix
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 2.2.1
Title Transpose of a matrix
Purpose To identify symmetric matrices
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on symmetric matrices
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Spark
Individual task Give two examples of symmetric matrices
Is it possible to get a 2X3 symmetric matrix?
Interaction begins Follow the responses by your colleagues (at least 2) and
E-moderator interventions Comment in discussion forum 2.2.1. Are their answers
correct?
Note that symmetric matrices have to be square matrices
since
Schedule and time Week 2. The activity will take 1 hour
Next Properties of Matrix operations
2.2.2 Properties of Matrix operations
1. A B B A - Addition is commutative
2. A B C A B C - Addition is associative
3. A 0 0 A A, 0 is the identity for addition
4. A B A B , left distributive law.
5. A A A , right distributive law
6. A A , associativity of scalar multiplication
7. AB A scalar pull through
8. A B C ABC - associativity of matrix multiplication
9. 1n A A , AI m A , A m m - identity for matrix multiplication
10. AB C AB AC , left distributive law
11. A B C AC BC , right distributive law
12. A T A
T
13. A B T AT B T - transpose of the sum=sum of transpose
14. ABT B T AT - transpose of product = product of transpose
AB B A .
Proof of most of these properties involve routine computations.
Show that A B A B A 2 B 2 iff AB BA i.e A & B commute
Solution:
Suppose A B A B A 2 B 2 and show that A & B commute.
A 2 B 2 A B A B
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A A B B A B
A 2 AB BA B 2
Hence AB BA 0 ; AB BA and so A & B commute.
Assume A & B commute & show that A B A B A 2 B 2
Since A & B commute AB BA
A B A B A A B B A B
A 2 AB BA B 2
but AB BA; A 2 AB AB B 2 A 2 B 2
2.2.3 E-tivities 2.2.2 Properties of Matrix operations
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 2.2.1
Title Properties of Matrix operations
Purpose To identify properties of matrix operations
Brief summary of overall task Watch the videos properties of matrix multiplication and
matrix addition
Spark
Individual task After watching the videos, what do you call the
properties that involve both multiplication and addition?
Using suitable 3 X3 matrices, verify the property
A(B+C)=AB+AC
Interaction begins Follow the responses by your colleagues (at least 2) and
see what you can learn from them
E-moderator interventions The property is called distributive property, which can
be either left or right.
(A+B)C=AC+BC is also a distributive property
Schedule and time Week 2. The activity will take 2 hours
Next Determinants of 2 2 and 3 3 matrices
2.3 Assessment Questions
1 0 1 0
1. Find the transpose A of the matrix A 2 3 4 5
t
4 4 4 4
16
1 2 0
2. Let A . Find (a) AA , (b) A A
t t
3 1 4
2.4 References
3 Linear Algebra by Michael O’nan, Herbert Enderton
4 A First Course in Linear Algebra by Daniel Zelisky
5 Elementary Linear Algebra by Bennard Kolman
6 Elementary Linear Algebra by Howard Anton
7 https://youtu.be/wwXCDY9-bAA
8 https://youtu.be/vEjnB3jZ7kA
9 https://youtu.be/NEWk5WsoXE4
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LESSON 3
DETERMINANTS OF 2 2 AND 3 3 MATRICES
3.1 Introduction
In lesson 2, we dealt with the transpose of a matrix and also properties of matrix operations.
You were introduce to the transpose of a matrix. The definition was given, followed by a
number of properties.
You also dealt with properties of matrix operations. These included additive commutativity,
of additive and multiplicative associativity, distributive laws etc.
In this lesson we will cover determinants of 2 2 and 3 3 matrices. In each case, several
worked out examples will be given. We will also deal with a general formula for finding the
determinant of n n matrices.
3.2 Lesson learning outcomes
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to;
3.2.1 Find the determinants of a 2 2 matrix
3.2.2 Find the determinants of a 3 3 matrix
3.2.3 Use the general formula for finding the determinant of n n matrices to find the
determinants of a 4 X 4 and 5 X 5 matrix
3.2.1 Determinants of 2 2 and 3 3 matrices
a a12 a a12
Let A 11 . Det A 11 a11 a22 a12 a21 . The determinant is a scalar.
a 21 a 22 a21 a22
Examples:
1. Find the value of such that 0.
3 2
1 x 1
2. Let find x.
2 2x 2
x 3
3. Let 4 . Find x.
2 2x 1
3 3 Matrices
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a11 a12 a13
Let A a 21 a 22 a 23
a 31 a 32 a 33
a11 a12 a12
a22 a23 a21 a23 a21 a22
det A a21 a22 a23 a11 a12 a13
a32 a33 a31 a33 a31 a32
a31 a32 a33
a11 a 22 a33 a 23 a32 a12 a 21 a33 a 23 a31 a13 a 21 a32
a11 a 22 a33 a11 a 23 a32 a12 a 21 a33 a12 a 23 a31 a13 a 21 a32 a13 a 22 a31
a11 a 22 a33 a12 a 23 a31 a13 a 21 a32 a11 a 23 a32 a12 a 21 a33 a13 a 22 a31
Note: This is a sum of 6 products, 3 positive and 3 negative. Each product has exactly one
factor from each row and column.
E-tivity 3.2.1 Determinants of 2 2 and 3 3 matrices
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 3.2.1
Title Determinants of 2 2 and 3 3 matrices
Purpose To calculate the determinants of 2 2 and 3 3
matrices
Brief summary of overall task Watch the videos on Determinants of 2 by 2 and 3 by 3
matrices
Spark
Individual task From the two videos, how many determinants of 2X 2
matrices will be calculated in the process of finding the
determinants of four 3 X 3 matrices?
Interaction begins In discussion forum 3.2.1, follow the solutions posted by
your colleagues and comment on their answers
E-moderator interventions In calculating the determinant of one 3X3 matrix, one
ends up calculating the determinants of three 2X2
matrices.
This means that if the 3X3 matrices are four, the one
will end up calculating the determinants of twelve 2 X 2
19
matrices
Schedule and time Week 3. The activity will take 2 hours
Next Determinant of an n n matrix
3.2.2 Determinant of an n n matrix
For a large square matrix the determinant is a sum of products, half of which have minus
signs added. Each product will have exactly one factor from each row and one factor from
each column.
There are n! summations.
3 1 2
1. Evaluate 1 1 4
2 1 1
3 1 2
Solution: 1 1 4 3[ 11 1 4 ] 1[1(1) 8] 2[1 2] 0
2 1 1
1 3 1
2. Evaluate 2 1 2
1 1 2
1 3 1
1 2 2 2 2 1
Solution: 2 1 2 =1 3 1 14 32 1 3 5
1 2 1 2 1 1
1 1 2
1 2 3 1
2 1 2 0
3. Evaluate
1 2 1 1
1 1 3 3
1 2 3 1
1 2 0 2 2 0 2 1 0 2 1 2
2 1 2 0
Solution: 1 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 3 1 2 1 1 1 2 1
1 2 1 1
1 3 3 1 3 3 1 1 3 1 1 3
1 1 3 3
14 2 4 3 6 1 6 0
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E-tivity 3.2.2 Determinant of an n n matrix
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 3.2.2
Title Determinant of an n n matrix
Purpose To find the determinants of matrices of order higher than
3.
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on finding the determinant of n X n
matrices
Spark
Individual task From the video, how many determinants of 3X 3
matrices will be calculated in the process of finding the
determinants of five 4 X 4 matrices?
Interaction begins In discussion forum 3.2.2, follow the solutions posted by
your colleagues and comment on their answers
E-moderator interventions In calculating the determinant of one 4X4 matrix, one
ends up calculating the determinants of four 3X3
matrices.
This means that if the 4X4 matrices are five, the one will
end up calculating the determinants of twenty 3 X 3
matrices
Schedule and time Week 3. The activity will take 2 hours
Next Properties of determinants
3.3 Assessment Questions
1. Evaluate the determinant of each matrix:
3 2 a b a
(a) , (b)
4 5 b a b
3 2 ab a
(i) 3 5 2 4 23 (ii) a b a b a a b 2
4 5 b ab
k k
2. Determine those values of k for which 0.
4 2k
21
k k
2k 2 4k 0 , or 2k k 2 0 .Hence k 0 ;and k 2 .That is, if k 0 or k 2 ,
4 2k
the determinant is zero.
3. Compute the determinant of each matrix:
1 2 3 2 0 1
(a) 4 2 3 (b) 4 2 3 (c)
2 5 1 5 3 1
3.4 References
1. Linear Algebra by Fraleigh & Beauregard
2. Linear Algebra: Schaum’s Outline Series
3. Elementary Linear Algebra by Howard Anton
4. https://youtu.be/OU9sWHk_dlw
5. https://youtu.be/3ROzG6n4yMc
6. https://youtu.be/H9BWRYJNIv4
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LESSON 4
PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
4.1 Introduction
In the previous lesson we covered determinants of 2 2 and 3 3 matrices. In each case,
several worked out examples were given. We also dealt with a general formula for finding the
determinant of n n matrices.
In this lesson you will be introduced to the concept of properties of determinants of
matrices, which can be used to find the determinant of a matrix from the determinant of
another matrix. The concept is illustrated by several examples.
4.2 Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to;
4.2.1 Use properties of determinants of matrices to find the determinant of a given
matrix from the determinant of another matrix.
4.2.1 Properties of determinants
1. Det (AB) = Det A . Det B
2. If one row or column of A is multiplied by scalar r to get B, det (B) = r det A
3. If row i = 0 or column j = 0, det A =0.
4. For an n n matrix, det (r A) = r n det A
5. If two rows or columns are identical det A = 0
6. If one row or column is a scalar multiple of another, det A = 0.
7. Adding a scalar multiple of a row or a column to another row or column respectively
leaves the determinant unchanged.
23
E-tivity 4.2.1 Properties of determinants
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 4.2.1
Title Properties of determinants
Purpose To find the determinant of a given matrix from the
determinant of another matrix.
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on properties of determinants
Spark
Individual task After watching the video, illustrate property number 3
using an 3 X 3 matrix of your choice
Interaction begins In discussion forum 4.2.1, go through the illustrations of
three of your colleagues and comment on whether their
answers are correct
E-moderator interventions Note that the answer to this question lies in the
definition of the determinant of a 3X 3 matrix
Schedule and time Week 4. The activity will take one hour
Next Inverse of a 2 X 2 matrix
4.3 Assessment Questions
Evaluate
1 2 3 5 0 9
1. 2 1 3 2. 2 1 3
1 0 1 1 0 1
4 3 2 4 3 2
3. 3 2 5 4. 3 2 5
2 4 6 1 2 3
24
1.4 References
2. Linear Algebra by J. N. Sharma, A.R. Vasishta
3. Linear Algebra by Michael O’nan, Herbert Enderton
4. A First Course in Linear Algebra by Daniel Zelisky
5. https://youtu.be/0OJGV1zlnXY
25
LESSON 5
INVERSES OF 2 x 2 AND 3 x 3 MATRICES
5.1 Introduction
In the previous lesson you were introduced to the concept of properties of determinants of
matrices, which were used to find the determinant of a matrix from the determinant of
another matrix. This lesson deals with inverses of 2 x 2 matrices and the inverses of 3 x 3
matrices. However this lesson restricts itself to the method of using the adjoint of a matrix to
find the inverses. Row reduction method is covered in lesson 6. Each concept is illustrated by
several examples.
5.2 Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
5.2.1 Find the inverses of 2 x 2 and 3 x 3 matrices using the method of the adjoint of
a matrix.
5.2.1 Inverse of a 2 X 2 matrix
a b 1 d c
Let A det A ad bc 0 ; A 1
c d ad bc c a
Note:
1 a b d b 1 ad bc ab ab 1 0
A A 1 c d c a ad bc cd cd ad bc 0
ad bc sd bc 0 1
Let A aij be a square matrix. The classical adjoint of A is the matrix
adj A aij , a ij ' 1 det Aij where a ij is the i, j cofactor of A.
T i j
1
A 1 adj A
det A
a b a11 a12
For a 2 x 2 matrix A
c d a21 a22
T
a11 ' a12 d c
T
d b 1 d b
Adj(A) = = = ; A 1 c a
a 21 ' a 22 ' b d c a ad bc
26
E-tivity 5.2.1 Inverse of a 2 X 2 matrix
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 5.2.1
Title Inverse of a 2 X 2 matrix
Purpose To find the inverse of a 2 X 2 matrix
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on the inverse of a 2 X 2 matrix
Spark
Individual task After watching the videos, name two instances when a
given matrix may not have on inverse
Interaction begins Follow the answers by your colleagues in discussion
forum 5.2.1 and compare with yours
E-moderator interventions Note that the two instances a matrix may not have an
inverse are when the matrix is not a square matrix, or
then the determinant of the matrix is zero
Schedule and time Week 5. The activity will take 2 hours
Next 5.2.2 Inverse of a 3 X 3 matrix
5.2.3 Inverse of a 3 X 3 matrix
T T
a11 a12 a13 a11 ' a12 ' a13 ' A11 A12 A13
a ' a ' a '
Let A a 21 a 22 a 23 ; Adj (A) = 21 22 23 = A21 A22 A23
a11 a 32 a 33 a 31 ' a 32 ' a 33 ' A31 A32 A33
a a 23 a a 23
A11 22 a 22 a 33 a 23 a 32 ; A12 21 a 21 a 33 a 23 a 31
a 32 a 33 a 31 a 33
a 21 a 22 a a13
A13 a 21 a 32 a 22 a 31 ; A21 12 a12 a 33 a13 a 32
a 31 a 32 a 32 a 33
a11 a13 a11 a12
A22 a11 a 33 a 31 a13 ; A23 a11 a 32 a12 a 31
a 31 a 33 a 31 a 32
a12 a13 a a13
A31 a12 a 23 a13 a 22 ; A32 11 a11 a 23 a13 a 21
a 22 a 23 a 21 a 23
27
a11 a12 1
A33 a11 a 22 a12 a 21 ; Det A a11 A11 a12 A12 a13 A13 ; A 1
a 21 a 22 det A
adj(A)
4 0 1
Examples: Find the inverse of A 2 2 0
3 1 1
Solution:
2 0 2 0 2 2
Det A = 4 0 1 42 0 1 2 6 8 4 4 ; Therefore, A 1 exists.
1 1 3 1 3 1
T
A11 A12 A13
adj ( A) A21 A22 A23 2 0 2 2
A31 A11 2 A13 4
A32 A33 1 1 2 0 3 1
;
; A12 2; ;
3 1
0 1 4 1 4 0 0 1
A21 1 ; A22 1 ; A23 4 ; A31 2
1 1 3 1 3 1 2 0
2 2 4 1 2
T
2
A32
4 1
2 A33
4 0
8 8 adj ( A) 1
1 4 2 1 2 ;
2 0 2 2
2 2 8 4 4 8
12 1
4 12
1
A1 12 14 2
1 1 2
E-tivity 5.2.2 Inverse of a 3 X 3 matrix
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 5.2.2
28
Title Inverse of a 3 X 3 matrix
Purpose To find the inverse of a 3 X3 matrix
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on the inverse of a 3X3 matrix
6.2.1 Spark Inverse of a matrix
(row reduction method)
Individual task After watching the video, confirm if the inverse of
matrix A is correct
Interaction begins Go to discussion forum 5.2.2, and compare the answers
given by three of your classmates with yours
E-moderator interventions Note that it is always possible to confirm the accuracy
when looking for the inverse of any invertible matrix,
since AA -1= A-1A=I
Schedule and time Week 5. The activity will take 1 hour
Next Inverse of a matrix (row reduction method)
5.3 Assessment Questions
Find A1 if
2 3 4
1. A = 0 4 2
1 1 5
5.4 References
1. Linear Algebra by Fraleigh & Beauregard
2. Elementary Linear Algebra by Bennard Kolman
3. Elementary Linear Algebra by Howard Anton
4. https://youtu.be/7PrzCQSjE2g
5. https://youtu.be/xfhzwNkMNg4
29
LESSON 6
ROW-ECHELON FORM
6.1 Introduction
The previous lesson dealt with inverses of 2 x 2 matrices and the inverses of 3 x 3
matrices.The lesson restricted itself to the method of using the adjoint of a matrix to find the
inverses.
This lesson covers the inverse of a matrix using row reduction method, the general concept of
reducing a matrix to echelon form and finally you will be introduced to the concept of the
canonical form of a matrix.
Each concept is illustrated by several examples.
1.2 Learning outcomes
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to;
1.2.1 Find the inverse of a matrix using row reduction method
1.2.2 Reduce a given matrix to echelon form.
1.2.3 Reduce given matrix to canonical form.
6.2.1 Inverse of a matrix (row reduction method)
The inverse of a matrix a can be found using row reduction to echelon form of the augmented
matrix (A/I) to get I / A 1 .
Example:
4 0 1
Find the inverse of A 2 2 0
3 1 1
Solution:
4 0 1 1 0 0 4 0 1 1 0 0
2 2 0 0 1 0 2 R2 R1 0 4 1 1 2 0
3 1 1 0 0 1 4 R3 3R1 0 4 1 3 0 4 R3 R2
30
4 0 1 1 0 0 2 R1 R3 8 0 0 4 2 4 R 1 8
0 4 1 1 2 0 2 R2 R3 0 8 0 4 2 4 R 2 8
0 0 2 2 2 4 0 0 2 2 2 4 R 3 2
1 0 0 12 1
4 12 12 1
4
12
1
0 1 0 1 2 1
4
1
2 ; Inverse 12 14 2
0 0 1 1 1 2 1 1 2
E-tivity 6.2.1 Inverse of a matrix (row reduction method)
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 6.2.1
Title Inverse of a matrix (row reduction method)
Purpose To find the inverse of a matrix using method
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on row reduction method of finding the
inverse of a 3X3 matrix
Spark
Individual task After watching the video, find the inverse of
2 3 4
0 4 2 using row-reduction method
1 1 5
Interaction begins Confirm the accuracy of your answer by using the fact
that AA -1= A-1A=I
E-moderator interventions Go to discussion forum 6.2.1 and comment on the
answers posted by at least 3 of your colleagues. Point
out any mistakes that they may have made and correct
the same
Schedule and time Week 5. This activity will take 1 hour
Next Echelon form of a matrix
31
6.2.1 Echelon form of a matrix
A m n matrix B is said to be in row echelon form if it is of the form.
b11 b12 b13 b1n
0 b b23 b xn
22
0 0 b33 b3n
B if m n
0 0 bii bin
0 0 bmm bmn
b11 b12 b13 bin
0 b22 b23 b2 n
0 0 b33 b3n
B if n m
0 0 0 bnn
0 0 0 0
0 0
0
b11 b12 bin
0 b22 b2 n
B mn
bnn
Note:
For a matrix in echelon form, for subsequent rows, the non-zero entries occur in later and
later columns.
For a matrix in echelon form, all entries below the main diagonal are zero. Given any matrix
B (not in echelon form) we perform the following elementary row operations to change it to
echelon form:
1. Change the order of the rows (interchange some rows)
2. Multiply one row by a nonzero constant.
3. Add a multiple of one row to a nonzero multiple of another row.
32
E-tivity 6.2.2 Echelon form of a matrix
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 6.2.2
Title Echelon form of a matrix
Purpose To reduce a matrix to echelon form
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on reducing a matrix to echelon form
Spark
Individual task 3 4 1 1
After watching the video, reduce 1 1 3 1 to
4 3 11 2
rechelon form.
Interaction begins Compare your answers with those of three of your
classmates and comment on their method
E-moderator interventions Note that sometimes the sequence of steps followed by
your classmates could be different even though the
answer could still be correct
Schedule and time Week 6. This activity will take 1 hour
Next Reduced row-echelon form
6.2.3 Reduced row-echelon form
Definition: A matrix is said to be in reduced row echelon form (canonical form) if:
1. Each nonzero row begins with a pivot entry 1. (Leading 1 of the row)
2. The rest of the columns containing the pivot entry 1 consists of 0s.
3. In subsequent rows, the pivot entries occur in later and later columns.
4. The all-zero rows are at the bottom (they are the unused rows).
33
Examples
3 4 1 1
1. Reduce 1 1 3 1 to reduced row-echelon (canonical) form.
4 3 11 2
3 4 1 1 1 1 3 1
Solution: 1 1 3 1 R1 R2 3 4 1 1 R2 3R1
4 3 11 2 4 3 11 2 R3 4 R1
1 1 3 1 1 1 3 1 R1 R2
2
0 7 10 2 R2 7 0 1
10
0 1 1 2 0 1 17 72 R3 R2
1 0 117 5
7 1 0 117 5
7 R1 117 R3 1 0 0 17
13
18
0 1 107 72 0 1 7
10
72 R 2 107 R3 0 1 0 17
0 0 177 16
7 17 R3
7 0 0 1 16
17
0 0 1 16
17
2. Reduce to echelon form
1 2 3 1 1 2 3 1
2 1 2 0 R2 2 R1 0 3 4 2
1 2 1 1 R3 R1 0 0 2 2
1 1 3 4 R4 R1 0 3 0 2 R4 R2
1 2 3 1 1 2 3 1
0 3 4 2 0 3 4 2
0 0 2 2 0 0 2 2
0 0 4 4 R 4 2 R3 0 0 0 0
E-tivity 6.2.3 Reduced row-echelon form
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 6.2.3
Title Reduced row-echelon form
Purpose To reduce a matrix to reduced row echelon form
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on reduced row-echelon form
Spark
34
Individual task After watching the video, reduce matrix
1 2 3 1
A 2 1 2 2 to row-reduced echelon form.
3 1 2 3
Interaction begins Compare your solution to that of your colleagues posted
in discussion forum 6.2.3. What can you learn from their
solutions?
E-moderator interventions Note that a matrix in echelon form takes only a few
more steps for it to be reduced to reduced row-echelon
(Canonical) form
Schedule and time Week 6. This activity takes one hour
Next Solution of systems of linear equations
6.3 Assessment Questions
1 2 1
1. Reduce the matrix 2 1 1 to echelon form
7 4 1
2. Determine if the following matrices are in echelon canonical form or not.
1 0 0 0 0 5 8 7 3
1 0 0 1 7 5 2 0 0 0 1 0 6 0 0
0 0 1 3 0 3 1 2 1
1
(a) (b) (c) 0 1 0 0 3 (d) 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 4 6
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 4
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
6.4 References
1. Linear Algebra: Schaum’s Outline Series
2. Linear Algebra by J. N. Sharma, A.R. Vasishta
3. Linear Algebra by Michael O’nan, Herbert Enderton
4. https://youtu.be/G1_8E4oEVII
5. https://youtu.be/l69YjkuUym0
6. https://youtu.be/1rBU0yIyQQ8
35
LESSON 7
SOLUTION OF SYSTEMS OF LINEAR EQUATIONS -(GAUSS-JORDAN
METHOD)
7.1 Introduction
During the previous lesson you were introduced to finding inverse of a matrix using row
reduction method, the general concept of reducing a matrix to echelon form and finally you
were introduced to the concept of the canonical form of a matrix.
This lesson starts with a general introduction to the solution of a system of linear equations,
followed by a more detailed section on the solution of equations using Gauss Jordan method.
Other methods will be covered in lesson 8
7.2 Learning Outcomes
By the end of this lesson, you will be able to;
7.2.1 Solve a system of linear equations using Gauss Jordan method.
7.2.1 Solution of systems of linear equations
A Linear equation is an equation of the form
a1 x1 a 2 x 2 a n x n b
a1 , a 2 , , a n , b are constants while x1 , x 2 , x n are the variables to be determined. A
solution to the equation is an n-tuple c1 , c 2 , , c n such that
a1 c1 a 2 c 2 a n c n b
Example: 5x1 3x 2 6 x3 4 x 2 10 ; x1 3 ; x2 5 ; x3 3 ; x4 2 . i.e. (3,5,3,2) is a
solution.
Two systems of equations are equivalent if they have the same solution set. We get
equivalent system if we perform any of the following:
1. Change the order of listing the equations
2. Multiply one or more equations by a non-zero constant.
3. Add a multiple of one equation to a multiple of another equation.
There are various methods of solving a system of linear equations
Elimination Method:
The strategy is to eliminate one variable at a time:
Example:
Solve by elimination method
x1 x 2 x3 5 (1)
x1 2 x 2 3x3 10 (2)
2 x1 x 2 x3 0 (3)
Solution:
Eliminate x1
36
(2) – (1) x 2 2 x 3 5 (4)
(3)-2(1) - x2 x3 4 (5)
Eliminate x2
(4) +(5) x 3 1
Substitute in equation 5
x 2 1 4 , x2 3
Substitute in equation 1
x1 3 1 5, x1 1
The elimination method is very tedious when there are many variables. We use a much
organized elimination method in matrix form called Gauss-Jordan method.
7.2.2 Gauss-Jordan elimination method
Given a linear system
a11 x1 a12 x 2 a1n x n b1
ax1 x1 a 22 x 2 a 2 n x n b2
a n1 x1 a n 2 x 2 a nn x n bn
The system can be represented in matrix form
a11 a12 a1n x1 b1
a
21 a 22 a 2 n x 2 b2
a n1 a n 2 a nn x n bn
Or simply Ax = b
Where A is the n n is the coefficient matrix
x x1 , x 2 x n , b b1 , b2 bn
T T
An augmented matrix is the matrix A b
The Gauss-Jordan method involves reducing the augmented matrix to reduced row echelon
form.
Example:
Solve using Gauss-Jordan method
2 x1 4 x2 6 x3 20
3x1 6 x 2 x 3 22
2 x1 5x 2 2 x3 18
Solution:
Matrix form
2 4 6 x1 20
3 6 1 x = 22
2
2 5 2 x 3 18
Augmented matrix
37
2 4 6 20
3 6 1 22
2 5 2 18
1
Divide row 1 by 2 i.e. 2
R1 and use it to reduce a 21 and a 31 to zeros
1 2 3 10
3 6 1 22 R2 3R1
2 5 2 18 R3 2 R1
1 2 3 10
0 0 8 8 R2 R3
0 1 4 2
1 2 3 10
0 1 4 2 R1 2 R2
0 0 8 8
1 0 11 14 8 R1 11R3 8 0 0 24 R1 / 8
0 1 4 2 2 R2 R3 0 2 0 4 R2 / 2
0 0 8 8 0 0 8 8 R3 / 8
1 0 0 3
0 1 0 2 Solution x1 3, x2 2, x3 1
0 0 1 1
The general procedure to solve Ax b by Gauss-Jordan method is as follows:
1. Get the augmented matrix A b
2. Get 1 in (1,1) position of matrix by
a) rearranging the rows
b) dividing row 1 by all 0
3. Get zeros in all other positions of column 1
4. Get 1 in (2,2) position by rearranging rows or dividing all of row 2 by a 22 0
5. Get zeros in all other positions of column 2.
6. Get 1 in (3,3), (4,4)… and in each case get zeros in other positions of that column.
7. Each row gives the solution
ci x1 c1 ; x2 c2 ,...xn cn
I c2
:
:
cn
38
A system of linear equations may have a unique solution, many solutions or no solution.
Unique solution: A b reduces to I c
No solution: The last row is a form 00 a 0
Many solutions: Some variables can be written in terms of others
Previous examples have unique solutions
E-tivity 7.2.1 Gauss-Jordan elimination method
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 7/2.1
Title Gauss-Jordan elimination method
Purpose Solve a system of linear equations using Gauss
Jordan method.
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on Gauss-Jordan elimination method
of solving a system of equations
Spark
Individual task
After watching the video, Solve the following
system of linear equations using Gauss Jordan
2x 5 y 2z 7
method. x 2 y 4 z 3
3x 4 y 6 z 5
Interaction begins Compare your answers to those posted by two of your
colleagues in Discussion forum 7.2.1. How does your
answer compare with other answers?
E-moderator interventions Observe that in order to be sure whether the answers are
correct, all you need to do is to substitute the values of
the answers back into the original equation.
If the answers are correct, the RHS and LHS of the
equations will be equal
Schedule and time Week 7. This activity will take 2 hours
Next Cramer’s Rule
39
7.3 Assessment Questions
Solve the following system by Gauss Jordan (elimination) method.
1. x1 x 2 x3 2 x 4 1
2 x1 x2 3x4 0
x1 x2 x3 x4 1
x2 x4 1
2. x1 x 2 x3 x 4 4
x1 2 x 2 x3 x4 7
2 x1 x 2 x3 x 4 8
x1 x 2 2 x3 2 x 4 7
3. x1 x2 2 x3 x4 3
x1 2 x2 x3 x4 2
x1 x2 x3 2 x4 1
2 x1 x2 x3 x4 4
4. X1 X 2 2X 3 2
2 X 1 3 X 2 X 3 14
3 X 1 2 X 2 X 3 16
X 1 4 X 2 3 X 3 12
7.4 References
1. Linear Algebra: Schaum’s Outline Series
2. Linear Algebra by J. N. Sharma, A.R. Vasishta
3. Linear Algebra by Michael O’nan, Herbert Enderton
4. https://youtu.be/eYSASx8_nyg
40
LESSON 8
CRAMER’S RULE AND INVERSE MATRIX METHOD
8.1 Introduction
This previous gave a general introduction to the solution of a system of linear equations,
followed by a more detailed section on the solution of equations using Gauss Jordan method.
In this lesson you will be introduced to the solution of a system of linear equations using
Cramer’s rule, or the method of determinants. You will also learn how to use the inverse
matrix method to solve as system of linear equations. Each method is illustrated using several
examples
8.2 Lesson Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to;
8.2.1 Solve a system of linear equations using Cramer’s rule, or the method of determinants.
8.2.2. Solve a system of linear equations using inverse matrix method
8.2.1 Cramer’s Rule
This method uses determinants to solve a linear system Ax b provided det A (coefficient
matrix) is nonzero.
1
Suppose det A 0 , A square matrix x A 1b, A 1 adj( A)
det A
T
A11 A21 a11 a21 an1
1 A12 1
; Let aij 1
A22 i j
1
A Aij ; A1 a12 a22 an 2
det A det A
a1n a2 n ann
x1 a11 a 21 a n1 b1
x
=
2 1 a12 a 22 a n 2 b 2
det A
xn a1n a 2 n a nn bn
1
xj b1 a1 j b2 a2 j bn anj
det A
But b1 aij b2 a2 j bn anj is the determinant of the matrix
41
a11 a12 a ij 1 b1 a ij 1 a1n
a a 22 a1 j 1 b2 a 2 j 1 a 2 n
21
a n1 an2 a nj 1 bn bnj 1 a nn
i.e. matrix A with column j replaced with b1 , b2 , bn . The expansion is done along column
j. Note that the determinant of A expanded along column j is
a1 j a ij a 2 j a 2 j a nj a nj
Thus by replacing columns j by b1 , b2 bn we have the determinants of the new matrix.
For 3 3 matrix Ax b
a11 a12 a13 x1 b1
a
21 a 22 a 23 x 2 b2
a 31 a 32 a 33 x 3 b3
b1 a12 a13 a11 b1 a13 a11 a12 b1
b2 a22 a23 a21 b2 a23 a 21 a 22 b2
b3 a32 a33 a31 b3 b33 a 31 a 32 b3
X1 X2 X3
a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13 a11 a12 a13
a21 a22 a23 a21 a22 a23 a 21 a 22 a 23
a31 a32 a33 a31 a32 a33 a 31 a 32 a 33
Example
Solve the linear system using Crammer’s rule
2 x1 3x2 x3 1
x1 2 x2 x3 4
2 x1 x2 x3 3
Solution
1 3 1
4 2 1
2 3 1
3 1 1 4
A 1 2 1 2 .Then x1 2,
A 2
2 1 1
2 1 1
1 4 1
2 3 1 6
x2 3,
A 2
42
2 3 1
1 2 4
2 1 3 8
And x3 4
A 2
E-tivity 8.2.1 Cramer’s rule
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 8.2.1
Title Cramer’s rule
Purpose To solve a system of linear equations using
Cramer’s rule,
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on Cramer’s rule
Spark
Individual task After watching the video, follow the steps illustrated and
x1 3x2 2 x3 3
solve 2 x1 4 x2 2 x3 8
x1 2 x2 x3 10
using Cramer’s rule
Interaction begins Go to discussion forum 8.2.2 and compare your solution
to that of three of your colleagues. If they have made
mistakes correct them and if you have done a mistake
learn from them
E-moderator interventions Observe that the reason this method is also called the
method of determinant is because it involves finding the
determinants of four 3X3 matrices.
The first determinant to find should be that of the
coefficient matrix. This is because if the determinant is
zero, then the system had no solution and hence there is
no need to proceed to the other determinants
Schedule and time Week 8. This activity will take 2 hours
Next Inverse matrix method
8.2.2 Inverse matrix method
Consider the system of linear equations represented in matrix form A x b . Where A is an m
n matrix.
43
If det A 0 , then A 1 exists and A 1 A x A 1b ; Ix x A 1b . This method works only
x1 c1
x c
if det A 0 , and there is a unique solution 2 Ab 2
xn cn
Examples:
1. Solve the linear system using the inverse matrix
x 2y 6
4x 3y 3
Solution:
1 2 x 6 1 2 1 3 2
4 3 y 3 ; A , det A 3 8 5 ; A 1
4 3 5 4 1
x 1 3 2 6 1 12 12 5
21 21 ; Solution: x 5 , y 5
1
y A b 5 4 1 3 5
12 21
5
2. Solve the linear system using the inverse matrix
x1 3x2 2 x3 3
2 x1 4 x2 2 x3 8
x1 2 x2 x3 10
Solution:
2 7 1
1 3 2 x1 3 1 3 2 4 2
2 4 2 x = 8 ; A 2 4 2 ; det A = 4; A1 1 3 1
2 4 2
1 2 1 x3 10 1 2 1 0
1
1
4 2
x1 2 1
7
4 2 3 3
x 1 3 8 2 ; x 3
2 x1 3, x2 2 , 3
1
2 4
x 3 0 1 1 10 3
4 2
E-tivities 8.2.2 Inverse matrix method
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 8.2.1
Title Solution of a system of linear equations in three
unknowns using inverse Matrix method
Purpose The purpose of the task is to enable you obtain the solution
of three equations in three unknowns using inverses of
matrices
44
Brief summary of overall task Watch videos on these links
Spark
Individual task After watching the videos, solve the following equations
3x 2 y z 4
using inverse matrix method. 1. x 4 y 2 z 1
2 x 5 y z 5
5b 2a 4c 12
2. a 2b 2c 3
3a b 16 c
Interaction begins (a) Follow the solutions posted by at least 2 of your
colleagues
(b) In discussion forum 3.2.1 state what you have learnt
from their method
E-moderator interventions (a) How did the rearrangement of equations in question
2 affect the solution
(b) Do all systems of equations in three unknowns have
solutions
(c) It is important to note that
(i) When using matrices to solve equations, all the
unknowns in the equation have need to be aligned in
order to obtain the correct coefficient matrix
(ii) If the coefficient matrix has a zero determinant, the
equations have no solution
Schedule and time This activity should take one hour
Next Vectors
8.3 Assessment Questions
Solve using Crammer’s rule.
1. 2x 5 y 2z 7
x 2 y 4z 3
3x 4 y 6 z 5
45
x1 3x2 2 x3 3
2. 2 x1 4 x2 2 x3 8
x1 2 x2 x3 10
3. Solve the following three equations using inverse matrix method
x y 2z 1 x 2y z 4
x 2 y z 2 4. 3 x 4 y 2 z 2
x 3y z 5 5 x 3 y 5 z 1
8.4 References
1. A First Course in Linear Algebra by Daniel Zelisky
2. Elementary Linear Algebra by Bennard Kolman
3. Elementary Linear Algebra by Howard Anton
4. https://youtu.be/qmjapjGxf2s
5. https://youtu.be/JyISylNXGzE-INVERSE
LESSON 9
VECTORS
9.1 Introduction
In the previous lesson you were taught how to find the solution of a system of linear
equations using Cramer’s rule, (the method of determinants) and also using the inverse matrix
method. In this lesson you will revise the topic of vectors. You will cover the topic of dot
product and cross product of vectors. The application of dot product in looking for the angle
46
between vectors is also included. Application of cross product in the equations of lines and
planes is covered in the last lecture in the module.
9.2 Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to;
9.2.1 Perform addition subtraction and scalar multiplication of vectors
9.2.2 Find the dot product and cross product of vectors
9.2.3 Use the dot product to find the angle between given vectors
9.2.1. Vectors (Co-Ordinate Systems)
Any point on the Cartesian x-y plane can be represented as a pair x0 , y0 where x 0 is the
x coordinate and y 0 is y-coordinate. The Cartesian plane is simply 2 . 3 consists of three
planes, x-y plane, x-z plane & y-z planes. The x-axis, y-axis and z – axes all meet at 90 (are
perpendicular) at the origin (0,0,0). The x-axis consists of points x0 , 0, 0 , y-axis 0, y0 , 0
and z-axis 0,0, z 0 . The x-y plane x0 , y0 , 0 the x-z plane x0 , 0, z0 and the y-z plane
0, y0 , z0 . n consists of all n-tuples consisting of real entries i.e.
n a1 , a2 , , an : ai i 1, 2, n
Vectors: (Quantities defined by magnitude & direction)
ai
A column vector is an n-tuple of numbers written vertically (or n 1 matrix)
a n
If the numbers a1 , a2 , an are real we have a real column vector. If they are complex we
have a complex column vector. The number a i in the ith (row) slot is the ith component.
A row n-vector is an n-tuple a1 , a 2 , , a n of numbers written horizontally.
Equality of vectors
a1 b1
a b
2 2 m n ai bi i 1, n i.e. a1 b1 , a 2 b2 , , a n bn
an bm
Addition & Subtraction
a1 b1 a1 b1
a b a b
2 2 2 2
an bn an bn
47
Scalar multiplication
a1 a1
a a
2 2 Where is real scalar or complex scalar.
a n a n
Properties:
Let a, b, c be n-column vectors , , scalars
1. a b b a - Commutative law
2. a b c a b c - Associative law
3. 0 a a 0 a - Additive identity
4. a a a a 0 Additive inverse
5. a b a b
6. a a a ; a a
Length/Magnitude of Vector:
Let a a1 , a2 , , an
a a12 a22 an 2
ab a b ra r a
E-tivity 9.2.1- Vectors (Co-Ordinate Systems)
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 9.2.1
Title Vectors (Co-Ordinate Systems)
Purpose To perform operations of vector addition, subtraction
and multiplication
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on operations of vectors
48
Spark
Individual task After watching the video find 5u-6v where
u 2i j 3k and v i 3 j k
Interaction begins Compare your answers with those of your classmates
(At least three of them) in Discussion forum 9.2.1
E-moderator interventions Note that these operations are similar to those performed
on algebraic expressions
Schedule and time Week 9. The activity will take 30 minutes
Next Dot Product
9.2.2 Dot Product
Let a a1 , a2 , , an , b b1 , b2 , , bn
a b a1b1 a2b2 anbn
a b a b if a & b are column vectors
T
a b if a & b are row vectors.
T
Properties of the dot product:
1. u v v u Commutative property
2. u v w u v u w Distributive Property
3. ru v u rv r u v Homogeneous property
4. u u 0 and u u 0 iff u 0
Note: a a a
Definition: A unit vector is a vector of length (magnitude) 1 i.e a a a =1
Let u and v be nonzero vectors and let be the angle between them.
Then
u v u v cos
uv
cos
u v
uv
cos 1
u v
Example:
Find the angle between u i j k and v i j k
49
i j k i j k i j k i j k cos
111 3 3 cos
1
Cos 1 , cos 1 70.5 0
3 3
Orthogonal /Perpendicular vectors:
The vectors u and v are orthogonal/perpendicular if the angle between then is 90 0 .
90 0 , cos 900 = 0
and so u v u v cos 90 and therefore u v u v (0)=0 u.v 0 (where
u 0, v 0) .
Exercise: Show that the vectors u = sin , cos and v= cos sin are orthogonal
E-tivity 9.2.2- Dot Product
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 9.2.2
Title Dot product
Purpose To find the dot product of vectors and use it to calculate
the angle between vectors
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on dot product
Spark
Individual task After watching the video, use dot product to find the
angle between the vectors u i 2 j k and
v 2i j 2k
Interaction begins Compare your answer to at least two of your classmates
in discussion forum 9.2.2 and see what you can learn
from them.
E-moderator interventions Note that the angle between the vectors is 90, if and
only if the dot product is zero
Schedule and time Week 9. This activity will take 30 minutes
Next Cross Product
9.2.3 Cross Product
Cross/vector product:
50
The cross product of a a1i a2 j a3k and b b1i b2 j b3k , denoted by a b is a vector
orthogonal to both a and b defined by
i j k
a2 a3 a a a a2
a b a1 a2 a3 i j 1 3 k 1
b2 b3 b1 b2 b1 b2
b1 b2 b3
Example: Let a 3i j k ; b i 2 j k
(a) Find a b
(b) Show that a b is orthogonal to a
(c) Show that a b is orthogonal to b
Solution:
i j k
(a) 3i j k i 2 j k 3 1 1 i (1 2) j (3 1) k (6 1) i 4 j 7 k
1 2 1
(b) a (a b) 3i j k i 4 j 7k 3 4 7 0 and therefore a b is orthogonal to
a
(c) b (a b) i 2 j k i 4 j 7 k 1 8 7 0 and therefore a b is orthogonal to
b
i j k
b b3 b1 b3 b1 b2
a (b c) (a1i a2 j a3k ) b1 b2 b3 (a1i a2 j a3k ) i 2 j k
c1 c2 c c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
3
a1 a2 a3
b b3 b b3 b b2
a1 2 a2 1 a3 1 = b1 b2 b3
c2 c3 c1 c3 c1 c2
c1 c2 c3
Properties of the cross product:
Let a , b , c be vectors, , and y scalars
1. a b b a
2. a b c a b a c
a b c a c b c
3. a b a b a b
51
4. a a a a
Two vectors a and b are parallel if a kb for some scalar k.
E.tivity 9.2.3 –Cross Product
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 9.2.3
Title Cross Product
Purpose To calculate the vector product of given vectors
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on cross product of vectors
Spark
Individual task After watching the video,
1. prove that
a b c a b a c
given a i j 3k , b 2i j 2k and
c 3i 2 j k to
2. Show that for any three vectors
a a1i a2 j a3k , b b1i b2 j b3k and
c c1i c2 j c3k
a b c a b a c
Interaction begins Go to discussion forum 9.2.3 and compare your answers
to those of at least three classmates. See what you can
learn from them
E-moderator interventions Observe that:
1. These operations are similar to those performed on
algebraic expressions
2. The cross product can be used to evaluate the
determinant of a matrix
Schedule and time Week 9. This activity will take two hours
Next Vector spaces
9.3 Assessment Questions
1
1. Compute the length of the vector v 2
3
52
u1 v1
2. Let u and v .Find the angle between u and v.
u 2 v2
2 4
3. Show that the vectors u and v are orthogonal
4 2
9.4 References
1. A First Course in Linear Algebra by Daniel Zelisky
2. Elementary Linear Algebra by Bennard Kolman
3. Elementary Linear Algebra by Howard Anton
4. https://youtu.be/gCWiw5ZqjnA
5. https://youtu.be/Te8eL5r7aJs
6. https://youtu.be/gPnWm-IXoAY
LESSON 10
VECTOR SPACES
10.1Introduction
The previous lesson revised the topic of vectors. You covered the topic of dot product and
cross product of vectors and the application of dot product in finding the angle between
vectors was also included.
10.2 Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to:
10.1.1 Show that a given set is a vector space
10.1.2 Show that a subset of a given vector space is a subspace of the vector space
53
10.2.1 Vector space
Definition: Let K be a given field and let V be a non empty set with rules of addition and
scalar multiplication which assigns to any u, v V a sum u v V and to any u V , k K a
product ku V . Then V is called a vector space over K (and the elements of V are called
vectors) if the following axioms hold:
A1 : For any vectors u, v, w V , u v w u v w .
A2 : There is a vector in V ,denoted by 0 and called the zero vector, for which u 0 u for
any vector u V
A3 : For each vector u V there is a vector in V ,denoted by u ,for which u u 0 .
A4 : For any vectors u, v V , u v v u .
M 1 : For any scalar k K and any vectors u, v V , k u v ku kv .
M 2 : For any scalars a, b K and any vector u V , a b u au bu .
M 3 : For any scalars, a, b K and any vector u V , ab u abu .
M 4 : For the unit scalar 1 K , 1u u for any vector u V .
Examples:
1. Show that the set n a , a ,
1 2
, an an is a vector space.
2. Show that M n, m , the set of all n m matrices is a vector space.
3. Show that p x , the set of all polynomials in x with real coefficients is a vector space.
4. Show that F ,the set of all functions f : ,is a vector space.
5. Define n to be the set of n-tuples x1 , , xn such that xi 0 i
Define addition and scalar multiplication by:
x1 , x2 , , xn y1 , y2 , , yn x1 y1 , , xn yn
x1 ,
xn x1 , , xn . Show that n is a vector space.
Solution:
Condition 1
x1 , x2 , , xn y1 , y2 , , yn x1 y1 , , xn yn n
Condition 2
x1 ,
xn x1 , , xn n
Condition 3
0 x1 , , xn x10 , , xn0 1, ,1
x1 , x2 ,, xn 1, ,1 x1 , , x2 1, ,1 is the zero vector
Condition 4
x1 , , xn 1 , , 1 = x1 1 , x2 1 , , xn 1 = (1, 1,…,1)
x1 xn x1 x2 xn
54
1 1
Then additive inverse of x1 , , xn is , , n
. Therefore is a vector space.
x1 xn
E-tivity 10.2.1 – Vector space
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 10.2.1
Title Vector space
Purpose To show whether a given set is a vector space
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on the definition of a vector space
Spark
Individual task Watch the video on vector space and summarize the
properties of vector spaces
Interaction begins Follow the answers given by at least three of your
colleagues in Discussion forum 10.2.1 and compare their
solutions with yours
E-moderator interventions Observe that these properties have mainly to do with
addition, scalar multiplication and distribution
Schedule and time Week 10. This activity will take one hour
Next Subspace of a subspace
10.2.2 Subspace of a subspace
Definition: Let V be a vector space. A subset W of V is a subspace of V if W fulfils the
requirements of a vector space, where addition and scalar multiplication in W produce the
same vectors as these operations did in V.
Lemma: (Test for subspace)
A non-empty subset W of a vector space V is a subspace of V if and only if
(i) u, w W , u w W -Closure under addition:
(ii) r , w W , rw W -Closure under scalar multiplication.
i.e. W is a subspace of a vector space V iff its closed under vector addition and scalar
multiplication.
Examples:
1. The set of diagonal n n matrices is a subspace of M n , the set of (n n matrices).
2. Let W n with w w1 wn / Wi with
55
a) w1 0
b) w1 even
c) w1 is divisible by k
Show that each of them is a vector space.
3. The set D of all differentiable functions from f : is a subspace of F, the set of all
functions f :
4. (a)The set of all functions f : R such that f 0 1 is not a subspace of the set
f : .
(b) The set of all functions f : R such that f(1)=0 is a subspace of the set f : .
E-tivity 10.2.2- Subspace of a subspace
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 10.2.2
Title Subspace of a subspace
Purpose To show that a subset of a given vector space is a
subspace of the vector space
Brief summary of overall task Read the definition of a subspace of a vector space
And watch a video on the same
Spark
Individual task Follow the definition and illustration in the video and
give at least three examples of vector spaces
Interaction begins In discussion forum 10.2.2, read the examples given by
four of your classmates (at least) and comment on them.
Get their feedback also and see how to improve on your
answer
E-moderator interventions The most important point to note here is that when
proving that a given subset of a vector space is a
subspace, only two properties are needed; the rest of
them are inherited from the ‘parent set’
Schedule and time Week 10. This activity will take two hours
Next Linear Combinations
10.3 Assessment Questions
56
1. Show that the line y 2 x is a subspace of 2
2. Show that the line y x 1 is not a subspace of .i.e. W x, y / y x 1
{ x, x 1 / x }
3. Show that the set of all invertible n n matrices is not a subspace of the set M n R of all
n n matrices.
10.4 References
1. Linear Algebra by Fraleigh & Beauregard
2. Linear Algebra: Schaum’s Outline Series
3. Linear Algebra by J. N. Sharma, A.R. Vasishta
4. https://youtu.be/EP2ghkO0lSk
5. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Sepideh_Stewart/publication/37986944/figure/fig37/AS
:650477213597712@1532097261446/Definition-of-a-subspace-in-students-course-
manual.png
6. https://youtu.be/Eawc_ZuQI_8
57
LESSON 11
LINEAR COMBINATIONS
11.1Introduction
In lesson 10, you were introduced to the concept of a vector space and a subspace of a
vector space.
This lesson covers linear combinations and linear spans. You will learn how to write a
given vector as a linear combination of other vectors. The relationship between linear
spans, vector spaces and subspaces will also be discussed.
11.2 Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to;
11.2.1 Write a given vector as a linear combination of a given set of vectors
11.2.2 Verify relationships between a linear span, a vector space and a subspace of a vector
space
11.2.1 Linear Combinations
Let v1 , v2 ,, vn be vectors in a vector space V over scalar field K, and a1 , a2 , an K . A
linear combination of the vectors v1 , v2 , , vn is any expression of the form
v a1v1 a2 v2 anvn
Example 1 2 3 1, 4 5 1, 0, 1 6 0, 0,1 is a linear combination of (3, -1, 4), 1,0,1 and
0,0,1 .
Example 2 Write the vector v 1,2,5 ,as a linear combination of the vectors
e1 1,1,1, e2 1,2,3 and e3 2,1,1 .
Solution: We wish to express v as v xe1 ye2 ze3 , with x, y and z as yet unknown scalars.
Thus we require
1,2,5 x1,1,1 y1,2,3 z 2,1,1
x, x, x y,2 y,3 y 2 z , z, z
x y 2 z, x 2 y z, x 3 y z
Form the equivalent system of equations by setting corresponding components equal to each
other, and then reduce to echelon form:
x y 2z 1 x y 2z 1 x y 2z 1
x 2 y z 2 or y 3z 3 or y 3z 3
x 3y z 5 2y z 4 5 z 10
Note that the above system is consistent and so has a solution. Solve for the unknowns to
obtain x 6, y 3, z 2 .Hence v 6e1 3e2 2e3 .
The span of v1 , v2 , , vn over K is the set of all linear combinations of v1 , v2 , , vn .
58
i.e. Span v1 , v2 , , vn a1v1 a2v2 an vn / a1 , a2 an K
For real vector spaces, Span v1 , v2 , , vn a1v1 a2v2 anvn / ai
Theorem: Span v1 , v2 , , vn is a subspace of the vector space V.
Proof: Show closure under addition & scalar multiplication.
Let u, w span v1 , v2 , , vn
Condition 1 of a subspace-Closure under addition:
Let u a1 v1 a2 v2 anvn for some ai and
w b1v1 b2v2 bnvn for some
b
u w a1 b1 v1 a2 b2 v2 an bn vn span v1 , v2 , , vn .
Since a i bi for i 1, 2, ,n
i.e. a linear combination of v1 , v2 , , vn + a linear combination of v1 , v2 , , vn
= a linear combination of v1 , v2 , , vn
Condition 2 of a subspace-Closure under scalar multiplication:
u (a1 v1 a2 v2 an vn )= a1 v1 a2 v2 an vn span v1 , v2 , , vn .
since ai i 1, 2, ,n
i.e. a scalar multiple of a linear combination of v1 , v2 , , vn is also a linear combination of
v1 , v2 , , vn
span v1 , v2 , , vn is a subspace of V.
Example:
1. Let P x be the set of all polynomials in x with real coefficients over .
Span 1, x, x 2 a bx cx 2 / a, b, c = P2 x , set of all polynomials in P x of
degree 2 .
Observe that
1. Span 1, x, x 2 ,3 5 x Span 1 x, x 2
2. Span 1,3 5x, x Span 1, x, x
2 2
Theorem: Let V be a vector space and W1 and W2 be subspaces of V with W1 = Span
v1 , v2 , , vn , W 2 Span u1 , u2 , , um . If each ui is a linear combination of the vi ' s ,
Then Span u1 , u2 , , um Span v1 , v2 , , vn . W2 W1
Proof: Since each ui is a linear combination of vi ' s, ui Wi i 1, 2, ,n .
By definition of subspace, any linear combination in W2 is in W2
Span u1 , , un W2 W1
59
Corollary: Let W1 = Span v1 , v2`, , vn and W2 = Span u1 , u2 , , un . If each vi is a linear
combination of ui ' s and each ui is a linear combination of vi ' s . Then W1 W2
Proof: W1 W2 and W2 W1 implies that W1 W2
If W = Span v1 , v2 , , vn , we say W is a subspace generated or spanned by v1 , v2 , , vn and
that v1 , v2 , , vn is a generating/spanning set for W. If a vector space V has a finite
generating set, we say V is finitely generated.
Claim:
1. Span v1 , v 2 , v n = span v1 , v2 , vi 1 , vi , vi 1 ,..., vn for any 0 .Thus, replacing a
generator by a nonzero scalar multiple of itself leaves the subspaces unchanged.
2. Span v1 , v2 , , vi , , v j vi , , vn = Span v1 , , vn i j .
Replacing a generator by the sum of itself and a scalar multiple of another generator leaves
the space unchanged.
Definition: Let W1 ,W2 , ,Wn be subspaces of a vector space V. The set spanned by
W1 ,W2 , ,Wn
is the sum of W1 , W2 , , Wn , denoted W1 W2 W2 and defined by
W1 W2 W2 u1 u 2 u n / u i Wi
Lemma: If W1 ,W2 , ,Wn are subspaces of V, then W1 W2 Wn is a subspace of V
Examples:
1. Let V P5 x , the set of all polynomials with real coefficients with degree 5 . Then,
W2 P2 x , the set of all polynomials with real coefficients with degree 2 is a subspace of
V.
W2 P3 x , the set of all polynomials with real coefficients with degree 3 is a subspace of
V. W4 P4 x , the set of all polynomials with real coefficients with degree 4 is a subspace
of V.
Now, W2 W3 W3 and W2 W1 W4 W4
2. Let V 3 , e1 1, 0, 0 , e2 0,1, 0 , e3 0, 0,1
Let also W1 = Span e1 , W2 = Span e2 , W3 Span e3 and W4 = Span e2 , e3
Then V W1 W2 W3 ; W1 W4 W1 W2 W4 Also, W4 W2 W3
E-tivity 11.2.1 - Linear Combinations
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 11.2.1
Title Linear Combinations
Purpose Write a given vector as a linear combination of a
given set of vectors
60
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on linear combinations
Spark
Individual task After reading the notes in section 10.2.1 and watching
the video above, show that 11,3,8 is a linear
combination of 1,1, 0 and 2,1,1
Interaction begins Go to discussion forum 10.2.1 and compare your
solution with that of three of your classmates
E-moderator interventions Note that Linear combinations is what will be used to
define linear dependence and independence in Lesson 12
Schedule and time Week 11. This activity will take one hour
Next Linear dependence and independence
11.3 Assessment Questions
1. Write the vector v 2,5,3 in 3 as a linear combination of the vectors
e1 1,3,2, e2 2,4,1 and e3 1,5,7 .
2. For which value of k will the vector u 1,2, k in 3 be a linear combination of the
vectors u 3,0,2 and w 2,1,5 ?
3. Show that the vectors u 1,2,3, v 0,1,2 and w 0,0,1 generate 3 .
4. Find conditions on a, b and c so that a, b, c 3 belongs to the space generated by
u 2,1,0, v 1,1,2 and w 0,3,4
11.4 References
1. Linear Algebra: Schaum’s Outline Series
2. Linear Algebra by J. N. Sharma, A.R. Vasishta
3. Linear Algebra by Michael O’nan, Herbert Enderton
4. Elementary Linear Algebra by Bennard Kolman
5. Elementary Linear Algebra by Howard Anton
61
6. https://youtu.be/PJEjKztLOvI
LESSON 12
LINEAR DEPENDENCE AND INDEPENDENCE, BASIS AND DIMENSION
12.1Introduction
During the previous lesson you covered linear combinations and linear spans. You learnt
how to write a given vector as a linear combination of other vectors. The relationship
between linear spans, vector spaces and subspaces was also discussed.
In this lesson, you will be introduced to the concept of linear dependence and independence.
You will also apply the knowledge of linear dependence and independence in finding the
basis and dimension of a given vector space.
12.2 Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to;
12.2.1 Determine whether a given set of vectors is linearly dependent and
independent.
12.2.2 Use the concept of linear dependence and independence to find the basis and
dimension of a given vector space
12.2.1 Linear Dependence and independence
Definition: The vectors v1 , v2 , , vn of a vector space V are linearly dependent if there exists
real numbers a1 , a2 , , an with at least one ai 0 such that ai vi a2v2 anvn 0. The
vectors are linearly independent if they are not dependent i.e. for every linear combination
a1v1 a2v2 anvn 0 then ai 0 i 1, 2, , n .
Note:
1. Any set of vectors including the zero vector is linearly dependent.
2. If none of the vectors is zero and a1v1 a2 v2 an vn 0 with vi ' s dependent, then at
least two of the ai ' s are non-zero.
Criterion for dependence
62
A finite list of nonzero vectors v1 , , vn in a vector space V is linearly dependent iff some
vector is a linear combination of its predecessors. (OR v1 , , vn are linearly dependent iff
one vi is a linear combination of others)
Proof:
Suppose a vector vk is a linear combination of v1 , v2 , , vk 1 , say
vk b1v1 bk 1vk 1 , bi 0 for some i. Then
b1v1 b2v2 bk 1 vk 1 1vk 0vk 1 0vn 0 .
Suppose a1v1 a2 v2 an vn 0 where v1 , , vn is a linearly dependent set.
Let ak 0 where a k 1 0, ak 2 0,..., an 0
Then a1 v1 ak 1 vk 1 ak vk 0 i.e.
a a a
vk 1 v1 2 v2 k 1 vk 1 i.e. vk is a linear combination of its
ak ak ak
predecessors.
Criterion for independence
A finite list of vector v1 , v2 , , vn in a vector space V is linearly independent iff no vector is a
linear combination of the others.
Claim: Let v1 , v2 , , vn be a linearly independent set in V, and u V . Then v1 , v2 , , vn ,u
are linearly dependent iff u is a linear combination of v1 , v2 , , vn .
Examples:
1. The vectors e1 1, 0, 0,..., 0 , e2 0,1, 0, , 0 ,..., en 0, 0, 0, , 0,1 in n are linearly
independent.
2. The set 1, x, x 2 , , x n in P n 1 x is linearly independent.
3. The set 1, x,3 2 x is linearly dependent since 3 2 x 31 2 x
4. Determine whether or not 1, 2,3,1 , 2, 2,1,3 , 1, 2,7 3 in 4
is linearly dependent.
Method 1:
Find a1 , a2 , a3 such that a1 1, 2,3,1 a2 2, 2,1,3 a3 1, 2, 7, 3 (0, 0, 0, 0)
1 2 3 1
Method 2: Simply reduce the matrix 2 2 1 3 to echelon form.
1 2 7 3
1 2 3 1 1 2 3 1 1 2 3 1
0 2 5 1
2 2 1 3 R2 2 R1 0 2 5 1
1 2 7 3 R R
1 3 0 4 10 2 R3 2 R2 0 0 0 0
OR
63
1 2 3 1 V1 1 2 3 1 V1
2 2 1 3 V2 0 2 5 1 V2 2V1
1 3 V3 0 4 10 2 V1 V3
2 7
1 2 3 1 V1
0 2 5 1 V2 2V1
0 0 0 0 V1 V3 2 V2 2V1
V1 V3 2 V2 2V1 0 3V1 2V2 V3 0 but the coefficients of V1 ,V2 ,V3 are not
zero V1 , V2 , V3 are linearly dependent.
5. Show that the set 1,sin 2 x,cos 2 x is a linearly dependent set of functions in the vector
space F of all functions mapping to .
Solution: cos 2 x 1 sin 2 x ,i.e. cos 2 x is a linear combination of sin 2 x and 1.
OR sin 2 x 1 cos 2 x i.e. sin 2 x is a linear combination of cos 2 x and 1.
Since one vector can be written as a linear combination of the others, we conclude that
1,sin 2 x,cos 2 x is linearly dependent.
6. Any set of more than n vectors in n is linearly dependent. In particular, 1,2,1, 3,5,2,
2,3,6 and 1,2,1 in 3 are linearly dependent.
Theorem: Let v1 , v2 , , vn be n vectors in n .The following conditions are equivalent
1. The vectors are linearly independent.
2. The vectors generate all of n
3. The matrix A having these vectors as columns (or rows) is invertible.
An infinite set S of vectors in a vector space V is linearly independent if there is no
dependence relation involving a finite number of vectors in S.
e.g. The set 1, x, x 2 , x3
is linearly independent in the vector space P x of all
polynomials with real coefficients.
E-tivity 12.2.1 - Linear Dependence and independence
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 12.2.1
Title Linear Dependence and independence
Purpose To determine whether a given set of vectors is
linearly dependent and independent.
64
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on linearly dependent and
independent vectors
Spark
Individual task After watching the video and reading notes in section
12.2.1, determine whether or not the vectors in 4
are linearly dependent :
{(1,3,-4,2),(3,8,-5,7),(2,9,4,23)}
Interaction begins Follow the solutions posted by three of your colleagues
and comment on their method. What can you learn from
them
E-moderator interventions Observe that there are two ways of working out the
question, and they are applied depending on the question
Schedule and time Week 12. This activity will take one hour
Next Basis and dimension
12.2.2 Basis and Dimension
Consider a vector space V generated/spanned by v1 , v2 , , vn . If this set of vector is linearly
dependent , then one vector, say vn ,is a linear combination of v1 , v2 , , vn1 and hence Span
v1 , v2 , , vn Span v1 , v2 , , vn 1 .
We may delete superfluous generators until we have a linearly independent, set say
v1 , v2 , , vk
Span v1 , v2 , , vn = Span v1 , v2 , , vk , k n .
If we delete any vector in the linearly independent set, we would no longer generate V. A set
of generators is minimal if every proper subset of them fails to span/generate V. Minimality
and Independence are equivalent for a set of generators.
Definition: Let V be a vector space. A set of vectors in V is a basis for V if
(1) The vectors generate/span V
(2) The vectors are linearly independent
Examples:
1. The set e1 , e2 , , en where e1 1, 0, 0,..., 0 , e2 0,1, 0, , 0 ,..., en 0, 0, 0, , 0,1
form a basis for n
2. The set 1, x, x 2 ,
, x n1 form a basis for p x , the set of all polynomials in x of degree
n with real coefficients.
3. Vectors e1 (1,0) and e2 (1,1) from a basis for 2
65
Theorem: Let V be a vector space with basis B b1 , b2 , , bn .Each vector v V can be
uniquely expressed in the form v 1b1 2b2 nbn , i (i.e. there is exactly one
choice for each i )
Proof: Suppose v 1b1 2b2 n bn i
1b1 2 b2 n bn i with i i for some i. Then
1 1 b1 2 2 b2 i i bi n n bn 0 with i i 0 . This
contradictions the fact that b1 , b2 , , bn are linearly independent by definition of a basis.
Hence i i i
Example
1.Show that the vectors 1,2,1,0 (0,1,0,1), (-1,-5,2,0) and (2,3,-2,7) form a basis for 4 .
Solution: Show that the vectors are linearly independent.
Theorem: Let V be a vector space and v1 , , vn a basis of V.
(a) If m n , then any set of m vectors of V is linearly dependent.
(b) Any other basis contains precisely n elements.
(c) n can be characterized as either the minimum number of generators of V or the maximum
number of linearly independent vectors in V.
Definition: The dimension of a finitely generated vector space V is the number of elements in
any basis of V, denoted dim(V). We say V is an n-dimensional vector space.
Example: Find dimension of the subspace W Span 1, 3,1 , 2,6,2, 2,1,4 ,
1,10,7 of 3 .
Solution:
1 3 1 1 3 1 1 3 1
2 6 2 0 0
0 0 7 6
; W = span 1,3,1, 2,1,4
2 1 4 0 7 6 0 0 0
1 10 7 0 7 6 0 0 0
Dim(W)=2.
Theorem: Let V be an n-dimensional vector space and v1 , , vm a linearly independent set
of vectors in V.
(i) The set v1 , , vm is a basis for V iff m n .
(ii) Any linearly independent set of vectors of a finite dimensional space can be enlarged to a
basis.
Proof:
(i) Suppose v1 , v2 , , vm is a basis for V. Any two basis for a finitely generated
vector space V have same number of elements called dim V. Hence m n .
Suppose m n . If u V is not a linear combination of v1 , v2 , , vm . Then
v1 , , vm , k S is a linearly independent set with S n 1 . But dim V = n is the maximum
number of linearly independent vectors in V. This is a contradiction and hence u Span
v1 , v 2 , v m and v1 , v2 , , vm is a basis of V.
(ii) Let v1 , v2 , , vk be a linearly independent set. If k=n, the proof follows from (i).
66
If k n take Vk 1 Span v1 , , vk .Then v1 , v2 , , vk , vk 1 is a linearly independent set.
If k 1 n , we have a basis from (i). If k 1 n we can repeat the process. The process
stops when the number of elements in the enlarged set is n.
If V is an n-dimensional vector space and W a subspace of V, then W is finite dimensional,
dim W dim V and any basis of W can be extended to a basis of V.
W V iff dim W dimV .
Example: Let V 4 , W = Span {(1,0,0,0), (1,0,1,0)}. 1,0,0,0, 1,0,1,0 is a basis for W.
To enlarge this basis to a basis of 4 , we start with U 1,0,0,0 , 1,0,1,0 , e1 , e2 , e3 , e4
where { e1 , e2 , e3 , e4 } is the usual basis for 4 . 4 = span (U)
We delete vectors in U that are a linear combination of (1,0,0,0) and (1,0,1,0).
e1 1, 0, 0, 0 , e3 1, 0, 0, 0 1, 0,1, 0
The set1,0,0,0 , 1,0,1,0 , e is linearly independent.
2
The set 1,0,0,0 , 1,0,1,0 , e , e is linearly dependent since
2 3 e3 1, 0, 0, 0 11, 0,1, 0 ;
Delete e3
The set 1,0,0,0 , 1,0,1,0 e , e is linearly independent hence a basis of
2 4
4
.
67
E-tivity 12.2.2 Basis and Dimension
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 12.2.2
Title Basis and Dimension
Purpose
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on basis and dimension
Spark
Individual task After watching the video above and reading notes in
section 20.2.2, find a basis and the dimension of the
subspace W of 4 spanned by
1, 4, 2,11, 3, 1, 2 and 3, 8, 2, 7
Interaction begins Follow the posts by three of your classmates in
discussion forum 10.2.2 and see what you can learn
from them. Offer constructive criticism and also be
ready to receive the same
E-moderator interventions Note that the concept of Linear dependence and
independence is the one used to find the basis and
dimension. A set of vectors need to be linearly
independent in order to qualify as a basis.
Schedule and time Week 12. This activity will take one hour 30 minutes
Next The vector equation of a line
12.3 Assessment Questions
1. Determine whether or not u and v .are linearly dependent if:
(a) u 3,4, v 1,3 (b) u 2,3, v 6,9 (c) u 4,3,2, v 2,6,7
1 2 4 2 4 8
(d) u 4,6,2, v 2,3,1 (e) u , v
3 0 1 6 0 2
1 2 3 6 5 4
(f) u , v (g) u 2 5t 6t 2 t 3 , v 3 2t 4t 2 5t 3
6 5 4 1 2 3
2. Determine whether or not the following vectors in 3 are linearly dependent:
(a) 1,2,1, 2,1,1, 7,4,1 (c) 1,2,3, 1,3,2, 2,1,5
(b) 1,3,7 , 2,0,6, 3,1,1, 2,4,5 (d) 2,3,7 , 0,0,0, 3,1,4
3. Determine whether or not the following form a basis for the vector space 3 :
68
(a) 1,1,1 and 1,1,5 (c) 1,1,1, 1,2,3 and 2,1,1
(b) 1,2,3, 1,0,1, 3,1,0 and 2,1,2 (d) 1,1,2 , 1,2,5 and 5,3,4
12.4 References
1. Linear Algebra by Michael O’nan, Herbert Enderton
2. A First Course in Linear Algebra by Daniel Zelisky
3. Elementary Linear Algebra by Bennard Kolman
4. Elementary Linear Algebra by Howard Anton
5. https://youtu.be/32fqO07p0Y8
6. https://youtu.be/aAvTFc2gfhw
69
LESSON 13
PLANES AND LINES IN 3
13.1Introduction
In lesson 12, you learnt about linear dependence and independence. You applied this
knowledge in finding the basis and dimension of a given vector space.
In this lesson, you will learn about the vector equation of a line and the vector equation of a
plane.
13.2 Learning Outcomes
By the end of the lesson, you will be able to;
13.1.1 Find the parametric and symmetric equation of a line.
13.1.2 Find the equation of a plane
13.1.3 Find the line of intersection of two planes
13.2.1 The vector equation of a line
Example: Find the equation of the line through the point A(1,2,3) and B(4,4,4), and find the
co-ordinates of the point where the line meets the plane z = 0.
Solution:
4 1 3
AB 4 2 2 3i 2 j k
4 3 1
Let R be any point on line AB, then
OR OA t AB, where t is a scalar.
1 3
r 2 t 2 OR
3 1
4 3 4 3 3t 1 3
OR = OR + (1-t) BA 4 1 t 2 4 2 2t 2 t 2
4 1 4 1 t 3 1
The line meets Z = 0 where the z-coordinate is 0. i.e. where 3 +t =0 t = -3.
1 3 8
At this point, r 2 3 2 4 . Point R has coordinates 8, 4, 0
3 1 0
Example:
x2 y 4 z 7
1. (a) Write the line in form r a tu
3 5 2
(b)Show that the line passes through (8,14,11)
70
(c) Find the unit vector parallel to this line
Solution:
x2 y 4 z 7
(a) t x 2 3t , y 4 5t , z 7 2t
3 5 2
x 2 3t 2 3
y 4 5t 4 t 5
z 7 2t 7 2
(b) Showing that it passes through (8,14,11)
x 2 3t 8
2 3t 8
y
4 5 t 14 4 5t 14 t 2
z 7 2t 11 7 2t 11
8 2 3
14 4 2 5
11 7 2
(c)The unit vector parallel to this line is
3 3
1 1
u 5 39 5
32 5 2 2 2 2 2
x 2 4 x 10 2
2. Show that the equations y 3 m 6 and y 15 n 3 represent the
z 1 2 z 3 1
same line.
4 2 4 2
Solution: 6 is parallel to 3 since 6 2 3
2 1 2 1
10 2 4
15 3 2 6 ; (10,15,-3) and (2,3,1) are on this line.
3 1 2
p
The equation of a line through a point A x1 , y 0 , z 0 and parallel to vector q is given by
s
x0 p x x0 p x x0 tp
r y0 t q . i.e. y y0 t q y y0 tq
z s z z s z z ts
0 0 0
This can be written as
71
x x0 y y 0 z z 0
t
p q s
E-tivity 13.2.1 - The vector equation of a line
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 13.2.1
Title The equation of a line in 3D
Purpose Find the vector, parametric and symmetric equation
of a line in 3D.
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on the equation of a line in 3D
Spark
Individual task After reading notes in section 13.2.1 and watching the
x 1 y 3 z 4
video above, write the equation
2 3 5
in the form r a tu and show that it passes
7
through 12 .
19
Interaction begins Follow the solutions posted by at least three of your
colleagues in Discussion forum 13.2.1. Exchange
ideas in case your methods are differing. The
answer should be the same though regardless of the
method used.
E-moderator interventions Note that most of the times you will need to start by
looking for the vector equation of a line, which you then
convert to symmetric and/or parametric form
Schedule and time Lecture 13. This activity will take one hour
Next Equation of a plane
13.2.2 Equation of a plane
It is always possible to find a plane through 3 points. A fourth point may not lie on the plane.
A plane is uniquely determined by 3 points.
The general equation of a plane through points A,B and C is given by
AP mAB n AC i.e. OP OA OB OC
72
where 1
Since OP OA m OB OA n OC OA
OP 1 m n OA m OB n OC
1 m n m n 1
Examples:
Find the equation of the plane through A1,1,1, B5,0,0 and C 3,2,1
Solution:
AP mAB n AC where P (x,y,z)
x 1 4 2
y 1 m 1 n 1
z 1 1 0
x 1 4 2
y 1 m 1 n 1
z 1 1 0
x = 1 + 4m + 2n
y = 1- m +n
z = 1-m
Eliminate n from equation 1 and 2 to get
x – 2y = -1 + 6m
z = 1- m
Eliminate m to get
x – 2y + 6z = 5 which is the equation of the plane
E-tivity 13.2.2 Equation of a plane
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 13.2.2
Title Equation of a plane
Purpose To find the equation of a plane in 3D.
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on the equation of a plane
Spark
Individual task After watching the video and reading noted in section
13.2, find the equation of the plane passing through
the points P 4, 1, 1 , Q 2, 0,1 and
73
R 1, 2, 3 .
Interaction begins Go to the discussion forum 13.2.2 and follow the steps
used by two of your classmates. If your answers are
different, exchange ideas on your methods and learn
from each other.
E-moderator interventions Note that when the equation of the plane is written in the
form ax+by+cz=d, where a, b, c and d are constants,
then the normal vector to the plane is (a,b,c).
Schedule and time Week 13. This activity will take 0ne hour
Next Intersection of two planes
13.2.3 Intersection of two planes
Two planes always meet in a straight line.
Examples:
1. Find the equation of the line of intersection for the planes 3x 5 y z 8 and
2x 3 y z 3
Solution: At the line of intersection, the values of x,y,z satisfy both equations.
3x-5y+z = 8
2x-3y+z = 3 -
x-2y = 5
i.e.eliminate z from equation 1and 2 to get
x – 2y = 5, or x = 5+2y. Thus the equation of line is x – 2y – 5 = 0
Since the line can also be obtained by eliminating x or y, we get it in the form
r a tu we Let y = t, x = 5+2t
,
Substitute in plane 3x-5y+z = 8 to get 3(5+2t) – 5t+z = 8 z = -7 – t
x 5 2t 5 2
y t 0 t 1
z 7 t 7 1
Note that the point 5 2t , t , 7 t lies in both planes. i.e.
3x -5y+z=3(5+2t) – 5t+(-7-t) = 8 and
2x – 3y+ z = 2(5+2t) – 3t + (-7-t) = 3
x 1 1
2. Show that the line y 2 t 1 lies on the plane 2x +3y-5z = -7.
z 3 1
Solution: Substitute the point (1+t, 2+t, 3+t) on line in plane equation 2x +3y-5z = -7 to
get
2x+3y – 5z = 2(1+t) +3( 2+t)-5(3+t)=2+2t+6+3t-15-5t=-7
74
3 1 1 2
3. Show that the lines r 5 m 2 and s 2 n 3 do not meet i.e. they are skew
7 1 3 5
lines.
3 m 1 2n
Solution: Suppose they meet. Then, 5 2m 2 3n . Solving equation 1 and 2 gives
7 m 3 5n
n 1, and m 0 . Substituting these values in equation 3 gives 7 0 3 5 There is no
solution. Hence the lines do not meet
E-tivity 13.2.3 - Intersection of two planes
Numbering, pacing and sequencing 13.2.3
Title Intersection of two planes
Purpose To find the equation of the line of intersection of
two planes
Brief summary of overall task Watch the video on the line of intersection of two
planes
Spark
Individual task After reading the notes in section 13.2.3 and watching
the video, find the equation of the line of intersection
for the planes 4x+3y + z=10 and x + y + z = 6
Interaction begins Go to discussion forum 13.2.3 and see what you can
learn from the solutions of two of your classmates. Offer
constructive criticism and also be ready to receive the
same in case your answer is not correct
E-moderator interventions Observe that you will first get the equation of the
straight line in parametric form, then you can convert it
into symmetric or vector form as the case may be.
Schedule and time Week 13. This activity will take one hour
Next This is the last lesson
13.3 Assessment Questions
75
1. Find an equation of the plane passing through the point 3,1,7 and perpendicular to the
vector n 4,2,5 .
2. Find the equation of the plane passing through the points P1 1,2,1, P2 2,3,1 and P3 3,1,2 .
3. Find The line through the point 1,2,3 and parallel to the vector v 4,5,7 has
parametric equations
4. (a)Find parametric equations for the line l passing through the points P1 2,4,1 and P2 5,0,7 .
(b)Where does the line intersect the xy -plane?
5. Find parametric equations for the line of intersection of the planes 3x 2 y 4 z 6 0 and
x 3 y 2z 4 0
13.4 References
1. https://youtu.be/2sZKZHyaQJ8
2. https://youtu.be/SoSTdgqknvY
3. Linear Algebra by Michael O’nan, Herbert Enderton
4. A First Course in Linear Algebra by Daniel Zelisky
5. Elementary Linear Algebra by Bennard Kolman
6. Elementary Linear Algebra by Howard Anton
ANSWERS TO LESSON ASSESSMENT QUESTIONS
1.3 Answers
76
11 6 14
1 (a) AB 1(b) BA is not defined.
1 2 14
2. (a) AB 6,1,3 (b) BA is not defined.
1 8 10
15 21
3. (a) AB 1 2 5 (b) BA
9 22 15 10 3
__________________________________________________________________________
2.3 Answers
1 2 4
1 3
0 3 4 5 1
1. A
t
2. (a) A t
2 1 , Then AAt
;
1 4 4 1 26
0 4
0 5 4
10 1 12
1 5 4
12 4 16
(b) At A
______________________________________________________________________
3.3 Answers
3 2 a b a
1. (a) 23 (b) b 2
4 5 b ab
2. k 0 ;and k 2 .That is, if k 0 or k 2
1 2 3 2 0 1 2 0 1 1 0 0
3. (a) 4 2 3 79 (b) 4 2 3 24 (c) 3 2 3 5 (d) 3 2 4 10
2 5 1 5 3 1 1 3 5 4 1 3
_______________________________________________________________________
4.3 Answers
1 2 3 5 0 9
1. 2 1 3 2 1 3 ,obtained by adding twice the second row to the first row Det=4.
1 0 1 1 0 1
2. -120
___________________________________________________________________________
77
5.5 Answers
18 / 46 11 / 46 10 / 46 9 / 23 11 / 46 5 / 23
1. A adjA 2 / 46
11
14 / 46 4 / 46 1 / 23 7 / 23 2 / 23
A 4 / 46
5 / 46 8 / 46 2 / 23 5 / 46 4 / 23
___________________________________________________________________________
6
6.3 Answers
1 2 1
1. 0 5 3
0 0 0
2. b,e,f are in echelon form; a and f are in canonical form. c and d are not in echelon form.
___________________________________________________________________________
7.3 Answers
1. x1 132 , x2 4, x3 9 2 , x4 3
2. x1 41 x2 1, x3 3, x4 2
3. x1 2, x2 0, x3 1, x4 1
4.
x3 k , x 2 2 k , x, 4 k
__________________________________________________________________________
8.3 Answers
_________________________________________________________________________
9.3 Answers
v 12 2 2 32 14
1.
2. 0 , 600
3. u.v 24 42 0
___________________________________________________________________________
10.3 Answers
1. L= x, y / y 2 x = x,2 x / x R
2. Let w1 , w2 W . w1 x1 , x1 1 , w2 x 2 , x 2 1
78
w1 w2 x1 x2 , x1 x2 2 W .OR: x1 , x1 1 x1 , x1 W ,since 1 .
Therefore the line y x 1 is not a subspace of
3. For any invertible n n matrix A, -A is also invertible.
But A A 0 not invertible and therefore the set of all invertible n n matrices is
not a subspace of the set M n R
11.3 Answers
1. Set v as a linear combination of the e1 using the unknowns x, y and z : v xe1 ye2 ze3 .
v cannot be written as a linear combination of the vectors e1 ,e2 and e3 .
2. Set u xv yw ; k 8 .
3We need to show that an arbitrary vector a, b, c 3 is a linear combination of u, v and w .
x a, y b 2a, z c 2b a is a solution. Thus u, v and w generate 3 .
4. Set a, b, c as a linear combination of u, v and w using unknowns x, y and z :
a, b, c xu yv zw ; 2a 4b 3c 0 .
12.3 Answers
1. Two vectors u and v are dependent if and only if one is a multiple of the other.
(a)No (b) Yes; for v 3u (c)No (d)Yes; for u 2v (e)Yes; for v 2u (f)No (g)No
(h)Yes;
2. (a) Since the echelon matrix has a zero row the vectors are dependent. (The three given
vectors generate a space of dimension 2.)
(b)Yes, since any four (or more) vectors in 3 are dependent.
(c)Since the echelon matrix has no zero rows, the vectors are independent. (The three
given vectors generate a space of dimension 3.)
(d)Since 0 0,0,0 is one of the vectors, the vectors are dependent
3. (a)and (b). No; for a basis of 3 must contain exactly 3 elements, since 3 is of dimension
3.
(c)The vectors form a basis if and only if they are independent. The echelon matrix has no
zero rows; hence the three vectors are independent and so form a basis for 3 .
(d)The echelon matrix has a zero row, i.e. only two non zero rows; hence the three
vectors are dependent and so do not form a basis for 3 .
13.3Answers
1. 4 x 2 y 5 z 25 0
2. 9 x y 5 z 16 0
79
x 1 4t
3. y 2 5t
z 3 7t
x 2 3t
19 7
4.(a) y 4 4t (b) x, y, z , ,0
8 2
1 8t
z
26 16
x t
11 11
6 2
5. y t where t
11 11
z t
___________________________________________________________________________
80
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