Lecture Series in Aerospace Technology

Stability and Control

Juan Pedro Mellado
Contents
1. Introduction

2. Preliminaries

3. Longitudinal Dynamics
Longitudinal Static Stability
Longitudinal Dynamic Stability
Longitudinal Control

4. Lateral-Directional Dynamics
Directional Static Stability
Lateral Static Stability
Lateral Dynamic Stability
Lateral Control
 We Want to Answer Questions Like:

How to change flight direction?

Introduction 2.46
 We Want to Answer Questions Like:

How to change flight direction?

How to land with crosswind?

Introduction 2.46
 We Want to Answer Questions Like:

How to change flight direction?

How to land with crosswind?

What if a wind gust hits the plane?

Introduction 2.46
 Stability

1. Study of vehicle’s response to external perturbations of an equilibrium state.

2. Tendency of the system to return to equilibrium when perturbed.
3. Two types:
• Static stability: Initial tendency.
• Dynamic stability: Temporal behavior thereafter. Static stability does not imply dynamic stability:

Aircrafts are not fully stable. If too stable, they are difficult to control and maneuver. What matters
is the time scale of the motion that results from a perturbation: if too short for the pilot to react, the
aircraft better be stable to that type of motion.
Introduction 3.46
 Control

1. Study of vehicle’s response to control inputs.

2. Ability to command the airplane, to set equilibrium states and to perform maneuvers.

Introduction 4.46
 Flight Mechanics

Stability and control is another part of Flight Mechanics.

Flight Mechanics studies the motion of the aircraft under the action of the following four forces:
1. lift,
2. drag,
3. propulsive thrust,
4. and weight.

Aircraft performance focuses on the translational motion caused by forces:

d(mV) X dxcg
= Fi , =V. (1)
dt dt
Stability and control also considers the rotational motion caused by moments:

d(Icg ·ω) X dΩ
= Mi , =ω. (2)
dt dt

Introduction 5.46
 Aims of the Lecture

1. Introduce the topic with an organized synthesis of fundamental aspects.

2. Familiarize yourself with the jargon.
3. Understand how the aerodynamic moments affect the attitude of an aircraft.
4. Learn about instability, related parameters and its mathematical description.
5. Learn about control, related parameters and its mathematical description.

We will focus on fixed-wing aircrafts.

Introduction 6.46
Contents
1. Introduction

2. Preliminaries

3. Longitudinal Dynamics
Longitudinal Static Stability
Longitudinal Dynamic Stability
Longitudinal Control

4. Lateral-Directional Dynamics
Directional Static Stability
Lateral Static Stability
Lateral Dynamic Stability
Lateral Control
 Aerodynamic Moments and Rotational Motion
Body Axis x y z
Motion roll (lateral) pitch (longitudinal) yaw (directional)
Angular Velocity p q r
Moment Ml Mm Mn
Ml Mm Mn
Moment Coefficient Cl ≡ (1/2)ρV 2 Sl Cm ≡ (1/2)ρV 2 Sl Cn ≡ (1/2)ρV 2 Sl
(*) l is a reference wing chord

symmetry
plane

"wings"
plane

Preliminaries 7.46
 Primary Controls Surfaces
Body Axis x y z
Motion roll (lateral) pitch (longitudinal) yaw (directional)
Control Surface Ailerons Elevator(*) Rudder(*)
Command Stick|Yoke left-right Stick|Yoke forward-backward Rudder pedals
δl δm δn
(*) Ruddervators to control pitch and yaw in V-tails.

Preliminaries Anderson [2016] 8.46

 Secondary Control Surfaces

High-lift devices: flaps (7-inboard,

8-outboard), slots, slats (retractable
slots, 5-inboard,6-outboard).
To increase lift at small velocity during
takeoff and landing.
Trim tabs: Elevator trim, and, for large
aircrafts, rudder and aileron trims.
To adjust the balance of the plane and
relieve the pilot
Air brakes, spoilers (9-outboard, 10-inboard).
To increase the aerodynamic drag. Spoilers also reduce lift, and, apart for landing, are used to assist
roll maneuvers and to change flight speed.
Others: flaperons (combined flap-ailerons), elevons (combined elevator-ailerons, in flying wings), spoilerons
(asymmetric spoilers to add roll control), ...

Preliminaries 9.46
 Flight Control Systems

1. Mechanical: use of pushrods, tension cables, pulleys... Small planes, e.g., Cessna 172.
2. Hydro-mechanical: hydraulic power instead of muscular power.
3. Fly-by-wire: use of computers and loop-feedback control. First in military airplanes, increasingly
common in commercial planes. It allows slightly unstable modes in favor of maneuverability.

Preliminaries 10.46
Contents
1. Introduction

2. Preliminaries

3. Longitudinal Dynamics
Longitudinal Static Stability
Longitudinal Dynamic Stability
Longitudinal Control

4. Lateral-Directional Dynamics
Directional Static Stability
Lateral Static Stability
Lateral Dynamic Stability
Lateral Control
 Elements to Describe Longitudinal Motions
Body axis x y z
Motion roll (lateral) pitch (longitudinal) yaw (directional)
Angular Velocity p q r
Moment Coefficient Cl Cm Cn
Control Surface Ailerons Elevator Rudder
Command Stick|Yoke left-right Stick|Yoke forward-backward Rudder pedals
δl δm δn

Longitudinal Dynamics 11.46

 Aerodynamic Moments on the Wing

Aerodynamic forces and moments are the

result of the pressure and shear stress
distributions over a wing: L, D, M .
The moment M can be calculated with
respect to any point (indicated by subscript).
However, there exists a particular point about
which the moments are independent of the
angle of attack: the aerodynamic center. It
is close to the 1/4-chord point.

The moment coefficient about the aerodynamic center is denoted by Cm,ac . Airfoils with positive
camber have Cm,ac < 0 (tendency to pitch down).
Recall that this moment coefficient is not zero, it simply does not change with the angle of attack
whereas the lift coefficient does.

Longitudinal Dynamics Anderson [2016] 12.46

 Moment Coefficient of the Airplane about the Center of Gravity

• Lw , Dw , and Mac,w of the wing

• Lt , Dt , and Mac,t of the tail; mainly Lt
• Aerodynamic forces and moments elsewhere
(fuselage, engine nacelles)
• Thrust, T .

Neglecting the contribution from thrust, from vertical offsets, and for small angles of attack, one finds

Mcg ≈ Mac + (xac − xcg )Lw − (xcg − xt )Lt . (3)

Normalizing, the moment coefficient about the center of gravity can eventually be written as

Cm,cg ≈ Cm,ac + Cm,α αa + Cm,δm δm , (4)

where αa is the absolute angle of attack such that CL = CL,α αa for the whole airplane, and δm
quantifies the elevators command (stick or yoke forward-backward).
Longitudinal Dynamics Anderson [2016] 13.46
 Moment Coefficient of the Airplane about the Center of Gravity

• Lw , Dw , and Mac,w of the wing

• Lt , Dt , and Mac,t of the tail; mainly Lt
• Aerodynamic forces and moments elsewhere
(fuselage, engine nacelles)
• Thrust, T .

It is often written as
Cm,cg ≈ Cm,0 + Cm,α αa , (5)
where
Cm,0 ≡ Cm,ac + Cm,δm δm . (6)
For a rigid airplane with the elevator is some fixed position, Cm,0 is constant.
Sometimes, one uses the lift coefficient CL instead of αa as independent variable, in which case:

Cm,cg ≈ Cm,0 + Cm,CL CL . (7)

Longitudinal Dynamics Anderson [2016] 13.46

 Longitudinal Equilibrium

An aircraft in level, unaccelerated flight is in equilibrium when we have a balance of forces

L=W , T =D, (8)

and a balance of moments

Mcg = 0 ⇒ Cm,cg = 0 . (9)
When Cm,cg = 0, we say that the aircraft is trimmed. The trim angle of attack αe is the angle of
attack for which Cm,cg = 0. From Eq. (5), one finds:

Cm,0
αe = . (10)
−Cm,α

In this situation, the center of lift coincides with the center of gravity.

Longitudinal Dynamics 14.46

 Longitudinal Equilibrium

An aircraft in level, unaccelerated flight is in equilibrium when we have a balance of forces

L=W , T =D, (8)

and a balance of moments

Mcg = 0 ⇒ Cm,cg = 0 . (9)
When Cm,cg = 0, we say that the aircraft is trimmed. The trim angle of attack αe is the angle of
attack for which Cm,cg = 0. From Eq. (5), one finds:

Cm,0
αe = . (10)
−Cm,α

In this situation, the center of lift coincides with the center of gravity.
One can think about the following two questions:
• Is this equilibrium stable or unstable? → Stability.
• How to set it or change it? → Control.
Longitudinal Dynamics 14.46
Outline
1. Introduction

2. Preliminaries

3. Longitudinal Dynamics
Longitudinal Static Stability
Longitudinal Dynamic Stability
Longitudinal Control

4. Lateral-Directional Dynamics
Directional Static Stability
Lateral Static Stability
Lateral Dynamic Stability
Lateral Control
 Longitudinal Static Stability

Consider a rigid airplane with the elevator in

some fixed position, and with the following
variation of Cm,cg with αa :

Consider the airplane in steady, equilibrium

flight at its trim angle of attack αe . A gust
comes and the the angle of attack is
momentarily changed. What happens?

Longitudinal Dynamics Anderson [2016] 15.46

 Longitudinal Static Stability

Consider a rigid airplane with the elevator in The resulting moment about the center of gravity tend
some fixed position, and with the following to restore the original equilibrium: The airplane is
variation of Cm,cg with αa : statically stable.

Consider the airplane in steady, equilibrium

flight at its trim angle of attack αe . A gust
comes and the the angle of attack is
momentarily changed. What happens?

Longitudinal Dynamics Anderson [2016] 15.46

 Longitudinal Static Instability

Consider a rigid airplane with the elevator in

some fixed position, and with the following
variation of Cm,cg with αa :

Consider the airplane in steady, equilibrium

flight at its trim angle of attack αe . A gust
comes and the the angle of attack is
momentarily changed. What happens?

Longitudinal Dynamics Anderson [2016] 16.46

 Longitudinal Static Instability

Consider a rigid airplane with the elevator in The resulting moment about the center of gravity bring
some fixed position, and with the following the aircraft farther from equilibrium: The airplane is
variation of Cm,cg with αa : statically unstable.

Consider the airplane in steady, equilibrium

flight at its trim angle of attack αe . A gust
comes and the the angle of attack is
momentarily changed. What happens?

Longitudinal Dynamics Anderson [2016] 16.46

 Criteria for Statically Stable Longitudinal Equilibrium

Conclusions:
1. Cm,0 must be positive.
2. Cm,α ≡ ∂Cm,cg /∂αa must be negative.
3. αe must fall within the flight range of angle of attack (from Vstall to Vmax ).

Longitudinal Dynamics Anderson [2016] 17.46

 Horizontal Stabilizer

Consider a wing only. Airfoils with positive camber have Cm,ac < 0, and hence

Cm,0 = Cm,ac < 0 , wing only (11)

and a wing alone is unbalanced. We rectify this situation with a horizontal stabilizer. Two configurations:

Conventional (tailplane):
• Tail lift subtracts from wing lift
• Perturbed flow on tail

Canard:
• Canard lift adds to wing lift
• Perturbed flow on wing
• Stalls before wing

Design parameters: Surface area St and lever

arm xcg − xt .
Longitudinal Dynamics Anderson [2016] 18.46
 Neutral Point and Static Margin

For static stability, we have seen that one needs Cm,α < 0.
For a wing only, we have
xcg − xac
Cm,α ≈ − CL,α . (12)
l
Hence, stability increases when moving the center of gravity forward.
For a whole airplane, we need to retain the effect of the stabilizer. From Eq. (4), one finds
xcg − xnp
Cm,α ≈ − CL,α , (13)
l
where xnp indicates the position of the neutral point. The neutral point is defined as the position of
the center of gravity for neutral static stability, i.e., for which Cm,α = 0.
We refer to xcg − xnp as static margin. Positive static margin implies static logintudinal stability.

Longitudinal Dynamics 19.46

Outline
1. Introduction

2. Preliminaries

3. Longitudinal Dynamics
Longitudinal Static Stability
Longitudinal Dynamic Stability
Longitudinal Control

4. Lateral-Directional Dynamics
Directional Static Stability
Lateral Static Stability
Lateral Dynamic Stability
Lateral Control
 Equations Governing Longitudinal Motion

Projecting on aerodynamic axes, one finds:

mV γ̇ = (1/2)ρSV 2 CL − mg , (14a)
2
mV̇ = T − (1/2)ρSV CD − mgγ , (14b)
2
Iy q̇ = (1/2)ρSV lCm , (14c)
α̇ + γ̇ = q , (14d)
ḣ = V sin γ . (14e)

Variables: Speed, V ; height, h; path angle, γ (θ in the figure); angle of attack, α; pitch velocity, q.
We have used the simplifying assumptions introduced before:
• 2D motion in the vertical plane, which coincides with the symmetry plane.
• Thrust parallel to velocity, αT = 0: Eq. (14a) and Eq. (14b) decouple regarding T .
• No thrust-induced moment: Eq. (14b) and Eq. (14c) decouple regarding T .
• Small path angle, γ: Eq. (14a) and Eq. (14b) decouple regarding γ.
Longitudinal Dynamics 20.46
 Short-Period Pitching Oscillation: Physical Mechanism

Direct consequence of the static stability. When α increases, a pitching moment appears that tries to
reduce α, and viceversa. Leads to pitch oscillations.

Longitudinal Dynamics Cook [2007] 21.46

 Short-Period Pitching Oscillation: Mathematical Analysis

Look for solutions with V , h approximately constant. Substituting Eq. (14d) into Eq. (14c) leads to

Iy α̈ = (1/2)ρSV 2 l(Cm,0 + Cm,α α) , (15)

which can be written as s

ρSl p
α̈ + ωn2 α= ωn2 αe , ωn ≡ V −Cm,α , (16)
2Iy

and αe is the trim angle of attack, Eq. (10). Hence, α follows a harmonic oscillation with an angular
frequency ωn . Properties:
• Restoring force is caused by Cm,α .
• Short-period oscillation (period τ = 2π/ωn of a few seconds).
• Higher frequency at higher speed, and when shifting the center of gravity forward (more negative
Cm,α ).
• Heavily damped by horizontal stabilizer and wing (not shown); pilot need not correct it.

Longitudinal Dynamics 22.46

 Phugoid: Physical Mechanism

Exchange between potential energy and kinetic energy at a constant angle of attack (in absence of
damping, hg + V 2 /2 is constant.)
1. Starting from a level flight at a speed Ve , consider a small velocity disturbance v, say negative.
2. Lift becomes smaller than weight, the aircraft pitches down, goes down, and accelerates.
3. The speed increases to a value larger than Ve , pitches up, and goes up.
4. The excess of kinetic energy and inertia allow it to fly above original height.
5. At it climbs, it loses speed until lift becomes again smaller than weight.

Longitudinal Dynamics Cook [2007] 23.46

 Phugoid: Mathematical Analysis

Look for solutions with α ≈ constant. Substituting V = Ve + v into Eq. (14a) and Eq. (14b):

γ̇ ≈ (ρSCL /m) v, (17a)

v̇ ≈ −(ρSCD /m)Ve v − g γ . (17b)

Substituting the first equation into the time derivative of the second equation, and using Eq. (14a) at
equilibrium, ρSCL /m = 2g/Ve2 , one finds the following ordinary differential equation
√ √
v̈ + 2ζωn v̇ + ωn2 v = 0 , ωn ≡ 2g/Ve , ζ ≡ CD /( 2CL ) . (18)

Hence, v follows a harmonic oscillation with a natural angular frequency ωn . Properties:

• Restoring force is the weight component along the flight path (xa axis).
• Long-period oscillation (period of tens of seconds, up to 1-2 minutes).
• Lower frequency at higher speed.
• Often weakly damped by the thrust-drag imbalance, but easily corrected by pilot because it is a
slow motion.

Longitudinal Dynamics 24.46

Outline
1. Introduction

2. Preliminaries

3. Longitudinal Dynamics
Longitudinal Static Stability
Longitudinal Dynamic Stability
Longitudinal Control

4. Lateral-Directional Dynamics
Directional Static Stability
Lateral Static Stability
Lateral Dynamic Stability
Lateral Control
 Motivation

Consider a statically stable airplane in trimmed (equilibrium) flight. The corresponding velocity for
level, unaccelerated flight is s
2W
Ve = , (19)
ρSCL,e
where CL,e = CL,α αe , and αe is the trim angle of attack (Cm,cg = 0).
Assume we want to fly at a higher speed V > Ve , which implies a smaller αa < αe . If we decrease
αa , the moment about the center of gravity becomes positive, and the airplane is no longer trimmed
(recall the figure Cm,cg versus αa , or see following slide).
Mathematically, from
Cm,cg ≈ Cm,0 + Cm,α αa , (20)
we see that we need to change either Cm,0 or Cm,α to reach a longitudinal balance (Cm,cg = 0) at the
new angle of attack.

Longitudinal Dynamics 25.46

 Two Options to Change the Trim Angle

1. We can change Cm,α by shifting the center of 2. We can change Cm,0 by deflecting the elevator
gravity: hang gliders. of the horizontal tail: airplanes.

The elevator deflection can be used to control the trim angle of attack and thus to control
the equilibrium velocity of the airplane.
Longitudinal Dynamics Anderson [2016] 26.46
 Elevator Contribution to Moment Coefficient

• Lw , Dw , and Mac,w of the wing

• Lt , Dt , and Mac,t of the tail; mainly Lt
• Aerodynamic forces and moments elsewhere
(fuselage, engine nacelles)
• Thrust, T .

Recall that the moment coefficient about the center of gravity can be written as [Eqs. (5)]

Cm,cg ≈ Cm,0 + Cm,α αa ,

where [Eqs. (6)]

Cm,0 ≡ Cm,ac + Cm,δm δm .
δm quantifies the elevators command (stick or yoke forward-backward).

Longitudinal Dynamics Anderson [2016] 27.46

 Effect of Changing the Elevator Deflection

Increasing the tail lift, Lt , leads to a negative

contribution to the moment coefficient.
We define the elevator deflection δm as positive
when it increases with increasing Lt , which implies
Cm,δm < 0 in tailplane configuration.

The elevator deflection controls the trim angle of

attack and thus the flight speed.
From the interval of flight speeds obtained from
the aircraft performance analysis, one can obtain
the interval of elevator deflections that are needed.

Longitudinal Dynamics Anderson [2016] 28.46

 Elevator Angle to Trim

Given an angle of attack αe , the airplane is in equilibrium when Cm,cg = 0. From Eqs. (5,6), one finds:

Cm,ac + Cm,α αe
δm,e ≈ − . (21)
Cm,δ
The elevator trim angle
• depends on αe ,
• depends on the centering xcg − xnp via Cm,α ,
• is independent of V , h, W , γ.

One uses an elevator trim tab to balance the

airplane at the desired angle of attack without
having to continuously hold the elevator with the
stick or yoke.

Cessna 172 trim tab. Source: commons.wikimedia.com

Longitudinal Dynamics 29.46

 Summary: Longitudinal Dynamics

1. Static stability: the center of gravity has to be ahead of the neutral point, or, equivalently, Cm,α
has to be negative.
2. Dynamic stability: (1) short-period pitching motion (strongly damped), and (2) long-period
phugoid (poorly damped, but pilot can easily control it).
3. Control: the elevator controls the trim angle of attack, which controls the flight speed for level,
unaccelerated flight.

Longitudinal Dynamics 30.46

Contents
1. Introduction

2. Preliminaries

3. Longitudinal Dynamics
Longitudinal Static Stability
Longitudinal Dynamic Stability
Longitudinal Control

4. Lateral-Directional Dynamics
Directional Static Stability
Lateral Static Stability
Lateral Dynamic Stability
Lateral Control
 Elements to Describe Directional and Lateral Motions
Body axis x y z
Motion roll (lateral) pitch (longitudinal) yaw (directional)
Angular Velocity p q r
Moment Coefficient Cl Cm Cn
Control Surface Ailerons Elevator Rudder
Command Stick|Yoke left-right Stick|Yoke forward-backward Rudder pedals
δl δm δn
Force Coefficient CY

Lateral-Directional Dynamics 31.46

Outline
1. Introduction

2. Preliminaries

3. Longitudinal Dynamics
Longitudinal Static Stability
Longitudinal Dynamic Stability
Longitudinal Control

4. Lateral-Directional Dynamics
Directional Static Stability
Lateral Static Stability
Lateral Dynamic Stability
Lateral Control
 The Vertical Stabilizer is the Main Mechanism for Directional Stability

Consider an airplane in level, unaccelerated flight

with no yaw. A gust comes and the yaw angle is
momentarily changed. What happens?
The resulting moment about the center of gravity
tend to restore the original equilibrium.
The airplane is statically stable.

Lateral-Directional Dynamics Anderson [2016] 32.46

 The Vertical Stabilizer is the Main Mechanism for Directional Stability

Consider an airplane in level, unaccelerated flight

with no yaw. A gust comes and the yaw angle is
momentarily changed. What happens?
The resulting moment about the center of gravity
tend to restore the original equilibrium.
The airplane is statically stable.
Design parameters: Surface area and lever arm.
For twin-engine airplanes, the vertical stabilizer
needs to be designed to compensate torque caused
by engine failure.
Other contributions to directional stability:
• A backward sweep wing is stabilizing.
• The fuselage is usually destabilizing.

Lateral-Directional Dynamics Anderson [2016] 32.46

Outline
1. Introduction

2. Preliminaries

3. Longitudinal Dynamics
Longitudinal Static Stability
Longitudinal Dynamic Stability
Longitudinal Control

4. Lateral-Directional Dynamics
Directional Static Stability
Lateral Static Stability
Lateral Dynamic Stability
Lateral Control
 Dihedral is the Main Mechanism for Lateral Stability

Consider an airplane in level, unaccelerated flight

with no roll. A gust comes and the roll angle is
momentarily changed. What happens?
The unbalanced forces cause a sideslip velocity
Vslip relative to the airplane. This velocity changes
the lift of the wings:
• If the dihedral angle Γ is zero, same lift
reduction on both wings and no restoring force.
• With a positive dihedral angle, there is a
restoring force:
The airplane is statically stable.
(Note that there is always a coupling between
yawing and rolling motion.)

Lateral-Directional Dynamics Anderson [2016] 33.46

Outline
1. Introduction

2. Preliminaries

3. Longitudinal Dynamics
Longitudinal Static Stability
Longitudinal Dynamic Stability
Longitudinal Control

4. Lateral-Directional Dynamics
Directional Static Stability
Lateral Static Stability
Lateral Dynamic Stability
Lateral Control
 Equations Governing Lateral Motion

Projecting on body axes, one finds:

Ix ṗ ≈ (1/2)ρSV 2 l Cl , (22a)
2
Iz ṙ ≈ (1/2)ρSV l Cn , (22b)
2
mV (β̇ + r) ≈ mg sin φ + (1/2)ρSV CY , (22c)
φ̇ ≈ p , (22d)

Variables: Sideslip angle, β; bank angle, φ; roll velocity, p; yaw velocity, r.

We have used the following simplifying assumptions:
• x is a principal axis of inertia.
• no roll velocity in the equilibrium state whose stability we want to study.
• Small angle of attack and small pitch angle.

Lateral-Directional Dynamics Anderson [2016] 34.46

 Aerodynamic Coefficients

We have seen that, as a first approximation to mathematically describe the longitudinal motion, the
pitching moment Cm can be expressed as a linear function of the angle of attack, α [Eq. (5)]:

Cm = Cm,0 + Cm,α α ,

Similarly, to describe lateral-directional motions, one can express the moment and force coefficients as
linear functions of the sideslip angle, β, the roll speed, p, and the yaw speed, r:

Cl = Cl,β β + Cl,p pl/V + Cl,r rl/V , (roll moment)

Cn = Cn,β β + Cn,p pl/V + Cn,r rl/V , (yaw moment)
CY = CY,β β + CY,p pl/V + CY,r rl/V . (lateral force)

Roll and yaw motions are strongly coupled.

We have already discussed two of these coefficients:
• Lateral static stability corresponds to Cl,β < 0; dihedral effect.
• Directional static stability corresponds to Cn,β > 0; effect of vertical stabilizer.
Lateral-Directional Dynamics 35.46
 Roll or Roll Subsidence Mode: Physical Mechanism

1. As the plane rolls, the wing going down

has an increased α, and hence and
increased lift, whereas the opposite occurs
in the other wing.
2. This differential lift creates a moment that
tends to restore the equilibrium.
3. After a disturbance, the roll rate builds up
exponentially until the restoring moment
balances the disturbing moment, and a
steady roll is established.

Lateral-Directional Dynamics Cook [2007] 36.46

 Roll or Roll Subsidence Mode: Mathematical Analysis

Look for solutions with only roll motion (r ≈ 0 and β ≈ 0). From Eq. (22a), one finds

Ix ṗ ≈ (1/2)ρSV l2 Cl,p p . (24)

This ordinary differential equation can be written as

1 2Ix
ṗ = p, τ≡ , (25)
τ ρSV 2 Cl,p

whose solution is an exponential function with time constant τ . Properties:

• Aperiodic (non-oscillatory).
• Stable (τ < 0 because Cl,p < 0).

Lateral-Directional Dynamics Cook [2007] 37.46

 Dutch Roll Mode: Physical Mechanism

Direct consequence of direction stability. Analogous to pitch oscillation

but in a horizontal plane. However, the asymmetry induces roll. Hence,
it is a yaw-roll oscillation.
1. Starting from a level flight, consider a small yaw disturbance.
2. Vertical stabilizer provides a restoring force.
3. As the plane yaws, the wing moving forward generates more lift,
whereas the opposite occurs in the other wing.
4. This differential lift creates a roll moment.
5. Oscillation in roll φ lags oscillation in raw β by ≈ 90◦ : Forward
going wing is low.

Lateral-Directional Dynamics Cook [2007] 38.46

 Dutch Roll Mode: Mathematical Analysis

Look for solutions with Cn,p , φ and CY ≈ 0. Equations (22b) and (22c) yield

β̈ ≈ −[ρSV 2 l/(2Iz )](Cn,β β − Cn,r β̇l/V ) , (26)

which can be written as

r
ρSl p −Cn,r l
β̈ + 2ζωn β̇ + ωn2 β=0, ωn ≡ V Cn,β , ζ≡ ωn . (27)
2Iz 2Cn,β V

Hence, β follows an harmonic oscillation with a natural angular frequency ωn . Properties:

• Restoring force is caused by Cn,β .
• Short period τ = 2π/ωn , although it increases with aircraft size: from a few seconds for light
aircraft to a minute or more for airliners.
• Damped by Cn,r < 0, whose magnitude increases with size and lever arm of the vertical stabilizer.

Lateral-Directional Dynamics Cook [2007] 39.46

 Spiral Mode: Physical Mechanism

1. Given a level flight, consider a

small roll disturbance φ > 0. This
results in a small sideslip (vehicle
slides downhill).
2. The sideslip angle β causes a
positive yawing moment
(directional stability).
3. The positive yaw rate creates a
positive roll moment, which
increases the roll angle, amplifying
the initial roll disturbance.
4. Slowly diverging path in roll, yaw
and altitude, an spiral into the
ground.

Lateral-Directional Dynamics Cook [2007] 40.46

 Spiral Mode: Mathematical Analysis

Look for quasi-steady solutions where ṗ, ṙ, V β̇ are ≈ 0. Equations (22a-d) yield

0 ≈ Cl,β β + Cl,p pl/V + Cl,r rl/V , (28a)

0 ≈ Cn,β β + Cn,p pl/V + Cn,r rl/V , (28b)
mV r ≈ mgφ (28c)
φ̇ ≈ p . (28d)

Solving for p as a function of φ in the first 3 equations leads to

1 V Cn,β Cl,p − Cl,β Cn,p
φ̇ = φ, τ≡ , (29)
τ g Cn,β Cl,r − Cl,β Cn,r

whose solution is a exponential function with time constant τ . Properties:

• Aperiodic, often unstable (τ > 0) but slow and pilot can correct it.
• A small vertical stabilizer (less directional stability, smaller Cn,β ) makes it weaker.
• A positive dihedral can make it stable.
Lateral-Directional Dynamics Cook [2007] 41.46
Outline
1. Introduction

2. Preliminaries

3. Longitudinal Dynamics
Longitudinal Static Stability
Longitudinal Dynamic Stability
Longitudinal Control

4. Lateral-Directional Dynamics
Directional Static Stability
Lateral Static Stability
Lateral Dynamic Stability
Lateral Control
 Ailerons and Rudder Contributions to Aerodynamic Coefficients

We add the commands from the ailerons, δl , and from the rudder, δn :

Cl = Cl,β β + Cl,p pl/V + Cl,r rl/V + Cl,δl δl + Cl,δn δn , (roll moment)

Cn = Cn,β β + Cn,p pl/V + Cn,r rl/V + Cn,δl δl + Cn,δn δn , (yaw moment)
CY = CY,β β + CY,p pl/V + CY,r rl/V + CY,δl δl + CY,δn δn . (lateral force)

Notice that it is similar to the case of the discussion of longitudinal motion, in that we add a linear
dependence between the command input and the resulting moment [Eq. (4)]:

Cm,cg ≈ Cm,ac + Cm,α αa + Cm,δm δm . (31)

Lateral-directional motions is simply more intricate because we have more variables and more equations
to solve.

Lateral-Directional Dynamics 42.46

 Crosswind Straight Flight

Needed for crosswind landing and in case of engine failure.

We look for equilibrium solutions with p = r = 0 and β = βe > 0:

0 = Cl,β βe + Cl,δl δl + Cl,δn δn , (32a)

0 = Cn,β βe + Cn,δl δl + Cn,δn δn , (32b)
0 = 2W sin φ/(ρSV 2 ) + CY,β βe + CY,δl δl + CY,δn δn . (32c)

Three linear equations for 3 unknowns, namely, δl , δn and φ.

Neglecting cross-terms, the approximate solution is

δl ≈ −(Cl,β /Cl,δl )βe < 0 , (stick right)

δn ≈ −(Cn,β /Cn,δn )βe > 0 , (left pedal)
sin φ ≈ −(CY,β /CL )βe > 0 .

where we have used the relationship CL ≈ 2W/(ρSV 2 ) from the condition L = W cos φ ≈ W .

Lateral-Directional Dynamics 43.46

 Coordinated Banked Turn

We look for equilibrium solutions with p = β = 0 and r = Ω > 0:

0 = Cl,r Ωl/V + Cl,δl δl + Cl,δn δn , (34a)

0 = Cn,r Ωl/V + Cn,δl δl + Cn,δn δn , (34b)
V Ω = g sin φ + CY,r Ωl/V + CY,δl δl + CY,δn δn . (34c)

Neglecting cross-terms, the approximate solution is

δl ≈ −(Cl,r /Cl,δl )Ωl/V > 0 , (stick left)

δn ≈ −(Cn,r /Cn,δn )Ωl/V < 0 , (right pedal)
sin φ ≈ V Ω/g > 0 .

Instead of a coordinated banked turn, where the sideslip is zero, one can also perform a skidding
(operational) turn, where δn = 0.

Lateral-Directional Dynamics 44.46

 Summary: Directional and Lateral Dynamics

1. Directional and lateral motions are strongly coupled.

2. The vertical stabilizer is the main mechanism for directional stability.
3. The dihedral is the main mechanism for lateral stability.
4. Dynamic stability: (1) Roll subsidence (stable), (2) dutch roll (stable but needs to be corrected by
pilot), (3) the spiral mode (unstable, but slow and pilot can easily correct it).
5. Crosswind flight and banked turn required the combined command of aileron and rudder.

Lateral-Directional Dynamics 45.46

 References and Further Reading

J. D. (Jr.) Anderson. Introduction to Flight. Mc Graw Hill, eighth edition, 2016.

M. V. Cook. Flight Dynamic Principles. Elsevier, second edition, 2007.

Lateral-Directional Dynamics 46.46